20th

Modern Edition

Refrigeration and
Air Conditioning
by
Andrew D. Althouse, BS, (ME), MA
Carl H. Turnquist, BS, (ME), MA
Alfred F. Bracciano, BS, M.Ed., Ed. Sp.
Daniel C. Bracciano, BSME
Gloria M. Bracciano, BA, MA, Ed. Sp.

Publisher
The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc.
Tinley Park, IL
www.g-w.com

Copyright Goodh art Wrllcox Co, Inc, 2017

 Copyright© 2017
by
The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc.

Previous editions copyright 2014, 2004, 2000, 1996, 1992, 1988, 1982, 1979, 1975, 1968, 1960,
1958,1956, 1950, 1944, 1943, 1939, 1936,1933

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced, stored, or transmitted in any
form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval
systems, without the prior written permission of The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc.

Manufactured in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 2015039667

ISBN 978-1-63126-354-5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 - 17 - 20 19 18 17 16

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Cover images: Emerson Climate Technologies; Arkema, Inc.; Stride Tool Inc.; Danfoss; Tempstar
Back cover image: Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Althouse, Andrew D., author. I Turnquist, Carl H., author. I Bracciano, Alfred F., author. I
Bracciano, Daniel C., author. I Bracciano, Gloria M., author.
Title: Modern refrigeration and air conditioning/ by Andrew D. Althouse, Carl H. Turnquist, Alfred F. Bracciano,
Daniel C. Bracciano, Gloria M. Bracciano.
Description: 20th edition. I Tinley Park, IL: The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc., [2017] I Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015039667 I ISBN 9781631263545
Subjects: LCSH: Refrigeration and refrigerating machinery. I Air conditioning.
Classification: LCC TP492 .A43 2017 I DDC 621.5/6--dc23 LC record available at http:/ /lccn.loc.gov/2015039667

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

Preface

Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning This 20th edition incorporates many changes:
is the standard for a new generation of learner. This • New technical updates include added informa-
classic is an excellent blend of theory, skill develop- tion on variable refrigerant flow (VRF) systems,
ment, and service techniques to help you learn how to microchannel heat exchangers, variable frequency
install and service refrigeration and HVAC systems. drives, thermostat diagnostics, HC and HFO
Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning delivers refrigerants, and additional Code Alert features.
comprehensive and authoritative content on the basic New and updated content focusing on energy ef-
and advanced principles of refrigeration and air con- ficiency includes air-side economizers and multi-
ditioning, provides excellent instruction and training stage and zoning thermostats.
in the skills and techniques essential for servicing and
• Over 400 new images and illustrations have been
troubleshooting, and emphasizes career opportunities,
added throughout the textbook.
workplace skills, and safety.
The content in Modern Refrigeration and Air • A new Careers and Certification chapter and new
Conditioning is correlated to the curriculum guides and Service Call Scenario features provide you with an
competencies used for HVAC Excellence and PAHRA overview of career opportunities available in the
program accreditation. The accreditation curriculum HVACR industry and an introduction to workplace
dovetails with entry-level and professional certifica- skills that will help you succeed in your career
tion exam requirements. Thus, Modern Refrigeration goals.
and Air Conditioning is a valuable resource as you • A new Safety chapter provides an overview of
begin your journey toward entry-level certification, safety-related topics to complement the strong,
employment, professional certification, and career existing contextual safety information located
advancement. throughout the chapters.
Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning has In the coming years, the number of new positions
been carefully designed and crafted to make your learning in the HVACR industry combined with open posi-
experience effective and efficient. Concepts are explained tions due to retirements is expected to be significantly
clearly and simply, with text narrative supported by greater than the number of new employees entering
numerous engaging and attractive illustrations. The the field. This will create a shortage of trained workers
preview and review features in each chapter-Chapter and a surplus of employment opportunities. You are
Outline, Technical Terms list, Review of Key Concepts, and entering the HVACR field at an ideal time, and Modern
Summary-help you quickly master HVACR concepts Refrigeration and Air Conditioning will be a fantastic
and topics. resource for you as you build your career!

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 iii

About the Authors

Andrew D. Althouse received his engineering degree Mr. Bracciano is a life member of the American
from the University of Michigan. He was the Assistant Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Director of the Vocational Education Department at Cass Engineers (ASHRAE), Refrigeration Service Engineers
Technical High School in Detroit and later became the Society (RSES), Association for Career and Technical
Supervisor of Vocational Education for Detroit. As a leader Education (ACTE), and the American Technical Education
in the field, he and his coauthor Carl Turnquist created Association (ATEA).
one of the first training programs in refrigeration while Dan Bracciano graduated from Oakland University
at Cass Technical High School. Andy, as he was known, in Rochester Hills, Michigan, with a bachelor of science
created the first technical training course in refrigera- degree in Mechanical Engineering. He began his career
tion for industry. The instructional materials used in in HVACR at the Warren Schools Career Center, grad-
this first course became the foundation for the text- uating in HVACR, and worked in the HVACR field
book Modern Electric and Gas Refrigeration, which was performing residential and commercial HVACR instal-
published in 1933. Mr. Althouse was a Member of the lations and service.
American Society of Refrigerating Engineers. Dan has over twenty-five years of experience work-
Carl H. Turnquist earned his engineering degree ing in design development and manufacture of HVAC
from Wayne State University in Detroit and, along with systems for Fiat/Chrysler, General Motors, Mitsubishi
Mr. Althouse, developed one of the earliest training pro- Climate Control, and Alternative Energy Corporation.
grams to provide instruction for mechanical refrigeration He holds several patents in the field, including a patent
for the automotive industry and for railroad passenger for a Modular Hermetic HVAC system. Dan is a mem-
cars. With industry support, Carl's program flourished ber of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
as the demand for skilled technicians in this new field and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and the
expanded. The Modern Electric and Gas Refrigeration book Mobile Air Conditioning Society (MACS).
was revised every three to five years as new equipment Gloria Bracciano received a bachelor's degree
was developed. The title of the book was eventually in Education, a master's degree in Curriculum and
changed to Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. Instruction, and an education specialist degree in
Mr. Turnquist was an Associate Member of the American Administrative Leadership. She completed coursework in
Society of Refrigerating Engineers. Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning, and Refrigeration
Alfred Bracciano received a bachelor of science through Oakland and Macomb Community Colleges.
degree in Industrial Education with Certification in Ms. Bracciano has worked in the field of education
Vocational Education from Wayne State University for over twenty-five years and has held positions as both
in Michigan. He also earned a master's degree in university professor and administrator. She has also
Secondary Education and a Specialist degree in served as the Provost of Gulliver Schools. Ms. Bracciano
Administration and Supervision. specializes in development and implementation of inno-
Mr. Bracciano was employed as a teacher of vative curriculums and has presented at local, state, and
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning for twelve years. national conferences.
He then became Director of Career and Technical Ms. Bracciano is a member of the American
Education for Warren Consolidated Schools in Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Warren, Michigan. He taught Community Resources Engineers (ASHRAE), Refrigeration Service Engineers
Workshops for Michigan State University and pre- Society (RSES), and the American Technical Education
sented at conferences throughout the country. Association (ATEA).

The authors and publisher wish to thank Connie Habermehl,

Administrative Assistant for Associated Technical Authors, for her
contributions to this and previous editions of Modern Refrigeration
and Air Conditioning.

iv Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 The authors and publisher wish to thank the industry and teaching professionals listed below for their
valuable input into the development of Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. The authors and publisher
wish to express particular gratitude to the following individuals:

Dr. Christopher Molnar, of Porter and Chester Don Crawshaw, of Salt Lake Community College,
Institute, for writing three sections for and for his detailed review of commercial refrigeration
providing a detailed technical review of the chapters.
thermostats chapter. Randy F. Petit, Sr., of HVAC Excellence, for his
Greg Jourdan, of Wenatchee Valley College, for extensive review and suggestions.
his detailed technical review of the electrical Howard Weiss, of HVAC Excellence, for his detailed
controls systems and energy management review of certification and industry association and
content. general guidance.
Jerry Weiss, Thomas Tebbe, and Coy Gibson, all of HVAC Excellence, and Warren Lupson, of
PAHRA/AHRI, for their frequent and generous contributions of guidance and wisdom.

Anthony L. Baham Danny Burris George Frank

South Central Louisiana Technical Eastfield College of the Dallas British Columbia Institute of
College County Community College Technology
Morgan City, Louisiana District Burnaby, British Columbia,
Mesquite, Texas Canada
David Blais
Ivy Tech Community College Terry Carmouche Rod Fronk
Indianapolis, Indiana South Central Louisiana Technical Wichita Technical Institute
College Topeka, Kansas
Terry Bradwell Reserve, Louisiana
Midlands Technical College David W. Fuller
West Columbia, South Carolina Michael Chandlee Clovis Community College/ Air
Tennessee Technology Center at One HVAC Sales and Service
Stevan Brasel Pulaski Clovis, New Mexico/Portales,
Moraine Valley Community Pulaski, Tennessee New Mexico
College
Palos Hills, Illinois James Conway Tim Gohdes
Lindsey-Cooper Refrigeration Central Texas College
Michael Brock School Killeen, Texas
Florida Coast Career Tech/Florida Irving, Texas
State College at Jacksonville Brad Guthrie
Jacksonville, Florida Rick Dorssom Front Range Community
Hillyard Technical Center College
Mark R. Buller St. Joseph, Missouri Fort Collins, Colorado
British Columbia Institute of
Technology Patrick Duschl Marvin J. Hamel
Bumabay, British Columbia, Fortis College Locklin Technical Center
Canada Cincinnati, Ohio Milton, Florida

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 V

vi Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

James H. Hanway James Martini Doug Sallade

Northland Career Center Henry Ford Community College Cypress College
Platte City, Missouri Dearborn, Michigan Cypress, California
Gary L. Harrison Todd Matsuba Thomas E. Shiflet
AG&H Contractors LLC Northern Alberta Institute of Greenville Technical College
Baton Rouge, Louisiana Technology Greenville, South Carolina
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Patrick Heeb
Long Beach City College
Allen Smith
Richard McDonald
Long Beach, California College of Lake County
Santa Fe College
Gainesville, Florida Grayslake, Illinois
John Henry
Diablo Valley College John L. Mulder Stephen V. Spletzer
Pleasant Hill, California Roanoke-Chowan Community Arkema Inc.
College King of Prussia, Pennsylvania
John P. Ingram Ahoskie, North Carolina
Northwest Community College Donald Steeby
Senatobia, Mississippi Patrick Murphy Grand Rapids Community College
Quinn-Murphy Consulting, LLC Grand Rapids, Michigan
Gordan Jacoby
Spring Lake, New Jersey
Milwaukee Area Technical College Richard C. Taylor
Oak Creek, Wisconsin Keith J. Otten Pennsylvania College of Technology
Southwestern Illinois College Willamsport, Pennsylvania
Robert Johnson
Amarillo College Belleville, Illinois
Amarillo, Texas Mark Tyrrell
Joseph G. Owens Franklin Technical Center
Nick Kyriakopedi Antelope Valley College
Joplin, Missouri
Laney College Lancaster, California
Oakland, California Jeffrey Patronek Glenn Walsh
Alfred State/SUNY College of British Columbia Institute of
Aaron Latty Technology
Robert Morgan Educational Center Technology
Alfred, New York Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
Miami, Florida

Mark Loan Joseph Pellecchia Chad Wheat

Red River College Platt Regional Vocational Georgia Northwestern Technical
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Technical School College
Milford, Connecticut Rome, Georgia
Raul Lopez
Houston Community College Whit Perry Gerald L. Williamson
Houston, Texas Northwest Mississippi Montgomery College
Community College Rockville, Maryland
Barbara MacQueen Senatobia, Mississippi
Vancouver Island University Harold Wynn
Cowichan Campus, British Jesse R. Riojas
Wichita Technical Institute
Columbia, Canada Oakland Community College
Auburn Hills, Michigan Joplin, Missouri
Rick Marks
Terry Robinson Robert G. Young
Cisco College
Abilene, Texas Lincoln Technical Institute Autry Technology Center
Grand Prairie, Texas Enid, Oklahoma
Gary Marowske
Flame Heating, Cooling, Plumbing Terry Rogers Brian Youngblood
& Electrical Midlands Technical College Atlantic Technical Center
Warren, Michigan West Columbia, South Carolina Coconut Creek, Florida

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 The authors and publisher would like to thank the following companies, organizations, and individuals for
their contribution of resource material, images, or other support in the development of Modern Refrigeration and
Air Conditioning.

A-1 Components Corporation Carrier Corporation, Subsidiary of Flame Heating, Cooling, Plumbing &
AAON United Technologies Corp. Electrical
ABB Stal Refrigeration Corporation CarrierTransicold Division, Carrier Corp. Fluke Corporation
Abbeon Cal, Inc. CCI Thermal Technologies Inc. Frigidaire
ACCA - The Indoor Environment & CertainTeed Corporation Frigidaire Company
Energy Efficiency Association Climate Master Fujitsu General America, Inc.
Aeroquip Corporation CMP Corporation Fusite
AICoil, Inc. Gates Corporation
Comfortmaker GNJ, International
Alerton Comfort Products Corporation GEA Heat Exchangers
Alfa Laval Inc. Continental Industries, Inc. General Filters, Inc.
All American Heating & Cooling Goodman Manufacturing Company
Control Resources, Inc.
Allanson Inc. Goodway Technologies Corp.
Control4 Corporation
Alto-Shaam, Inc. Grasslin Controls Corporation
Cooper Tools, Nicholson
Amana Refrigeration, Inc.
Copeland Corporation GrayWolf Sensing Solutions, LLC
American Saw & Mfg. Company
Corken Steel Products Haier America
Amprobe
Cyber Prodigy LLC Hampden Engineering
Andersen Corp.
Harris Group
A. 0. Smith Daikin Applied
Hartford Compressors, Inc.
Appian, Inc. Danfoss
Heat Controller, Inc.
Arkema, Inc. DENSO Sales California, Inc.
Henry Technologies, Inc.
Armacell LLC Dial Manufacturing, Inc.
Hill Phoenix, Inc.
Arzel Zoning Technology, Inc. Dispensed Water Div. of Elkay Mfg. Co.
hilmor
Bacharach, Inc. DiversiTech Corporation
Hi-Velocity Systems
Bally Refrigerated Boxes, Inc. DuctSox Corporation
Honeywell, Inc.
Baltimore Aircoil Company Dunham-Bush, Inc.
Hoshizaki America, Inc.
BernzOmatic DuPont Company
Hussmann Corporation
Bitzer
DuPont Energy Management Co., Inc.
Blissfield Manufacturing Ice Energy, Inc.
Dwyer Instruments, Inc. lce-0-Matic
Bosch Thermotechnology Corp.
Dynatemp International, Inc. Ideal Industries, Inc.
BouMatic
Earthlinked Technologies, Inc. Imperial
Braeburn Systems LLC
Elite Soft Inc. INFICON
Bristol Compressors, Inc.
Emerson Climate Technologies lnsteon
Cadet Manufacturing Co.
Caleffi North America, Inc. Emerson Electric Co. Invensys Climate Controls Americas
CALMAC Manufacturing Corporation Extech Instruments Corp. ITT McDonnell & Miller
Camfil Farr Co. Fedders North America, Inc. ITWVortec
Carel Industries Fenwal Controls Jackson Systems, LLC
Carlin Combustion Technology, Inc. Field Controls, LLC Jenn-Air

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 vii

viii Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Johnson Controls, Inc. R.W. Beckett Corporation Superior Refrigeration Products

Jug Lugger Ranco, Invensys Climate Controls Sweden-Alco Dispensing Systems,
KE Fibertec NA, Inc. Americas a Div. of Alco Foodservice
Kenmore Raymon-Danco Corp. Equipment Co.
Kennametal, Inc. TEC (The Energy Conservatory)
Raypak, Inc.
King Electrical Mfg. Co. Tecogen, Inc.
RectorSeal
Klein Tools, Inc. Tecumseh Products Company
Reed Manufacturing Co.
Kysar/!Warren Tempstar
Refrigeration Technologies
LA-CO Industries Inc. Texas Instruments, Inc.
REMIS AMERICA, LLC
Lancer Corporation The Coleman Company, Inc.
RenewAire
Lennox Industries Inc. The Energy Conservatory
Rheem Manufacturing Company The Trane Co.
LG Appliances
Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - Thermo King Corporation
Lordan A.C.S. Ltd
YELLOW JACKET Products
Ludeca, Inc. Thermostat Recycling Corporation
Division
Luvata TIF™ Instruments, Inc.
Robinair, SPX Corporation
Manchester Tank Tjernlund Products, Inc.
Robur Corporation
Mastercool Inc. Trane, a brand of Ingersoll Rand
RTCA-Radon Testing Corp of Transcold Distribution, Ltd.
Maytag Corporation America, Inc.
McQuay International Transducers Direct, LLC.
Runtal North America
Mestek Machinery Traulsen Refrigeration
Scale Free International TSI Incorporated
Micro Switch, Div. of Honeywell, Inc.
Schneider Electric Tutco, Inc.
Midco International, Inc.
Scotsman Ice Systems U.S. Cooler Company
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc. Uline
Mitsubishi Electric, HVAC Advanced
Products Division Selca Products Company Ullman Devices Corporation
Mueller Industries, Inc. Sherwood Valve United States Federal Trade
Mueller Refrigeration Company, Inc. Siebe Environmental Controls, Commission
National Air Duct Cleaners Invensys Climate Controls Uniweld Products, Inc.
Association (NADCA) Americas Uponor, Inc.
National Cancer Institute Skuttle IAQ Products US Department of Energy-DOE
National Weather Service Snap-On Inc. Veco NA - Coastal Climate Control, Inc.
Nest Labs, Inc. Spectronics Corporation Venstar
NexRev Inc. SpeedClean Virginia KMP Corp.
NORA Sporlan Division - Parker Hannifin WaterFurnace International, Inc.
North American Technician Excellence Corporation Webster Fuel Pumps and Valves
OSHA Sprinkool Systems International, Inc. Westermeyer Industries, Inc.
Owens Corning SPX Corporation Westwood Products, Inc.
Ozone Solutions, Inc. SRC Refrigeration Whirlpool Corporation
Pacific Transducer Corp. White-Rodgers Division, Emerson
SSAC, LLC
Packless Industries Climate Technologies
Standard Refrigeration Co.
Paragon, Invensys Climate Controls Wittern Group
Steinen Nozzles
Americas Women in HVACR
Steril-Aire, Inc. Worthington Industries
Parker Hannifin Corporation
Steven Shepler Xylem Inc.
PB Heat, LLC
Stride Tool Inc. York International Corp.
Peerless of America, Inc.
Malcolm Prather Suburban Manufacturing Zero Zone, Inc.
QMark, A Division of Marley Electric Sub-Zero/Wolf Appliance Zettler Controls, Inc.
Heating Sun Spot Solar and Heating, Inc. ZONEFIRST

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

G-W Integrated Learning Solution

Together, We Build Careers

At Goodheart-Willcox, we take our mission seriously. Since 1921, G-W has been serving the career and
technical education (CTE) community. Our employee-owners are driven to deliver exceptional learning solutions
to CTE students to help prepare them for careers. Our authors and subject matter experts have years of experience
in the classroom and industry. We combine their wisdom with our expertise to create content and tools to help
students achieve success. Our products start with theory and applied content based on a strong foundation of
accepted standards and curriculum. To that base, we add student-focused learning features and tools designed
to help students make connections between knowledge and skills. G-W recognizes the crucial role instructors
play in preparing students for careers. We support educators' efforts by providing time-saving tools that help
them plan, present, assess, and engage students with traditional and digital activities and assets. We provide an
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educators to select the perfect mix for their classroom.

Student-Focused Curated Content

Goodheart-Willcox believes that student-focused content should be built from standards and accepted
curriculum coverage. Standards from HVAC Excellence and PAHRA/AHRI were used as a foundation for this
text. Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning also uses a building block approach with attention devoted
to a logical teaching progression that helps students build on their learning. We call on industry experts and
instructors from across the country to review and comment on our content, presentation, and pedagogy. Finally,
in our refinement of curated content, our editors are immersed in content checking, securing and sometimes
creating figures that convey key information, and revising language and pedagogy.

Curriculum Correlations
Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning To see how Modern Refrigeration and Air
aligns with curriculum standards for HVAC Excellence Conditioning correlates to HVAC Excellence and
and PAHRA accreditation. AHRI standards, please visit www.g-w.com/modern-
HVAC Excellence is a not-for-profit organiza- refrigeration-air-conditioning-2017 and click on the
tion that serves the HVACR industry with the goal Correlations tab. For more information on PAHRA and
of supporting and improving HVACR education and HVAC Excellence, please visit www.pahrahvacr.org and
training. HVAC Excellence provides many services www.hvacexcellence.org.
to HVACR education and training, including award-
ing program accreditation, professional certifica-

A
tions, and instructor credentials.
The Partnership for Air-Conditioning, Heating,
and Refrigeration Accreditation (PAHRA) is an inde-
pendent, third-party organization that is a partner-
ship between HVACR educators and the HVACR
industry. PAHRA awards accreditation to programs
that meet or exceed industry-validated standards
~ PAHRA IIYAC
~ cxce~nce
AcCond;t;on;ng. Heohng, Refrige,ot;onAcuedtot;on

developed by AHRI.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 ix

Features are student-focused learning tools designed to help you get the most out of your studies. This visual
guide highlights the features designed for the textbook.

Technical Terms list the key terms to be learned Review of Key Concepts states previously
in the chapter. Review this list after completing covered facts related to the topics in the chapter.
the chapter to be sure you know the definition of A chapter reference is provided so you can go
each term. back and review the topic in more detail.

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18 .l T)pnofComprtUO~ romJffl'<;.SOI' tHld wmm,1r1:t.1• 1hr11 funn.ons
18-2.l~IJ)RJl.<lllnj;lurnf~Xl- • l~nJhow.a~utlhyol.Pt)'pe1irN-it1n.J1t'd.[lnf:_
18.2.2 Kl.Jlo11ry~um11n.•,,~.n comprt'Wll'WOOO
IIH.l ~f'tlll lump~ Lxt11.l1n how,. rulMY umpw,.uw ~n,.
lfl.2,. Strew Comp~
Ul.2.5\rnlfll'ug.il(.•;imllffl.'-Ol'J Summ.art.!!' lhr-1.hif~ ~""~ rut.lung wnt!
;1nd-t,1.t11un,,,ryhl#ru1.,1ry(vmjm-o;\.llf\
18 .J Ctntr.111(Qr\"IPl'"tt.SOr (,ornp(M'ltf'IH and Syiliein~
Hl.l.1 S.:,ro.1i: V.11\'--.; l l ~ n d howttscmll1..--omp~sot'Ml!fks
lfl32M1.1ffien. l:qil.,in bi,..,. a) ~ ·ttw ('U'r'rpft'"')Ut wurb
lfl.l.l lornpl':'"mW{:otillfli~J IWl'll1fy 1hr i:1:JIT1fKJrl('nt, nl., l"'rlllln(ui,;.d 1'"Qlnp~
lft.lAlullfll..111•--~ Jnd wmm"1llt' 1hr11 funrl•~.
18. . l S l f ~
ldirnt1fy.-mtJ(')[J)Lm1tw-1iuJJW!!W"'l1-ump~
UU.6SNll~lli.'\-1«'S
UI l.7 ("~,IS(" HeitWrJ
I uol,~ mcJ lulH-·IOn "}"""""', mufilfn.. ,f1't)
1..rri1..Kt"hc_,,o1trn.

Chapter Outline provides a Learning Objectives clearly Introduction provides an

preview of the chapter topics and identify the knowledge and skills overview and preview of the
can also serve as a review tool. to be obtained when the chapter chapter content.
is completed.

X Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Ma: Mudrr"Rn"""'.-,"'ll"tt4.A1r('Clftd,_lo'Ai1,11.
Thinking Green notes highlight
,_,..!:i~:~~~~llnyiucbnitnL'\.1,.
key items related to sustainability,
energy efficiency, and
environmental issues.

Pro Tips provide you with advice

and guidance that is especially
applicable for on-the-job.

5oMc. CaN S.:.-io

~\j:~nlial C...tralAA-CollditiDr,lnw--N,o

Service Call Scenarios present on-the-job

situations in which a service technician receives
a description of a problem, tests the system,
and provides a solution.

7.3.1 n.,m,omelOfS
1~•7,:':;rl:~ an~";~=.:n:"~::
1~
ll,c,dkfllll'M>IJ!Yfho.•lcll'J""l',1fuJYof;t,11,L-,,.ap.1f.llbW,

=~!4,~:'~':,;;~::~::~i:=~i,
c...-~--e...

Safety Notes alert you to

potentially dangerous materials
and practices.
,.., r. 11·8 . Ullnrga,-.narllatd and1«--r..-tvw. •~mnpeitcim,npcx_,-l'IIU!audlic:OIIMW!tjl_,,,
""-*.:::::.--~
hoMt~MpttietM

U11ulllllRecn1r,Ca~b llty tl11.•l)l1nd..1'L111'\'l'l.\.111,ht.,rnJc.11k:ul.Mil'tllli!

k,(jjl m.a,kmum ""'~Alt tllt, r\'(OffWJ C)'hod1-r
Ncil .. NCMlfY~IWOMO*lotlqr.od
,1odn_,lri1~·..-.rlllC11nY1'\.-.+t;tL
~~10"900'""4'IQl,o:IW'IIO•~
~ ~ - c . M ~ C * l l c i l ~OIINOt S, /\"-!llonltrn:!OCJ\f\."l'}'IIUd11rW"~(\11'111,ulul,,"t."1-
lite!'tclJllllifY~-·~ A.~lftWWII ki,d1t1."-IIIIIUJdl'l"\':l11,'t't)'fflll.'1'h..fl'tt11"1gllOIJ~
lhalc:wi~~~--·""*'1c8oft1114l iiprutITT,n,uiwlh-"f'('(lfki"~nio.111..-.
Step-by-Step Procedures opwnaWaarmarh;Jd.,a,by~~~
anlS\Enpgl'bab.~-pllPlMICl~hr_,-
~ S.,.,1thon1h(ol'l'l;l.,._,.,.,.ITlll['h,lr,c.
mad'ln'•~!eb.~--r;,rOGNUfa, 7. 'r\\wdl1hr~~·nd1in.""'1U~~c.11h,,,•
are highlighted throughout 1hnJlr1.... 10h-,"111dwNt.. ~n'WMIII
io......,,_, ... ~o1.---,
PW' 11111rut1.ti nnd l'WI tllil I\UJ\'L"Y rMdun!.
_,tio......,
,.111iNto,,,h. ... t1'tlt1r.-l,rri'NINl:,.,1 ....._
(llJl1',,io,..a,,,•brtw m~r,,-w-1111u11f.-ll.1nd
the textbook to provide clear -ur mathinc nlk.'I b)·
1---------•m~~:=:.~= ~~I~=
hi1~ dun.~
fttUOi1.1')iN!thJN'l\obbt\,:lilt lllHilj)ll~llllf'UI'
ttf~,11M1v.firnlhi."p,\.~QOlh(-h.q:.t-.,~
instructions for hands-on service )\IUt n.'L'.mtty m,.athtnt"'t-op«•hng 1JUU1uaL Bc- tllN JioMlK'! ,, th.I 111U111ffillt M), d"'f'Pl'\.l, .and

Mnt• th.II t~ m.tdnir bciflg u!>t.'ll ~ ~ nt thtih11en.inru:tr:nand~·II\MlllriildmliJn.

activities. You can refer back to d•l\"'"11lqoldl\X\'J\\.")'

t ,-.,m,uffl~\.'l'~d~n.ifN~t.-ratlfwt~,.'frl ti,.
0-1'b41bO.idajrn-'\"a.~i.fy
l\dl)· Clf'M ti~~~ \,1,lw M Ille 8'4'18'-'
rumfold tn- ~in r\.'\"ll•,.\'l'lna \-.,X n,friJt"•
these procedures easily. 2. Cl'Mll.'(11~•)'SK'ffl•~sn,o,,.ninAg1,11tll"9
3, fllllt\.'\'\~CA'\'ffiJl1,i~rofl"'l'<1ltli.'l\"(IJ'\.'ff
AJlllfrcomthreMl-~ollhcn.,fn,;i..,..atN111,>~
t..'111.. fhts • , , nw/'U tl~ ,"' 11(h ftuo, 1..,uld
wt1t .. !'ll)".mffllllo.1",lk,th:m:fflwyC)·h~
ll.T, 11 ii 1:1,tqmj,:-..d .. r1h,. f!l'l.,,.._..tyOlpl!Sat-
;rt,lir\'\4 ~11ch:Wfi,ty~..,kv.
~~~::~~~~,:~.::=~!
,·<11-"!Jfn.""'-"l«yn'lli.lll'ldlr~,,-.<h..1w:,
-t 1 ur •dlg,uil cN~,~ ,cd,• 111 m.-1t1•v tli.? ,1n,,·~~('t,1>n1h(,r\'O""•YJIIM(hl~lll;'.(l......
fl'<"i'!\l,'f'}'C)'hndt..,.,""'~h~t,rc,rtnflnd in,;tn,m.1111d,11:!1lR'f"dln'(f1i,~

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 xi

 Code Alerts point out
specific information
and requirements ElectrlCFurnaceSitlna
N;CJ,.Manu•IS reQIJll'H"-'1 ~ti.~e<lno

from environmental .,--1..-lhu'I 1'°'-at ttw hH.lload [tlvit 1:11. no mo,- .. an

410"1. °"*1'&1.ad',l 01i.n M O\>tl"'&I.Hd lurna~• mwU ti.
..i.ctiddulllOIIIT'<llabOl"tlll'ltl ......bll1IIINIC41Clpac:t.

regulations and IIMChooNIQal'TM.ll"M-1-0-IIMollMJI.IOl'leO!INCN-

ar;t..r.n1119N of ""41',g10UM 1111 OWt•JZ9d UM

applicable building
codes. HHIStaats
StAgino tM llff'IOl.lrtl 114 1»1.1 IIWlg a 1Nl'll'IOIIIII
1Molp4 b.llMOI hNt load •!Id hA1 lion When Ile hM!
loadlltkiw -~opt,"t11Mt11111lafu-st'3-agi1, whi(n
sav•-,.,.g,andrw:iLJtlHpc,IINfOOl'll&Jmptlan

El(,:1rlC' fotMCl."5 .11n.~ dtel'I ~nL'l.lk.'I' lhiul i"rll 1111d

~furMC1:Sof:Wm11JirhNl.111(;f".i,pll(1ue--..Also.eloctr1C
fumiw:esOOni, troquu\!ronPl.'Ct11:Mbloo1ig.ts lint>or0il
111\e 0..<1ri( fon\ltC\"ido l'lt'K T\.'fhtt\'(-l'nllll~ tu n.· fmm 1l11t•
ill,, so a humld1FkY b ~ ~ . ) ' w11h 8l'C:tr1C
~ Si11tt irk-ttrK" htl.1t111g nl"fJllU:i- ;ain.• n111 P"lt'hll n•
Si..'lblli,,\ dt:!<tnc futl\.lO."S am be ins!Jllk.,d lll!i up(l,;)n',
~--
----
F'1g1,1r.4J•4.. An...-.pcN"a&0reoi*..O,,lirla1hiNt'"9talbody
P'Mdr!Obeaddilcl-.oa,,alrl\alldltr

downfk}y., or horlzonla.1 furMCl'S. 11IC'St!' charaictttn~ m ,11 run"' ducl'l'"\iri. A ,-y,.tt'fn tht'frtlllO-f,•t C'lf It 7.'me
10,.llow~'drief11rN«.... 1'1b..-in!-1Alkd1n mon-cum• thi..'f'11'11..~1S usc,dtoronll'Ulduaheilt['f"l>peflllktn.
p,>&t.i11ndd1,~pla,.:£S tha.n 0tl otj;.a,.sfut ~ Agimt 0-5.
R:11tw.-,1h1111h;11o111"St.,.f1ll'ttd•.t1r'.-li.'(1n('fun'l,ta•lt.)
apnrrwyhi.-..i,tinf;S,t>t1.'f·n,111lki1IJJ"ltn\l\)'Nt\l"1ifion-
Cautions alert you E.lectrlc F"urnaceOrlentatlan tral illlr hitncHer \'ollh duct ~ 1£n hiwlng lnclhldUil l
~ ...etAC "-!Jnjj · - - · ... "°' ~ mom Whl'f'IVM.<dol) lh(· pn1rwi ryhlvi11ng ..ptl-.n, dl,c-

to practices that NnlllM ~eonwolMYION,&uel'llltfMfe~COft,, ttk:d uct lmL'l'~pn'A~Uldl,•alua.l f\JOml~lpE!t.lllu h!'

-
tKtataandaome1ype1olP'IWfa.1npo..-on-Mn1-11Jve
and need to bil lnl1llled Ir! • oar1ain OMflliltlon to o~r-
could potentially m.., requu•
... ~per!r Altc, aofM f!\,1111Jfai;1JJJen1
(lffUin cottlfOI ~ t lO tMl loclli.d be!oworlOona
MNlol l'IN\JftOMtTIINIII. rallltlftlnlllorHwtw•tM1
""'- Illustrations have
damage equipment or nwy U1S1 oft 11MI aytl*I' UTINCNNI~ B4klNI W'lltalng
•n4'tctnc tumlo. M'lado'lllffll'bw0<hoNr.ONlll flow~
tior'I. d,lldc 1t1 c:orrttvl ( l ~ . , , ~ mtlfllJfacil.nf it,. been designed to
instruments. eraluf•to . . . . ikiy~di1"dl0Hp(llda0Mdlna
cetWft«MW'IUlibMII04'p,o!*6'*'11Uon
clearly and simply
A l\ i_-k-(lrl('fonM\C(:'l)IIIMll\\'ll~" Optit) ri tupn.,•
\'Nk-- buJklln~ hNt m many illpplk:illl lons. t-l;)\1l'1\-W, communicate the
M~111nd&."i:trii:-funwwainonl)'pnid1ia-""-'1~ndc-,.n•
ftl)tabs,iltbhc,\1,a tc.,:hnldan~ltblall alle-v.ll111.'lt.iU«
col l ofllo lhl-3u hitnclkY lhM corm1xt~ ID• n,ontot(!OOII·
specific topic.
do.•n.'1ni:,u11:1tf'...-,,...,,Jntl11:"('0f.il1ni,;.>1,...,_>n,. Fl31:1u·O·.&

43.3.2 Duct Heaters

A lltu·I lrr.atrr t> itn illl'-il)' ol l'k,.lnc 11N111ng dt_
'-- flOU,teU-5, A«aic1tt...,-1thuact,N1door~
mt•nb O.lrl!.lln'W.,d 11'1 it 1,u'tt,;ll: unfl th.it t".111\ bi.• n'l:;Ulli:-d rwHlng Iha hNtng and cant~ COff110n111'1lS

,[DJ
Color Coding is applied
consistently to clearly
communicate system
conditions and components.

xii Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 .
Review Questions allow you
to demonstrate knowled;eehension
identification, an~ comp
of chapter material.
29. W'ht.-n l,d,1n,; Rll'il)lllL'tllL'fW, OIi lt/1 l'f\..'l');.ln,J
dtt"uu kif' kl\\·...,"i.ifl~fhermo~tat d~nost~
"'" 11 multu'l~'flT Int'-.· ~'lti,tg.
A. Ii,
a V,c
C. \'ct.;-
Do
JO. When f,'IIJ~ m&1su,~,.Or'l11n1.."fl('l');f:tt:.-d
n~u/r "v Jr'll\-\1ift.,.flJ<Tinost;ir di,tgno..1
110VI\Wfuit.udl('11h,.~ll(nJ _ .
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ll'mptT.'IIIJn uf th..•d,ff('r,;'111 ~ ''-lllilg(!ti'K-rmoslilt'sstcp-<fot..nttaft.sfu,flM.'r
A. ductd.tm,x-rs ~.,llnh.t,1(1'1(',J)(•rlorinth(,(."1,.)'i\i11t; 22. Th(, thi.>tn~l:it.tt w1rmi,; ~ii,;n.u._. few p..no.·w
a. '-!-h,,.ulf,'t'f"lng <.t/a.~1,on: ___, fromtfkost~-nrran51onne,is __,
A.
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8. R
D. \\'.itlt.>r sokncid \'ill\'l'S 8. '1)11.,.mf'l('l\',•,.,lt (,H1m111ry..,_') c.w
c . \'Oll-.111,pen,,s ... \uts~,ySKk-) D. y
l2..lnllMIU'd...,.,,l0'1L"<d))'Sti:m,hhat<b•n O. ,1Jr1t-..mp('f\~ • \\'illb
(IIJXT.it..._-, t,1 rt"g11l,1fl' ,1irfi.rw •nd a:1n1p1m.,....t;
f11t"\1fk.n,1r...•,lfw....,.,..,.,ll.'lftl•dtn,~ 16. A mill1,·o11 ,~IT!o)ti:lt g('flly,t({'! lls0\1 n
A B}PtisdamPl'r ,...,l'l"fri('(U1T\'ftl/n,1rrt~\it.f1J>,..,11,'tftoib -
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C. Cxha104 •lrdiln1J>..T. 8. 8ourt1i,111llb(,
ll f"-"Sh•lr1n1ctd.,lllp(T lfl('nn1:i,tor
D, tht:.'f"ftlocllu~
3,3, When ~ f l > fnlftl ,1irflow b n.~11Ct'(f,

- ·-
2. A (h11tfkifl h_•,np....'l"dluf\.."',c.'11)111,; C'utt1pul'll.-l111
b..rum('ll'1'"do1m1~d.'l;,(_,d11(' 111 _ 11.i.\hlln'Oltlh(irmo:s,ditsc•noousoo,ocontroi that f1.>«'b 10 k'ntpe,;ihm~ehan.gt>ht
A.~J11.s1.abli:,."'t."!;IWs ch.11tJti~ th.if'(' tu .,,u..,,, ., "-'\'\l .t," 1lch or H, lht,~"'-=~11,.,.._<dbymc: hdnic4/a.t(,l111,,;
B. PfJh.._.,.~motor
:>f\4dt.'\i-po"-.•rnotor
A. (\'QfraJ•ircunt11dnnmg
8. C\'llfn(ug,dcfollCT
lfl(-flur}.)\\<1ld,lsa _ _
A btrnc.,r,'l/)fnp
,s
lhtvmi_~.. tin lorn off <>arty mtx,,1:;h lo
C h....,.tpump f"\'\tT1t:i-)'"'''m°',~)(1tOr1tmP\.'l'ilh11\'"'-
0 "Pflfl/,;h.:fls«in & d1AJ'hr.,gm ht-ll\.\1hi.,,,1hernio~al.!,{1J)lllntoit'l'citJli_,J
J.1Jnaton.w1...,.,,.t"°'-'d!>)'~1.a_o,>ens o. )l<11ldtng-1,no1 l1ghir bN1ing C1hri..'Y'mJ~,,,.
oull'flflOQ,,1p1r, ~il,nga111t(ip,t1°"
wtx,n lt.'mJ){'r.lh111" nght ,1bow rh<-
n11fd~tu,,n~1nd3Jp
""·'P.•,u, 18. Befng abk, to ildJt.1.st contMonoo SJ)il,l."(-
8, ~itlii1ntkij)arot"5
k-m1;1(.,.,jllhtl\· r\"n'N)f\.ofy U:i,ing II t.lb~'f P('. :t Tott'dun-11rcl/rn/11olfel'k,:1ricaf,.rnng1n;m
A. D.ll'lck.1)Mfl' dtit11\
8, lt\.'(>Zl'5f•I
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ad1·.-intagt.>ofa _ thlYmo:stitt.
•n l'l('('lrJOIIC\if1trol,u~· - C l("ff1,x.,,.,1un•lim1f)Wffchi.'!
0 70'-.'<oiWrt1'
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f\,fn,:.,.'l'"i,nlr(•/11,(,.al\'(• B m-,;l'lt't~ to pull In d1.,;1ri,;-;d aw1ta,a, 9. A c.•ornbm11tk1111hi..,.ruc •ti~ r,,~,J lnq,rurn,
O.z.,nt.•damf)('r 8 m11/wo11 C. •11".'l\'ury:.11,~·h a(n) __,
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-k.'M lei' all fnt ltou~,».;, • fol\."t\J..;11r " What IS lfk. «'ndtl"-lfl QJ/('(f IQ l\·flKh tJ~
Ulnt'd))'M1._'fTlby _ J~ 'ri'flpt1ig,nto;\ f,hl,.COohn..,_,,..h(,.i11ng Cik'llt.1ng,.ndCOo11""1syst£1m
~u.tlhi.'Qfl:Jlm111ttruugh1h(,dt.1e1\\t'ri; D. lodoor~~"t·~ O()('tilfh"lfl 1'll'lly
A. <h1.'Ckrngo,t,-,lllllirfl,l\\•fo1l"-'d1ffor,.w t(lfm1n.11 ilnd dr.t\\·1ng a sm.-in ml1J1<1mp r.i.i"" tfx•11-m,"l.,.•lurt•1il,,-.rund/11,'U('\l
'"""
B. di3-fll,11ntlin.t,t t"o)(:h z:onc-ta..111p..T, if)t.,k,,n,t
COrT\"l'.r lo r\'Ch.'ll);t"10 inft•r11,1I b.11tl'ry ls.t
f1""t1r"''"• - 1hi..,.n~ai1.
Sf-~·abil\l\'t~th{,,m.,Jo.sf,wS(>tpointafh.'ra
hti1tinsrht.,-11llht,-1h:.es,t.u1o11.,fu,rltl(e?
10. A ~ih fu.m«"(>wltha mu/rbf~"t'th.:<1'1Jlo:,lal
1J"-,, - corunrmfibh(,.,1,:,.p,1,:u>·
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8. mt/lh'Olt 8 S;~l'flll,tg.
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0 ••kins ~*.'C11'W('.1tf mt-a~unTl'N'nt, l'lrl t.'dirh
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A3o'mVdcto,Om\~
& IV0.10 \'a;
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l'l'ilelsft11t.'ffl,x,ro11i,~i:han,;.('hycfwing,n,1:;1ts
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01ti.y"''ruuJtk_.

Summary feature
prov1·des an additionald
review tool for you ~n
reinforces key learning
objectives.

-·- _C4 ...

. ht Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

Copyng xiii
Student Resources

Textbook
The Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
textbook provides an exciting, full-color, and highly
illustrated learning resource. The textbook is avail-
able in print or online versions.

Workbook
The student workbook provides minds-on practice
with questions and activities. Each chapter corre-
sponds to the text and reinforces key concepts and
applied knowledge.

Lab Manual
The student lab manual provides hands-on practice
to be completed in the school lab setting under the
guidance of an instructor or trainer. The lab manual
enables students to demonstrate learning in a prac-
tical and engaging manner.

xiv Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

Instructor resources provide information and tools location, support materials include image library,
to support teaching, grading, and planning; course answer keys, lesson plans, Instructor's Presentations
administration; class presentations; and assessment. for PowerPoint®, ExamView® Assessment Suite, and
more! Online Instructor's Resources are available
as a subscription and can be accessed at school or
Instructor's Presentations for at home.
PowerPoint®
Help teach and visually reinforce key concepts with Video Clip and Animations Library
prepared lectures. These presentations are designed to
allow for customization to meet daily teaching needs. Live-action video clips and animations (included in
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textbook. watch hands-on demonstrations of essential skills.

ExamView® Assessment Suite G-W Online

Quickly and easily prepare, print, and administer tests This exciting new learning product brings the text
with the ExamView® Assessment Suite. With hundreds and learning alive for your students! The textbook's
of questions in the test bank corresponding to each interactive learning activities-including narrated
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each test, create multiple versions of a single test, and providing them with dynamic visuals and immedi-
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Instructor's Resource CD
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preparation tools such as answer keys, lesson plans,
and correlation charts to standards.

. , .c w - - ~
Online Instructor Resources - ~ - - - - - - -

Online Instructor Resources provide all the support

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---------
needed to make preparation and classroom instruc-
tion easier than ever. Available in one accessible

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 xv

Brief Contents

Section 1-Professional Development 29 Air Distribution ............................................. 744

1 Careers and Certification ................................. 2 30 Ventilation System Service ........................... 786
2 Safety ................................................................. 22
Section 10-Air-Conditioning Systems
3 Service Calls ..................................................... 42
31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems ........... 804
Section 2-Refrigeration System Fundamentals 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning
4 Energy and Matter .......................................... 54 Systems ........................................................... 834
5 Gases ................................................................. 72 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems ..... 858
6 Basic Refrigeration Systems ........................... 88 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling
Systems ........................................................... 898
Section 3-Service Basics
35 Humidity Control ......................................... 924
7 Tools and Supplies ........................................ 104
36 Thermostats .................................................... 940
8 Working with Tubing and Piping ............... 136
37 Heating and Cooling Loads ......................... 982
Section 4-Refrigerants
Section 11-Heating Systems
9 Introduction to Refrigerants ........................ 168
38 Forced-Air Heating Fundamentals ........... 1020
10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant
39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals ............. 1034
Handling and Service ................................... 196
40 Heat Pumps .................................................. 1080
11 Working with Refrigerants .......................... 234
41 Gas-Fired Heating Systems ....................... 1114
Section 5-Basic Electricity, Magnetism, and 42 Oil-Fired Heating Systems ......................... 1148
Electronics 43 Electric Heating Systems ............................ 1192
12 Basic Electricity .............................................. 270 Section 12-Energy Management and
13 Electrical Power ............................................. 290
Conservation
14 Basic Electronics ............................................ 308
44 Solar Power and Thermal Storage ............ 1218
Section 6-Motors and Electric Control 45 Energy Management ................................... 1244
Systems 46 Energy Conservation .................................. 1260
15 Electric Motors ............................................... 324 Section 13-Commercial Refrigeration Systems
16 Electrical Control Systems ........................... 350 47 Overview of Commercial Refrigeration
17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls ..... 390 Systems ......................................................... 1278
Section 7-Refrigeration System Components 48 Special Refrigeration Systems and
18 Compressors ................................................. .422 Applications ................................................. 1310
19 Compressor Safety Components ............... .456 49 Commercial Refrigeration System
20 Metering Devices ......................................... .470 Configurations ............................................. 1332
21 Heat Exchangers ............................................ 510 Section 14-Designing Commercial
22 Refrigerant Flow Components .................... 558
Refrigeration Systems
Section a-Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 50 Understanding Heat Loads and System
23 Overview of Domestic Refrigerators and Thermodynamics ........................................ 1348
Freezers ........................................................... 596 51 Commercial Refrigeration Component
24 Systems and Components of Domestic Selection ........................................................ 1378
Refrigerators and Freezers ........................... 610
Section 15-lnstalling and Servicing
25 Installation and Troubleshooting of
Commercial Refrigeration Systems
Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers ......... 638
52 Installing Commercial Systems ................. 1398
26 Service and Repair of Domestic
53 Troubleshooting Commercial Systems-
Refrigerators and Freezers ........................... 668
System Diagnosis ........................................ 1422
Section 9-lndoor Air Fundamentals 54 Troubleshooting Commercial Systems-
27 Air Movement and Measurement .............. 686 Component Diagnosis ................................ 1466
28 Air Quality ..................................................... 718 55 Servicing Commercial Systems ................. 1496

xvi Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 CHAPTERS
Section 1
Gases .................................................... 72
Professional Development 5.1 Volume ............................................... .... 74
5.2 Pressure ................................................. 74
CHAPTERl
5.3 Gas Laws ............................................... 80
Careers and Certification ................... 2
5.4 Saturated Vapor. ..................................... 84
1.1 Introduction to HVACR Careers ............... .4
5.5 Basic Processes That Provide Cooling
1.2 Career Planning ............................ ........... .4 Effect ....................... ......................... .... 84
1.3 Beginning Your Career Search ................ 11
1.4 Success in the Workplace ...... ...... ........... 15 CHAPTER6
1.5 HVACR-Related Associations and Basic Refrigeration Systems ........... 88
Organizations ....................................... 16 6.1 Compression Refrigeration Cycle ........ ... 90
1.6 Certification ............................................. 16 6.2 High Side and Low Side ......................... 91
1.7 Licensing ............. ............................... ..... 19 6.3 Compression .......................................... 92
6.4 Condensing ........................................ .... 94
CHAPTER2
6.5 Metering Device ..................................... 97
Safety ................................................... 22
6.6 Evaporating ................ ............................ 98
2.1 Safety and the Government ................... 24
2.2 Hazard Assessment ..................... .......... 24
2.3 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) .... 33 Section 3
2.4 Safe Work Practices ............................... 36 Service Basics
CHAPTER3 CHAPTER7
Service Calls ....................................... 42 Tools and Supplies .......................... 104
3.1 Servicing ................................................ 44 7.1 Hand Tools ............................................ 106
3.2 Troubleshooting ............................ ......... .44 7.2 PowerTools ................. .......................... 122
3.3 Customer Service .............................. .....47 7.3 Instruments ........................................... 122
7.4 Standard Supplies ................................. 126
Section 2 7.5 Employer-Provided Tools and
Equipment... ............. .......................... 130
Refrigeration System Fundamentals
CHAPTERS
CHAPTER4
Working with Tubing and
Energy and Matter ............................ 54 Piping ................................................ 136
4.1 Systems of Measurement... .... ...... .......... 56
8.1 Types of RefrigerantTubing .................. 138
4.2 Matter and Energy .................................. 56
8.2 Non-Refrigerant Tubing and Pipe ......... 140
4.3 Mass and Weight... ................ ...... ........... 56
8.3 Cutting Tubing .............. ....................... .. 143
4.4 Density ................................................... 57
8.4 Bending Tubing ............ ....................... .. 144
4.5 Force, Work, and Power ......................... 57
8.5 Connecting Tubing ................................ 146
4.6 Heat. ....... ................................................ 59
8.6 Connecting Pipe ......... .......................... 162
4. 7 Measuring Refrigeration Effect... ....... ..... 68

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 xvii

 12.2 Types of Electricity .............................. 275
Section 4 12.3 Electrical Materials ............................. 277
Refrigerants 12.4 Circuit Fundamentals .......................... 278
12.5 Magnetism ............................ .............. 282
CHAPTER9
12.6 Electrical Generators ............ .............. 284
Introduction to Refrigerants ......... 168 12. 7 Transformer Basics ............... .............. 285
9.1 Refrigerants and the Ozone Layer ....... 170
9.2 Classifying Refrigerants ....................... 171 CHAPTER13
9.3 Identifying Refrigerants ........................ 175 Electrical Power ............................... 290
9.4 Refrigerant Properties .......................... 177 13.1 Electrical Power .................... .............. 292
9.5 Refrigerant Applications ....................... 184 13.2 Power Circuits ....................... .............. 295
9.6 Inorganic Refrigerants .......................... 185 13.3 Electrical Problems ............... .............. 302
9.7 Refrigeration Lubricants .............. ...... ... 189
CHAPTER14
CHAPTERlO
Basic Electronics .............................. 308
Equipment and Instruments for 14.1 Semiconductor Basics .......... .............. 31 O
Refrigerant Handling and 14.2 Control Circuits and Electronic
Service ............................................... 196 Devices ............................... .............. 312
10.1 Refrigerant Cylinders .......................... 198 14.3 Circuit Boards and Microprocessors ... 316
10.2 Pressure Gauges ................................ 201 14.4 Switches ............................................. 317
10.3 Service Valves .................................... 206 14.5 Relays ................................................. 318
10.4 Gauge Manifolds ..... ........................... 214 14.6 Solenoids ............................................ 318
10.5 Leak Detection Devices ...................... 217 14.7 Thermocouples ................................... 320
10.6 Vacuum Pumps ................................... 223
10.7 Recovery, Recycling, and
Reclaiming Equipment ....................... 225 Section 6

CHAPTER11 Motors and Electric Control

Working with Refrigerants ........... 234 Systems
11.1 Checking Refrigerant Charge .............. 236 CHAPTER15
11.2 Redistributing Refrigerant... ................. 239
Electric Motors ................................. 324
11.3 Locating and Repairing Refrigerant
15.1 The Elementary Electric Motor ........... 326
Leaks ................................................. 248
15.2 AC Induction Motors ........................... 330
11.4 Evacuating a System ........................... 253
11.5 Charging a System .............................. 258 15.3 Electronically Commutated Motors
(ECMs) .. ............................... .............. 338
15.4 Standard Motor Data ............ .............. 339
Section 5 15.5 Motor Applications in HVACR
Systems ............................... .............. 342
Basic Electricity, Magnetism, and
Electronics CHAPTER16
CHAPTER12 Electrical Control Systems ............ 350
Basic Electricity ............................... 270 16.1 Circuit Diagrams ................... .............. 352
12.1 Fundamental Principles of 16.2 Control System Fundamentals ............ 352
Electricity ........................................... 272 16.3 Motor Controls ...................... .............. 357

xviii Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 16.4 Motor Protection Devices .................... 376 CHAPTER21
16.5 Direct Digital Controls (DDC) .............. 380 Heat Exchangers .............................. 510
CHAPTER17 21.1 Evaporators ......................................... 512
21.2 Condensers ........................................ 535
Servicing Electric Motors and
21.3 Head Pressure Control. ....................... 544
Controls ............................................. 390
21.4 Other Heat Exchangers ...................... 547
17.1 Electrical Test Equipment... ................. 392
17.2 Troubleshooting Electric Motors ......... .400 CHAPTER22
17.3 Servicing Hermetic Compressor Refrigerant Flow Components ..... 558
Motors ........ ......................... ...... ......... 404 22 .1 Refrigerant Loop Components ......... .. 560
17.4 Servicing Fan Motors ........... ...... .........407 22.2 Storage and Filtration
17.5 Servicing External Motors .... ...... .........409 Components ....................................... 560
17.6 Servicing Motor Control Systems ........ 414 22.3 Refrigerant Flow Valves ...................... 565
22.4 Pressure-Regulating Valves ................ 575
Section 7 22.5 Head Pressure Controls Valves ......... . 584

Refrigeration System Components

Section 8
CHAPTER18
Compressors ..................................... 422 Domestic Refrigerators and
18.1 Compressor Drive Configurations ..... .424
Freezers
18.2 Types of Compressors ......... ...... ........ .427 CHAPTER23
18.3 General Compressor Components Overview of Domestic
and Systems ..................................... .446
Refrigerators and Freezers ............ 596
CHAPTER19 23.1 Domestic Refrigeration .... ................... 598
Compressor Safety Components .... 456 23.2 Refrigerators and Freezers ................. 599
19.1 Compressor Operating Conditions .. ...458 23.3 Innovative Technologies ................... .. 605
19.2 Compressor Protection Devices ...... ...458 CHAPTER24
19.3 Oil Control Systems ......................... ...462
Systems and Components of
19.4 Vibration Absorbers ......................... ...466
Domestic Refrigerators and
19.5 Crankcase Heaters .......................... ...467
Freezers ..................................................... 610
CHAPTER20 24.1 Basic Components of Refrigerators
Metering Devices ............................ 470 and Freezers ...................................... 612
20.1 Metering Device Basics ..................... .472 24.2 Specialized Systems .......................... 620
20.2 Capillary Tubes .................................. .472 CHAPTER25
20.3 Metering Orifices ................................ 476
Installation and Troubleshooting
20.4 Thermostatic Expansion Valves
(TXVs) ................................................ 477
of Domestic Refrigerators and
20.5 Automatic Expansion Valves Freezers ............................................. 638
(AXVs) .. .............................................. 493 25.1 Checking for Proper Installation ......... . 640
20.6 Electronic Expansion Valves 25.2 Diagnosing Symptoms ....................... 643
(EEVs) .. .............................................. 496 25.3 Checking External Circuits ................. 650
20 .7 Float-Operated Refrigerant Controls .. . 501 25.4 Diagnosing Internal Troubles .............. 654

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 xix

 CHAPTER26
Section 10
Service and Repair of Domestic
Refrigerators and Freezers ............ 668 Air-Conditioning Systems
26.1 External Service Operations .............. 670 CHAPTER31
26.2 Internal Service Operations ................ 671
Ductless Air-Conditioning
26.3 Storing or Discarding a
Refrigerator-Freezer ........................... 682
Systems ............................................. 804
31.1 Principles of Cooling and Humidity
Control. ............................................... 806
Section 9 31.2 Room Air Conditioners ........................ 808
Indoor Air Fundamentals 31.3 Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners
(PTACs) ................................ .............. 819
CHAPTER27
31.4 Console Air Conditioners ...... .............. 821
Air Movement and Measurement ...686 31.5 Portable Air Conditioners .................... 823
27.1 Climate ................................................ 688
31.6 Multizone Ductless Split System ......... 825
27.2 Atmosphere and Air ............................ 688
27.3 Comfort Conditions ............................. 702 CHAPTER32
27.4 Air Movement ...................................... 705 Residential Central
27.5 Factors Affecting Indoor Air Conditions .... 714 Air-Conditioning Systems ............ 834
CHAPTER28 32.1 Central Air Conditioning ........ .............. 836
Air Quality ....................................... 718 32.2 Split Systems ...................................... 838
28.1 Indoor Air Quality Standards and 32.3 Comfort Cooling Controls ................... 841
Guidelines .......................................... 720 32.4 Installing Central Air Conditioning ...... 843
28.2 Air Pollutants ...................................... 720 32.5 Inspecting Central Air-Conditioning
28.3 Indoor Air Quality ................................ 724 Systems ............................................. 848
28.4 Air Cleaning ............ ............................ 730 32.6 Servicing Central Air-Conditioning
28.5 Indoor Air Quality Systems ................. 739 Systems ....... ......... .. ........................... 850
32.7 Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF)
CHAPTER29 Systems ............................... .............. 852
Air Distribution............................... 744
29.1 Air Properties and Behavior. ............... 746 CHAPTER33
29.2 Air Circulation .......... ........................... 747 Commercial Air-Conditioning
29.3 Basic Ventilation Requirements ......... 748 Systems ............................................. 858
29.4 Air Ducts ............................................. 753 33.1 Rooftop and Outdoor Units .......... ....... 860
29.5 Duct Sizing ......................................... 768 33.2 Chillers ............................................... 872
29.6 Fans ....................... ............................ 775 33.3 Cooling Towers ..................... .............. 884
29.7 Air Curtains ............ ............................ 781

CHAPTER30 CHAPTER34
Ventilation System Service ........... 786 Absorption and Evaporative
30.1 Airflow Measurement... ....................... 788 Cooling Systems .............................. 898
30.2 Special Duct Problems and Duct 34.1 Absorption Refrigeration Systems ...... 900
Maintenance ...................................... 793 34.2 Absorption Cooling Systems .............. 902
30.3 Fan Service ........................................ 799 34.3 Absorption System Service .. .............. 914
30.4 Filter Service ...................................... 799 34.4 Evaporative Cooling ........................... 917

xx Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER35 CHAPTER39
Humidity Control ........................... 924 H ydronic Heating
35.1 Humidity Levels and Comfort.. ........... 926 Fundamentals ................................ 1034
35.2 Types of Humidifiers ........................... 928 39 .1 Hydronic System Components ......... 1036
35.3 Dehumidifying Equipment .................. 934 39.2 Hydronic System Designs ................ 1047
35.4 Servicing and Installing Humidifiers ... 936 39.3 Hydronic System Controls .......... ...... 1059
39.4 Hydronic System Installation ............ 1063
CHAPTER36 39.5 Troubleshooting and Servicing
Thermostats ...................................... 940 Hydronic Systems ............................ 1065
36.1 What Is a Thermostat? ............ ........... 942 39.6 Preparing a Boiler for the Heating
Season ............................................. 1074
36.2 Types of Thermostats .............. ........... 946
36.3 Line-Voltage Thermostats ....... ........... 952 CHAPTER40
36.4 Low-Voltage Thermostats ................... 952 Heat Pumps .................................... 1080
36 .5 Millivolt Thermostats ........................... 955 40.1 Heat Pump Basics ............................ 1082
36.6 Digital and Programmable 40.2 Types of Heat Pumps ....................... 1083
Thermostats ....................................... 955 40.3 Heat Pump Efficiency ....................... 1086
36. 7 Thermostat Installation ....................... 960 40.4 Heat Pump System Components ..... 1088
36.8 Thermostat Diagnostics ...................... 964 40.5 Heat Pump Controls ......................... 1100
36.9 Zone Systems .................................... 968 40.6 Heat Pumps and Solar Heating
Systems ................... ........................ 1105
CHAPTER37
40.7 Heat Pump System Service ............. 1106
Heating and Cooling Loads .......... 982
37.1 Heat Transfer ....................................... 984 CHAPTER41
37.2 Heat Loads ......................................... 984 Gas-Fired Heating Systems ......... 1114
37.3 Calculating Heat Leakage ................... 985 41.1 Gas Furnace Operation Overview ..... 1116
37.4 Other Factors Affecting Heat 41.2 Combustion ........................................ 1117
Loads ............................................... 1000 41.3 Gas Valves ........................................ 1121
37.5 Heating and Cooling Load- 41.4 Gas Burners ...................................... 1122
Manual J Method ............................. 1007 41.5 Ignition Systems ................................ 1124
37.6 Software and Apps for Load 41.6 Gas Furnace Controls ....................... 1127
Calculations ..................................... 1014 41.7 Gas Furnace Efficiency ..................... 1131
41.8 Gas Furnace Venting Categories ...... 1134
Section 11 41.9 Gas-Fired Radiant Heat... ................. 1134
41.1 O Gas-Fired Heating System Service ... 1134
Heating Systems
CHAPTER42
CHAPTER38 Oil-Fired Heating Systems .......... 1148
Forced-Air Heating 42.1 Basic Oil Furnace Operation ............ 1150
Fundamentals ................................ 1020 42.2 Fuel Oil ..................... ........................ 1151
38.1 Basic Components ........................... 1022 42.3 Combustion Efficiency ...................... 1152
38.2 Furnace Types and Construction ...... 1025 42.4 Fuel Line Components ..................... 1157
38.3 Forced-Air Duct Arrangements ......... 1027 42.5 Oil Burners ....................................... 1161
38.4 Makeup Air Units .............................. 1027 42.6 Primary Control Units ....................... 1169
38 .5 Blower Controls ................................ 1029 42.7 Oil Furnace Exhaust. ......................... 1176
38.6 Unit Heaters ..................................... 1031 42.8 Oil-Fired Heating System Service ..... 1176

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 xxi

 CHAPTER43 46.2 HVAC Equipment Efficiency ............. 1268
Electric Heating Systems ............. 1192 46.3 HVAC Alternatives for Energy
Conservation ......... ........................... 1270
43.1 Principles of Electric Resistance
Heating ............................................. 1194 46.4 The Role of the HVACR
Technician ............. ........................... 1274
43.2 Electric Heating Elements ................ 1194
43.3 Electric Heating Systems ................. 1195
43.4 Electric Furnace and Duct Heater Section 13
Controls ............................................ 1204
Commercial Refrigeration Systems
43.5 Electric Baseboard Heating Unit
Controls ........................ .................... 1209 CHAPTER47
43.6 Electric Heat Construction Practices ... 1210 Overview of Commercial
43.7 Electric Heating System Service ...... 1212 Refrigeration Systems .................. 1278
47.1 Applications ............ ........................... 1280
Section 12 47.2 Commercial Refrigeration
Systems ....... ......... ........................... 1282
Energy Management and 47.3 Industrial Applications ....................... 1306
Conservation
CHAPTER48
CHAPTER44 Special Refrigeration Systems
Solar Power and Thermal and Applications ........................... 1310
Storage ............................................. 1218 48.1 Transportation Refrigeration ............. 1312
44.1 The Nature of Solar Energy .............. 1220 48.2 Alternative Refrigeration
44.2 Solar Collectors ................................ 1221 Methods ........................................... 1319
44.3 Solar Heating Systems ..................... 1224
CHAPTER49
44.4 Applications for Solar Heating
Systems ........................................... 1226 Commercial Refrigeration System
44.5 Supplementary Heat ........................ 1227 Configurations ............................... 1332
44.6 Converting Solar Energy to 49.1 Commercial Systems
Electricity ......................................... 1228 Configuration Overview .................... 1334
44.7 Solar Energy Cooling Systems ......... 1232 49.2 Multiple-Evaporator Systems ............ 1334
44.8 Thermal Energy Storage (TES) 49.3 Modulating Refrigeration
Systems ....................... .................... 1234 Systems ........................................... 1334
49.4 Multistage Systems .......................... 1338
CHAPTER45 49.5 Secondary Loop Refrigeration
Energy Management .................... 1244 System ... .......................................... 1343
45.1 Energy Consumption ........................ 1246
45.2 Energy Audits ................................... 1246 Section 14
45.3 Building Control Systems ................. 1248
45.4 Controllers for Building Control Designing Commercial
Systems ....................... .................... 1250 Refrigeration Systems
45.5 Building Control Protocols ................ 1253
CHAPTER SO
45.6 Building Control System Diagnostics
and Repair ....................................... 1256 Understanding Heat Loads and
System Thermodynamics ............ 1348
CHAPTER46 50.1 Heat Loads ............ ........................... 1350
Energy Conservation .................... 1260 50.2 Thermodynamics of the Basic
46.1 Building Efficiency ............................ 1262 Refrigeration Cycle ........................... 1370

xxii Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER51 54.4 Checking Condensing Units ............. 1470
Commercial Refrigeration 54.5 Checking Liquid Lines ...................... 1484
Component Selection ................... 1378 54.6 Checking Thermostatic Expansion
Valves (TXVs) ......... ......................... 1485
51. 1 Sizing Compressors, Condensers,
54.7 Checking Electronic Expansion
and Evaporators .................. ...... ....... 1380
Valves (EEVs) .................................. 1486
51.2 Calculating Theoretical Compressor
54.8 Checking Evaporator Pressure
Volume ........ ............................... ...... 1386
Regulators (EPRs) .. ......................... 1488
51.3 Designing Piping ............................... 1388
54.9 Checking Hot-Gas Valves ................. 1489
54.10 Checking Solenoid Valves .............. 1489
Section 15 54.11 Checking Evaporators ..................... 1489
54.12 Checking Suction Lines .................. 1491
Installing and Servicing
Commercial Refrigeration Systems CHAPTER55
CHAPTER52 Servicing Commercial
Installing Commercial Systems ........................................... 1496
55.1 System Service Fundamentals ......... 1498
Systems ........................................... 1398 Servicing Motors and
52.1 Types of Commercial Compressors .................................... 1502
Installations ...................................... 1400 55.3 Servicing Condensers ...................... 1507
52.2 Codes and Standards ........... ...... ...... 1401 55.4 Servicing Liquid Lines ...................... 1513
52.3 Installing Condensing Units ..... ......... 1401 55.5 Servicing Evaporators ...................... 1515
52.4 Installing Expansion Valves ............. . 1404 55.6 Servicing Valves ............................... 1516
52.5 Installing Evaporators ....................... 1405 55.7 Reconditioning Equipment after a
52.6 Installing Refrigerant Lines .. ...... ....... 1406 Flood ................................................ 1519
52.7 Installing Electric Motors ..... ...... ....... 1411 Appendixes ................................... 1524
52 .8 Testing Installations ....... ...... ............. 1414 Appendix A: Service Information .............. 1525
52.9 Charging Commercial Systems ........ 1415 Appendix B: Troubleshooting Charts ........ 1529
52.10 Starting a Commercial Appendix C: Refrigerants .. ....................... 1542
Refrigeration System ............... ......... 1418 Appendix D: Electricity and
CHAPTER53 Electronics ....................................... 1552
Appendix E: Heat, Temperature, and
Troubleshooting Commercial Pressure ........................................... 1553
Systems-System Diagnosis ....... 1422 Appendix F: Equivalent Charts ................. 1558
53.1 Commercial Refrigeration Appendix G: EPA Certification .................. 1566
Troubleshooting ................................ 1424
Appendix H: HVACR-Related Associations
53.2 Checking Refrigerant Charge .......... . 1430 and Organizations ........... ................. 1573
53.3 Diagnosing Common Symptoms ...... 1431
Glossary .......................................... 1575
53.4 Troubleshooting Ice Machines ... ....... 1454
Index ................................................ 1619
CHAPTER54
Troubleshooting Commercial
Systems-Component
Diagnosis ........................................ 1466
54.1 General Inspection Overview ........... 1468
54.2 Checking Electrical Circuits .. ...... ...... 1468
54.3 Checking External Motors ....... ......... 1469

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 xxiii

Step-by-Step Procedures
Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning includes more than 120 step-by-step procedures. These
hands-on service procedures provide easy-to-follow numbered instructions. Clear labeling and unique
coloring make these procedures easy to find for future reference.

Chapter 2: Safety Deep Vacuum Evacuation Procedure ................. 255

Using a Fire Extinguisher ..................................... 28 Triple Evacuation Procedure ............................... 256
Vapor Charging by Weight... ............................... 260
Chapter 7: Tools and Supplies Vapor Charging to "Top Off" an
Loosening a Tight Bolt or Nut ............................. 128 Undercharged System .................................... 260
Liquid Charging by Weight... ............................... 262
Chapter 8: Working with Tubing and Piping
Annealing Tubing ................................................ 138 Chapter 13: Electrical Power
Cutting Tubing with a Tubing Cutter .................... 143 Crimping Wires to Wire Terminals ....................... 298
Cutting Tubing with a Hacksaw ........................... 143
Squaring and Reaming Tubing End .................... 144
Chapter 14: Basic Electronics
Bending with a Lever-Type Tubing Bender. ......... 146 Testing a Diode ................................................... 312
Single Flaring Procedure .................................... 147 Chapter 15: Electric Motors
Double Flaring Procedure Using Adapters .......... 148
Reversing the Rotation of a Three-Phase Motor ..... 337
Double Flaring Procedure Using Punches .......... 149
Identifying Unmarked Compressor Terminals ..... 345
Soldering Procedure ........................................... 156
Brazing Procedure .............................................. 158 Chapter 16: Electrical Control Systems
Swaging Tubing with a Swaging Adapter ............ 161 Setting a High-Pressure Safety Cut-Out for a
Solvent Welding Plastic Pipe .............................. 164 Pressure Motor Control ................................... 364
Setting the Range on a Dual Pressure Motor
Chapter 10: Equipment and Instruments for
Control ............................................................ 366
Refrigerant Handling and Service
Checking a Current Relay ................................... 370
Cleaning a Thermistor Vacuum Gauge ............... 203 Checking a Potential Relay ................................. 371
Loosening a Stuck Service Port Plug ................. 210
Installing a Bolted-On Piercing Valve .................. 213 Chapter 17: Servicing Electric Motors and
Installing a Brazed-On Piercing Valve ................. 213 Controls
Purging a Gauge Manifold and Hoses ................ 216 Using an In-Line Ammeter .................................. 395
Testing a Vacuum Pump ..................................... 225 Testing a Hermetic Compressor's Winding
Insulation ........... ............................... .............. 398
Chapter 11: Working with Refrigerants
Discharging and Testing a Capacitor .................. 401
Checking Refrigerant Charge by Subcooling ...... 236
Measuring Capacitance ...................................... 402
Checking Refrigerant Charge by Superheat... .... 237
Checking Hermetic Compressors for Continuity
Pumping Down the System ................................ 240
and Shorts ...................................................... 405
Passive Recovery Procedure Using the
Checking Hermetic Compressors for Shorts to
Compressor .................................................... 240
Ground ........................................................... 406
Passive Recovery Procedure without the
Hard Start Method of Servicing a Stuck
Compressor .................................................... 241
Hermetic Compressor .................................... 407
Vapor Refrigerant Recovery Procedure .............. 242
Finding Connection Problems in a Fan Motor
Liquid Refrigerant Recovery Procedure .............. 243
Circuit ......... ....... ......................... ...... .............. 408
Push-Pull Liquid Recovery Procedure ................ 244
Checking a Recovery Cylinder Liquid Level Chapter 18: Compressors
Switch ............................................................. 248 Determining Compressor Speed ....................... .425
Locating a Refrigerant Leak ............................... 249
Pressure Testing with an Inert Gas ..................... 249 Chapter 25: Installation and Troubleshooting
Pressure Testing with the System's Refrigerant ..... 250 of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers
Two-Part Epoxy Repair ....................................... 253 Using Valve Adapters .......................................... 657
One-Part Epoxy Repair ...................................... 253 Pinpointing a Restriction ..................................... 663

xxiv Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

Chapter 26: Service and Repair of Domestic Chapter 43: Electric Heating Systems
Refrigerators and Freezers Testing Heating Elements ................................. 1213
Preparing a Domestic Refrigerator or Freezer Replacing Baseboard Heating Units ................. 1213
for Internal Service ......................................... 671
Removing a Hermetic Compressor .................... 672
Chapter 45: Energy Management
Installing a Replacement Compressor ................ 673 Troubleshooting a Building Ethernet/IP
Repairing a Stainless Steel Evaporator .............. 675 Communication Fault... ................................. 1257
Repairing an Aluminum Evaporator .................... 675 Troubleshooting a Controller and Cable Loss
Replacing a Filter-Drier ....................................... 677 of Signal ....... ................................................ 1257
Testing a Thermostat ........ ............................... ... 681 Troubleshooting to Component Level ............... 1257
Troubleshooting an Electrical Failure ................ 1257
Chapter 28: Air Quality
Cleaning an Ultraviolet Air Treatment System .. ... 738 Chapter 50: Understanding Heat Loads and
System Thermodynamics
Chapter 29: Air Distribution
Using Tables to Determine Service Heat Load .... 1359
Riveting a Joint Using a Pop Rivet Tool .............. 760
Using Mastic to Seal a Duct Joint... .................... 760 Chapter 51: Commercial Refrigeration
Installing Insulation into Square Ductwork.......... 761 Component Selection
Duct Sizing Procedure ........................................ 769
Selecting Components for a Commercial
Sizing Ducts Using the Friction Chart... .............. 773
Refrigeration System ............. ....................... 1380
Chapter 30: Ventilation System Service
Chapter 52: Installing Commercial Systems
Performing a Blower Door Test ............ ............... 790
Commercial Refrigeration Installations ............. 1400
Cleaning Ductwork ..... ......................... ...... ......... 796
Low-Side Charging Procedure .......................... 1415
Balancing a System-Long Method ................... 797
Balancing a System-Short Method ................... 797 High-Side Charging Procedure .. ....................... 1417
Washing an Electronic Air Cleaner Filter ............ 800 Starting a Commercial Refrigeration System .... 1419

Chapter 36: Thermostats Chapter 53: Troubleshooting Commercial

Troubleshooting a Heating System with a Systems-System Diagnosis
Low-Voltage Thermostat .................. ...... ......... 965 Fixing a System with a Frozen Moisture Restriction
Diagnosing a High Current Draw on a in the TXV .............................. ....................... 1436
Transformer ............ ......................... ...... ......... 966 Flushing a Dirty Expansion Valve ..................... 1436
Diagnostics Using a Line-Voltage Thermostat. ... 967 Replacing a Clogged Inlet Screen .................... 1437
Troubleshooting a Zoned System ........ ...... ......... 974 Quick Check for Trapped Noncondensables ..... 1444
PIT Chart Check for Trapped Noncondensables ... 1445
Chapter 39: Hydronic Heating Fundamentals Ice Machine Capacity Check ..... ....................... 1458
Purging a Series Loop System ............ ...... ....... 1067
Purging a One-Pipe System with Primary and Chapter 54: Troubleshooting Commercial
Secondary Loops ... ......................... ...... ....... 1067 Systems-Component Diagnosis
Purging a Two-Pipe Zoned System with Zone Identifying Leaking Compressor Valves ............ 1472
Circulating Pumps .. ......................... ...... ....... 1069 Crankshaft Seal Leak Detection ....................... 1473
Purging a Two-Pipe Zoned System with Zone Determining Head Pressure for an Air-Cooled
Valves ........................................................... 1070 Condenser ........................... ......................... 1479
Purging a Hydronic System Filled with Glycol Troubleshooting Outdoor Condensers ............... 1480
Solution ........................................................ 1070 Troubleshooting Outdoor Condenser Louvers .... 1481
Recharging a Horizontal Expansion Tank ......... 1073 Determining Head Pressure for a Water-Cooled
Recharging a Diaphragm Expansion Tank ...... . 1073 Condenser .................................................... 1481
Boiler Inspection and Maintenance .................. 1074 Leak Testing a Water-Cooled Condenser ......... 1481
Chapter 41: Gas-Fired Heating Systems Removing Scale Deposits from Water-Cooled
Heat Exchanger Leak Test Procedure .............. 1138 Condenser Water Tubes ....... ........................ 1482

Chapter 42: Oil-Fired Heating Systems Chapter 55: Servicing Commercial Systems
Stack Temperature Test Procedure ................... 1154 Opening a Refrigerant Circuit for Service ......... 1498
Draft Test Procedure ......................................... 1155 Removing Open-Drive Compressors ................ 1502
Smoke Test Procedure ...................................... 1157 Removing Hermetic Compressors .................... 1505
Manually Bleeding an Oil Furnace .................... 1181 Removing a Pressure-Operated Water Valve .... 1511

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 XXV

T is page in enr anally eft blank.
CHAPTERl Careers and
Certification

Chapter Outline
1.1 Introduction to HVACR Careers
1.1.1 Career Case Study #1
1.1.2 Career Case Study #2
Learning Objectives
1.2 Career Planning :: Information in this chapter will enable you to:
=
1.2.1 Career Clusters and Pathways 5• Understand career clusters and career pathways.
1.2.2 HVACR Careers
1.2.3 Employment Outlook
§= • Evaluate HVACR career options.

1.3 Beginning Your Career Search ii • Determine which exams and corresponding
certifications are most suited for achieving your
1.3.1 Sources for Career Opportunities
career goals.
1.3.2 Application Process
1.3.3 Interview Skills • Understand the tools needed for success in the
1.4 Success in the Workplace workplace.
1.4.1 Professional Behavior • Understand the importance of professional
1.4.2 Lifelong Learning certifications.
1.4.3 Skills and Personal Traits • Understand the value of an accredited HVACR
1.5 HVACR-Related Associations and Organizations program.
1.6 Certification
• Explain the value of continuing education and
1.6.1 Student Assessments and Entry-Level
training.
Certifications
1.6.2 Professional and Specialty Certifications • Understand EPA regulations as they relate to air
1.6.3 EPA Certification conditioning and refrigeration.
1.6.4 Certifying Organizations • Become involved in HVACR service organizations
1.7 Licensing and trade associations.
Technical Terms Introduction
bid lifelong learning Today is a great time to begin a career in the HVACR
building inspector NATE (North American field. Air-conditioning and refrigeration systems are a
career clusters Technical Excellence) critical part of our society. Over the next decade, the
certification networking number of HVACR workers is expected to increase and
energy auditor punctuality a large number of current workers are expected to retire.
estimator RSES (Refrigeration Service These two trends create an opportunity for a large num-
HVAC Excellence Engineers Society) ber of new workers to join the industry.
HVACR designer service This chapter provides an introduction to career
HVACR drafter specialty certification paths and opportunities in the HVACR industry, includ-
HVACR engineer taking initiative ing some information on how to find a job, how to get a
installation job, and how to keep a job. Professional associations and
professional certification, which are critical components
for professional growth in the HVACR field, are intro-
duced as well.
4 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

1.1 Introduction to HVACR Careers his initial coursework, he became even more ambitious
and started taking additional tests to receive more cer-
As you prepare your own pathway for a career in tifications and licenses. In Jose's words, "Now it is up
the HVACR field, the following case studies illustrate to me to take it to the next step and determine where I
two of the many educational and professional path- want to go. I love my job!"
ways available in the HVACR field.
The two stories illustrate that each of us must take 1.1.2 Career Case Study #2
time to determine our strengths and areas of interest.
No two people follow the same career path, but a career Ron was the youngest of four children. His par-
in HVACR can follow a number of routes and can be ents valued education and encouraged him to discover
personally and financially rewarding. The key to suc- his passion and talents. While in high school, he strug-
cess is to remain focused, dedicated, and to persevere. gled with math and science. His high school counselor
This book will provide you with the tools necessary to suggested that he apply to attend the HVACR program
enter the HVACR field. The rest is up to you. at the local career and technical center. There, Ron
completed a two-year program and discovered that he
1.1.1 Career Case Study #1 was quite good at understanding the complexities of
systems. Although he enjoyed hands-on work in the
Jose was an average student in high school. He field, he preferred to analyze and design systems. He
enjoyed math and science, but he did not apply him- decided that engineering would be his career path.
self. His parents encouraged him to attend a four- Although his fear of math and science lingered, he was
year college in order to prepare for the world of work confident that if he remained focused and gave 100%
and to assist in becoming financially independent. effort, he could succeed.
Jose attended the nearby community college for two The four-year engineering program was rigorous,
years, but he found the business courses dry and bor- but Ron persevered and successfully completed a bach-
ing. Jose felt he still did not know what career path he elor's degree in mechanical engineering. He was able
would follow. He left college, and during the follow- to obtain his first professional position with a large
ing five years he obtained a number of jobs ranging HVACR system manufacturer. There, Ron quickly
from retail to office work. At the age of 25, Jose found rose through the ranks and became a lead engineer
a job working in a local HVACR shop warehouse. He on HVACR systems. His superiors noted his drive
worked hard, followed the workplace rules, and main- and enthusiasm and a number of promotions ensued.
tained a positive attitude. After a few months, Jose Ron was recruited by a competitor and received an
was promoted from working in the warehouse to an impressive increase in salary and commissions. In his
office position where he would assist with developing new position, he worked with HVACR manufacturers
quotes. Jose found this position more enjoyable and throughout the world and was able to visit countries
fulfilling than his warehouse position, but he realized such as Italy, China, and Mexico.
that he was drawn to more hands-on work. According
to Jose, "I took a few years to discover my real path."
Jose returned to school and attended HVACR classes. 1.2 Career Planning
Although he had no previous knowledge of electricity A job and a career are two different things. See
and motors, he caught on quickly and found the sub- Figure 1-1. A job is something you do to earn income.
ject matter fascinating. On completion of his course- Often, a job is held for only a short period of time. A
work, Jose passed a standardized HVACR assessment career is a series of employment opportunities where
and attained four entry-level certifications. increased skills are developed, with the aim of profes-
Within four weeks of completing his coursework, sional advancement. The goal in a career is to move
Jose had his own truck and within seven months, he was progressively into positions requiring greater knowl-
performing service work. His employers were impressed edge and skills. These more advanced positions gener-
by Jose's motivation, dedication, effort, and honesty. They ally provide increased salary.
rewarded this with salary increases and new opportu- A career path is a sequence of related employ-
nities. Now motivated to excel in his chosen career, Jose ment positions. A career path begins with entry-level
realized that it would be important to continue his pro- positions. These positions generally require no previ-
fessional development and training by taking additional ous working experience in the field. Entry-level posi-
courses and attaining additional certifications. tions may require a certain level of education, training,
Reflecting back on the past two years in the HVACR or skills. For example, a candidate for an entry-level
field, Jose shares that returning to school at the age of 25 HVAC service technician may be required to possess a
was the best investment he ever made. After completing certificate or associate's degree from a technical college.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 1 Careers and Certification

Career paths progress from entry-level positions certification in addition to experience in the entry-level
to positions requiring greater experience, knowledge, position may be required to advance. See Figure 1-2.
and skills. For some career paths, simply working in the Careers are chosen based on an individual's skills,
entry-level position provides the experience and knowl- strengths, abilities, and interests. A career allows you
edge needed to attain the next employment position to develop your skills and expand on your experiences,
along the career path. In other career paths, training or positioning you for promotions, salary increases, and

Job Career
ArtWe/1/Shutterstock.com; Geo Martinez/Shutterstock.com
Figure 1-1. A job, such as working as a cashier, generally requires little previous training or experience and provides few
opportunities for advancement. A career, such as HVACR technician, often requires existing training or skills and provides good
opportunities for professional growth.

Entry Level Increasing Education, Experience, and Certification

Master HVACR _ _.I HVACR System

~ Technician Designer

~
Commercial
Refrigeration
Technician
- ....
Residential HVAC
HVACR Service
Supervisor - _.I HVACR
Estimator

Service Technician

~
Equipment Equipment
~ Manufacturer _.I Manufacturer

-
Technician Distributor
Commercial AC
~
Technician
Energy HVACR
~ ~_.I
Auditor Contractor

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 1-2. A small sample of the nonlinear career paths offered by the HVACR industry. As you gain experience, education, and
certifications throughout your career, you can advance to different positions. Each new position provides many opportunities.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

6 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

other opportunities. Investing energy into the devel- The Architecture and Construction career cluster
opment of your career provides long-term benefits. is divided into three career pathways Figure 1-4:
Setting professional goals and determining a path for • Design/preconstruction.
achieving those goals is the basis for achieving a career.
• Construction.
• Maintenance and operations.
1.2.1 Career Clusters and Pathways
Career clusters are broad categories of employ- 1.2.2 HVACR Careers
ment fields, Figure 1-3. The career cluster model was
developed by states in conjunction with educators, Many students who complete training in an
employers, and professional organizations. Each of the HVACR program begin their careers as entry-level
sixteen career clusters is further divided into several installation technicians. However, the technical skills
pathways. you are learning can lead to many other careers. Some
In the career cluster model, occupations are grouped careers for which HVACR technical knowledge and
in appropriate pathways. Most HVACR occupations are skills are useful are described in the following sections.
located in the Architecture and Construction career
cluster. Students who choose this career cluster tend to HVACR Technician
be good with their hands and able to visualize projects. The work of an HVACR technician falls into two
The career cluster model provides knowledge and broad categories: installation and service. Installation
skills statements at the cluster level and at the pathway involves the initial setup of equipment and systems.
level. These statements attempt to define the general Installation may occur in new construction or in exist-
skills required by all occupations within the pathway ing construction. Service involves work on existing
or cluster. systems. This may include performing scheduled

Career Clusters

Agriculture, Food, and Architecture and Arts, AN Technology, and Business Management
Natural Resources Construction Communications and Administration

Education Government and

Finance Health Science
and Training Public Administration

Hospitality and Law, Public Safety,

Human Services Information Technology
Tourism Corrections, and Security

Science, Technology, Transportation,

Manufacturing Marketing Engineering, and Distribution, and
Mathematics Logistics

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 1-3. In the career cluster model, occupations are categorized into these sixteen broad groupings. Most HVACR careers
are found in the Architecture and Construction cluster.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 1 Careers and Certification

Architecture and Construction

Career Cluster

Design/Preconstruction Construction Maintenance/Operations

Pathway Pathway Pathway

Sample Careers Sample Careers Sample Careers

HVACR (Mechanical) Engineer HVACR Installer HVACR Mechanic

HVACR (Mechanical) Drafter Sheet Metal Worker Sheet Metal Worker
Architect Electrician Boilermaker
Environmental Designer Pipe Fitter Facilities Engineer
Surveyor Construction Manager Controls Technician

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 1-4. The Architecture and Construction cluster comprises three pathways. A few of the occupations contained in each
pathway are listed here.

maintenance or going on service calls to fix system projects, an installer may do only portions of the job.
problems. See Figure 1-5. Ductwork, piping, and electrical wiring may have to
In larger contracting companies, installers may be installed by members of other trades.
specialize in one of the subcategories of this trade, Approximately half of the installers and techni-
such as gas heat, oil heat, hydronics, residential air cians in the HVACR field work for heating and cooling
conditioning, or large commercial refrigeration sys- contractors. The remainder are employed by industrial
tems. Installers who are self-employed or who work plants, institutions, and government agencies. About
for smaller contractors are likely to work in several of 15% are self-employed.
these areas as required. Typically, an installer physi-
cally installs the heating, air-conditioning, or refrig- HVACR Drafter, Designer, Engineer
eration unit; runs any necessary piping or ductwork; Residential air-conditioning systems are typically
and installs and connects electrical wiring as needed. designed by the HVAC contractor. However, many air-
They then test the operation of the system, making any conditioning and refrigeration systems are designed by
necessary adjustments. On large scale construction HVACR engineering firms. The following are some types
of systems designed by HVACR engineering firms:
• Commercial air-conditioning, such as office
buildings, warehouses, movie theaters, shopping
malls, and hotels.
• Commercial refrigeration systems, such as grocery
store cases and cold-storage warehouses.
• Large public building air-conditioning systems,
such as libraries, museums, university campuses,
airports, and train stations.
• Large, high-end residential air-conditioning systems.
In many cases, the design of a large air-condition-
ing system must be approved by an HVACR engineer.
See Figure 1-6. An HVACR engineer normally has a
bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from a
four-year university. An HVACR engineer may need to
be licensed by the state before being able to approve
Women in HVACR designs. In order to be licensed, the engineer may need
Figure 1-5. An HVACR technician taking electrical measurements to pass a licensing exam and have a few years of pro-
while troubleshooting a commercial air-conditioning unit. fessional experience.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

8 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Equipment and materials costs.

• Time needed to complete the work and the labor
cost of that time.
• Costs for permits and inspections.
In order to determine these costs, an estimator
studies the drawings and specifications for a project.
Using the project documents, an estimator lists all of
the equipment and materials needed to complete the
project. The price of each item to be installed must be
included in the cost estimate.
The estimator must also consider how the sys-
tem will be installed, including the number of hours
each HVACR technician will work for each task in the
Minerva Studio/Shutterstock.com
project. Often, an estimator works with a construction
Figure 1-6. After designing an air-conditioning system,
supervisor or project manager to plan each phase of
HVACR engineers inspect the installation and work with the
HVACR contractor to address any adjustments or changes
construction.
that are needed. An HVACR estimator has good math skills, is
comfortable working with computer software, and
pays close attention to details. An estimator may have
HVACR engineers analyze the building or refrig- a bachelor's degree from a four-year university or may
erated space to determine the requirements of the sys- have a background as an HVACR technician or as an
tem. Once the requirements are known, the engineer HVACR designer.
designs the system. Much of an engineer's work deals
with simulation and analysis. An engineer must be Energy Auditor
familiar with all legal requirements and best practices An energy auditor inspects and tests a structure
related to HVACR system design. and then prepares a report. The report summarizes the
HVACR designers often prepare designs for current energy usage of the building and recommends
smaller or more common air-conditioning systems. ways to reduce energy usage. Often, the financial
However, an HVACR designer is not licensed and does savings achieved by implementing some of the sugges-
not have the same level of knowledge as an HVACR tions exceeds the cost of energy audit.
engineer. Often, HVACR designers may work with and An energy auditor must have a good understand-
have their designs approved by HVACR engineers. ing of HVACR systems and building construction,
Some HVACR designers start in the industry as including knowledge of "best practices" for energy
HVACR technicians who make the effort to learn about
system design, in addition to installation and service.
Other HVACR designers may have an associate's
degree from a two-year college or even an engineering
degree from a four-year university.
An HVACR drafter works with engineers and
designers to prepare construction drawings for HVACR
systems. Knowledge of computer-aided design soft-
ware and drafting conventions is critical for an HVACR
drafter, who may have an associate's degree or certifi-
cate from a two-year college.

Estimator
In the HVACR industry, nearly all projects begin
with a bid. A bid is an estimate of the scope and cost
of a project. Accurate cost estimates are vital to the
success of an HVACR company. Developing such Monkey Business lmages/Shutterstock.com
estimates in great detail is the responsibility of the Figure 1-7. Estimators carefully study construction drawings
estimator. See Figure 1-7. and specifications to account for all equipment and materials
The estimator calculates the cost of a project by required for a project. Paying attention to small details is
considering many costs, including the following: critical to success as an estimator.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 1 Careers and Certification

efficiency. In addition to visually inspecting a build-

ing, an energy auditor may perform several tests:
• Blower door test. This test measures air infiltration
into a structure. Reducing infiltration of outside
air is a primary method of reducing energy usage.
See Figure 1-8.
• Duct tightness testing. This test determines if
conditioned air is leaking out of the ductwork.
• Thermal imaging. Thermal imaging equipment
is used to identify locations of air infiltration and
inadequate insulation.
Energy auditing is a good career for people who
have a strong interest in environmental issues. A back-
ground in HVACR and construction practices is also
helpful. Energy auditing is often taught as a stand-
alone training program, and several certification pro-
grams are available.
SpeedKingz/Shutterstock.com
Building Inspector
Figure 1-9. A building inspector checking framing in a new
Building inspectors review construction work to residence. Building inspectors often have previous experience
ensure that the construction adheres to the applicable in a trade area such as HVACR.
building codes. Work that meets the code require-
ments is approved by the inspector. Work that does not
meet code requirements is identified by the inspector to bring the plan into compliance with codes and reg-
and must be corrected by the contractor. Some build- ulations. Once construction begins, inspections are
ing inspectors review all building systems, while oth- made at specific stages of a project. All work must be
ers focus on one particular area, such as electrical or completed to the satisfaction of the inspector.
HVAC. See Figure 1-9. Building inspectors normally have a strong back-
Many inspectors are employed by local govern- ground in the building trades and thorough knowl-
ments. The inspection process usually begins even edge of all local building codes and regulations. The
before construction starts, when plans are submitted career path for most inspectors begins with work in
to the building inspector's department for review. The one of the trades areas.
review may result in approval or may require changes
HVACR Instructor
Teaching is generally regarded as one of the most
rewarding professions. By helping someone learn
new skills, you may be helping a student open doors
to better employment opportunities and career paths.
The following are some opportunities for HVACR
instructors:
• Instructor in an HVACR program at a two-year
college, technical college, or private training
school, normally teaching the fundamentals of
HVACR to students with little or no previous
experience in the field.
• Corporate trainer, leading relatively short training
sessions on specific products or topics for other
employees within the company or other users
of the company's products such as dealers and
TEC (The Energy Conservatory)
contractors. See Figure 1-10.
Figure 1-8. An energy auditor collects data during a blower • Instructor for a training organization, delivering
door test. Using this information, the energy audit will be able training courses for professionals in the HVACR
to determine if too much air is infiltrating into the building. industry.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

10 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Hampden Engineering
Figure 1-10. Training is an important part of the HVAC industry. The continuous development of new refrigerants, components,
materials, systems, and service techniques provides many training opportunities.

Many HVACR instructors began their careers as • Distributor/dealer-sells equipment and materials
HVAC technicians before switching careers. HVACR for specific companies within a defined region.
instructors must have excellent knowledge of HVAC sys-
tems, strong organizational skills, and excellent communi- Pro Tip
cation skills. They supplement their technical knowledge Occupational Outlook Handbook
by earning teaching certifications or attending training.
The US Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational
Outlook Handbook provides detailed information about
HVACR Equipment Manufacturer Occupations many common occupations. The handbook includes
Knowledge and experience in the HVACR indus- descriptions of occupations, salary ranges, and pro-
try can lead to employment with HVACR equipment jected future demand. This useful resource is available
manufacturers. The companies that design, produce, on the Internet.
and sell all of the components of air-conditioning and
refrigeration systems employ a large number of people
in a wide range of positions, including the following: 1.2.3 Emploment Outlook
• Engineering lab technician-works on product The job outlook for those in the HVACR field is
testing, design, and development. quite promising and strong. HVACR professionals
• Product technical support-provides support for are in demand and enjoy good income-producing
people installing and servicing the company's potential and plentiful opportunities for growth.
products. Unlike many jobs and careers, HVACR positions
• Sales representative-sells the company's products cannot be replaced by automation and cannot be
to other businesses or consumers. outsourced.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 1 Careers and Certification

55,900 new
positions

2022
(projected) 1------------------------~---~
I I
323,500

2012 1267,600
1---------------------------'
I I I
I I I I
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000

Number of HVACR Technician Positions in the United States

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 1-11. This graph illustrates the expected increase in HVACR technician opportunities between 2012 and 2022. In addition
to these new positions, many more job vacancies are expected due to retirements.

HVACR systems are becoming increasingly com- In addition, there are professional HVACR orga-
plex. As a result, applicants with a postsecondary nizations that offer job postings on their websites.
educational experience or an apprenticeship are often Examples of such sites include NATE, Careers in
preferred. It is projected that the job outlook for the HVACR, ASHRAE, and ACCA. Trade journals, trade
ten-year period of 2012-2022 will see an increase of shows, contractors, distributors, manufacturers, and
21% in the HVACR field. See Figure 1-11. Refer to the unions, including the United Association and the
US Bureau of Labor Statistics for other relevant infor- Sheet Metal Workers International Association, are
mation about a career as an HVACR technician. also sources for employment information.
Opportunities for advancement within the
HVACR field are abundant. Technicians may wish Pro Tip
to advance into supervisory or sales and marketing
Career Websites
positions. At the contractor level, positions available
include technician, installer, fleet manager, project When looking for a job, spend some time exploring
job websites to see which provide the most listings of
manager, service manager, contractor. Emerging
applicable positions. Review both general career web-
careers in the HVACR field include energy auditor,
sites and HVACR-specific websites. Learn to use the
green-technology specialist, and performance test- features of the most valuable websites. Your goal is to
ing specialist. find as many available positions as you can.

1.3 Beginning Your Career Search Once you begin making contacts within industry,
It has often been said that "you don't get a second an effective way of obtaining job leads is network-
chance to make a first impression." While setting goals ing. Networking is the process of connecting with
and mapping your career path, you must maintain a other individuals within a group or industry. Joining
professional image in verbal and written communica- industry organizations offers an opportunity for net-
tions. Often, the contacts and network you develop while working. By expanding the reach of your social and
in school and during your apprenticeships will lead to professional network, you can increase your potential
future job opportunities. Maintaining a positive and pro- exposure to employers.
fessional appearance is the first step in obtaining a job.
Pro Tip
1.3.1 Sources for Career Opportunities Social Media Profile
A number of websites offer information for the job Your social media postings may be viewed by
seeker. Typically, these career websites allow compa- others. Always assume that anything you post will be
viewed by a potential employer. Inappropriate posts
nies to post information about available positions. Job
could put your career at risk, so be cautious of your web
seekers can post a resume, search available job listings, presence.
and receive updates of select new job postings.

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12 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

1.3.2 Application Process Always provide truthful, accurate information in your

applications.
Most employers now post their job openings via
the Internet. In such cases, the application process is Pro Tip
conducted via the Internet as well. In preparation for
applications, a resume and cover letter are necessary. Obtaining an Internship
Always carefully proofread all materials you submit An internship is a great way to gain experience in
for possible errors. the field you are studying. Many HVAC contractors may
not actively seek interns, but if you contact a company
and suggest an internship, they may consider hiring
Resume
you. Try sending your resume along with a compelling,
A resume is often the first opportunity for an
professional cover letter to many local HVACR contrac-
employer to get to know you. Your resume briefly out- tors requesting an internship with their company. Most
lines your education and work experiences. It should be will not be interested, but all it takes is one express-
concise-preferably a single page and no longer than ing interest to get your career started. Remember, an
three pages. Your resume should highlight skills and internship can benefit the employer as much as it ben-
accomplishments, including any industry assessments efits the student.
or certifications you have achieved. Include details of
the program you have attended, such as the program's
accreditation, the length of the program, courses com- 1.3.3 Interview Skills
pleted, and your accomplishments. In addition, it is
helpful to have a list of three references. These can be After applying for a position, you may be asked to
teachers or college instructors, present or past employ- participate in an interview. An interview may be con-
ers, or family friends. Be sure to ask your references ducted over the phone or in person. Prior to an inter-
view, research the potential employer and the details
before listing them. A reference sheet should include
of the position for which you are applying. Prepare a
the name, position, address, and phone number of the
few questions to ask at interviews. These questions
reference. Letters of recommendation are also ben-
can be about the company or about the position. For
eficial and should speak to your integrity, work ethic,
example, the following could be some potential ques-
and achievements. Figure 1-12 shows an example of a
tions to ask when interviewing for an HVACR service
resume format.
technician position:
Cover Letter • What are some of the challenges for new
A cover letter accompanies your resume. Format technicians starting with this company?
your cover letter in the style of a professional business • How would you describe excellent performance
letter. Relate your cover letter to the specific position for this position?
for which you are applying. The letter should include • Are there opportunities for advancement within
these items: or beyond this position?
• Title of the position. When planning for an interview, a clean appear-
• Where you heard about the position. ance is important. Be well groomed and professionally
• Your strengths, skills, and abilities as they relate dressed. When being introduced, offer a firm hand-
to the position. shake, make eye contact, and greet the interviewer by
using their formal name (Mr. or Ms.). When participat-
• Additional reasons you should be considered for ing in an interview, be a good listener and keep your
the position. answers brief and to the point. If possible, weave in an
• When you are available to begin work. example of a similar situation you have encountered
• Request for further discussion or an interview. professionally. Do not have your cell phone on during
Figure 1-13 shows an example of a cover letter. an interview. The interviewer deserves your full atten-
tion. Do not chew gum during an interview. Many
Job Application Form employers support a drug-free workplace and may
Often, employers provide an employment appli- require pre-employment drug tests and criminal back-
cation, either electronically or on paper. When com- ground checks.
pleting an application by hand, write neatly. When Within 24 hours of the interview, send a thank-
completing an electronic application, proofread your you letter to the interviewer. Thank the interviewer for
entries carefully to eliminate misspelling and typos. spending their time with you and for the opportunity

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 Chapter 1 Careers and Certification

Michael J. Garcia

134 Lincoln Street (212) 555-1234

Wilton, CA 93232 mjgarcia22@e-mail.com

Career Objective
To obtain an entry-level service technician or installer position in the HVACR industry.

Professional Experience
Heavy Metal Ducts, Holloton, CA August 2014-present
Sheet Metal Helper
• Perform general construction labor, include material loading and jobsite cleanup.
• Install ductwork systems.
• Help perform duct testing.

Simpson Supply Co., Wilton, CA May 2013-August 2014

Parts Clerk
• Worked with customers at parts counter, checked inventory system, and obtained parts.
• Conducted daily and monthly inventory checks.
• General stocking and cleaning throughout store.
• Delivered and picked up parts and equipment.

Education
Associate Degree in HVAC Technology May2014
Oceanside Community College
• GPA: 3.22/4.0
• Coursework included commercial and residential air-conditioning service and installation,
commercial refrigeration, heat load calculations, duct sizing, blower door testing, and natural
gas and electric heating.
• Obtained three HVAC Excellence employee-ready certifications: Electrical, Air
Conditioning, and Light Commercial Refrigeration.
• Obtained EPA Section 608 certification.
• Participated in SkillsUSA chapter.

Community Service
Habitat for Humanity, volunteer, summers of 2012, 2013, 2014
Wilton Food Bank, volunteer, 2011-present

References
Available upon request.

Goodheart-W11/cox Publisher
Figure 1-12. A resume summarizes your education, work experience, and related information.

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14 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Michael J. Garcia
134 Lincoln Street
Wilton, CA 93232
(212) 555-1234
mjgarcia22@e-mail.com

April 23, 2017

Mr. James Williamson

Williamson Heating and Cooling
4392 East 134th Street
Wilton, CA 93232

Dear Mr. Williamson:

The HVAC Service Technician position you advertised on the Career Finder website is exactly the
type of job I am seeking. After reviewing the job description and requirements, it was clear that my
experience, skills, and interests are a perfect match for this opportunity.

While obtaining my associate's degree in HVAC Technology from Oceanside Community College,
I gained both the theoretical knowledge and the hands-on skills required for this position. While
working as a parts clerk at Simpson Supply Company, I developed strong customer service skills and
gained a better understanding of HVAC parts and systems. In my current position as a sheet metal
helper, I've gained valuable experience working at a variety of job sites and with diverse teams. I am
anxious to apply the skills I have learned and to continue gaining new skills.

Please find my resume enclosed with this letter. I would greatly appreciate an opportunity to interview
for this position. Please contact me at your convenience by phone or e-mail to schedule an interview. I
look forward to hearing from you.

Sincerely,

Midtaet]. (;arda
Michael J. Garcia

enclosure

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 1-13. A cover letter allows you to highlight your strengths and show your enthusiasm when applying for a position.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 1 Careers and Certification

to have met with them. Proofread the letter before less direct supervision and appear more highly moti-
submitting it. The letter should be pleasant, positive, vated than those who do not take initiative.
and brief. End the thank-you letter with a statement of All companies value leadership. Leadership char-
desire to become a member of the company's team. acteristics are critical for managers and supervisors.
On receipt of a job offer, respond promptly. When Any employee who exhibits the following leadership
evaluating an employment offer, consider the work characteristics are more likely to advance in their
schedule, benefits, salary, job responsibilities, and careers:
potential for advancement. If it is necessary to decline • The ability to motivate others.
a job offer, do so with tact and respect. In the future,
• The ability to solve problems.
you may decide that you would like to work for the
company or interviewer. • The ability to work as part of a team to accomplish
a goal, Figure 1-14.
Pro Tip • The ability to help others capitalize on their
Dress for Success strengths.
When selecting an outfit for an interview, you want • The ability to serve as a role model for others.
to follow the "rule of thumb" of dressing one level above Even as a new hire, you can begin developing
appropriate on-the-job attire. For example, HVAC ser- these skills in your work habits. You can serve as a role
vice technicians often wear uniforms. If you are inter- model by working hard, being punctual, and doing
viewing for this position, you'd want to dress "one level good work. You can motivate others by having a posi-
above" a uniform. In this case, a casual button-down tive attitude. If you complain about your work or your
shirt and slacks would be appropriate attire for an coworkers, you demotivate people. When you encoun-
interview. ter a problem, develop the habit of thinking of poten-
tial solutions. Whenever you need to ask for help from
a more experienced coworker, make sure you under-
stand the reason for the answer. This will help you
1.4 Success in the Workplace solve your own problems in the future.
As an employee, the technician becomes the "face"
of the company or organization. Follow the expecta-
tions regarding dress code and appearance within an
1.4.1 Professional Behavior
organization. For example, some employers discourage In most work settings, you will be working with
visible tattoos or piercings. In addition, daily groom- others as a part of a larger "team." Team members
ing ensures a presentable presence in the workplace. must work cooperatively and communicate clearly.
Employers value good work habits. Such behav-
iors include punctuality, dependability, and responsi-
bility. Punctuality is important. This means being on
time for work and for appointments and also return-
ing from lunch or breaks at the proper time. A clear
understanding of the employer's rules and procedures
for requesting vacation and sick time is necessary.
Employers depend on their employees to carry out
given tasks when scheduled. Unexpected absences or
tardiness can cause a company to lose business.
Additional traits that are beneficial in the work-
place include good time management and initiative.
When asked to complete tasks, stay focused and work
efficiently, making good use of your time. When you
complete a task, always check your work for preci-
sion and accuracy. While at work, do not spend your
time on tasks such as personal phone calls, texting,
or e-mailing. Such tasks can be accomplished during lisafx/iStock/Thinkstock
lunch or break times. Figure 1-14. In any occupation, the ability to work
Taking initiative is valued by employers. This cooperatively with others is imperative. Often, HVACR
involves seeing what needs to be done and doing it technicians work as a team on large projects or work with
without being told. Those who take initiative require other construction workers in new installations.

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16 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Each employee is an important "part" of the "whole," field include being detail oriented, being organized,
and each person has specific roles and responsibilities. the ability to work well under pressure, and the abil-
Employers appreciate employees who can get along ity to work both independently and as a member of
with others and who offer support and assistance to a team. Skills that are beneficial to the HVACR tech-
others. A positive attitude is appreciated. A smile and nician include mechanical aptitude, a comfort level
courteous actions will result in pleasant relationships with technical processes, the ability to think critically
and a positive work environment. and analyze and interpret data and situations, enjoy-
In any work environment, there will be conflicts ing "hands-on" work, and the ability to communicate
or disagreements. When these occur, handle the con- orally and in writing.
flict professionally, courteously, and calmly. Using As noted previously in this chapter, the HVACR
problem-solving and critical-thinking skills, analyze field is becoming increasingly driven by technology.
the problem and develop a workable solution. For this reason, HVACR technicians must be knowl-
Listening is an important component of commu- edgeable and comfortable using a computer, digital
nication. If you are unclear about a direction or state- instruments and gauges, and wireless and electronic
ment, request clarification. When listening, remain devices. See Figure 1-15.
focused on the person speaking and maintain eye con-
tact. Let the person finish their statements before you
begin speaking. 1.5 HVACR-Related Associations
Communication in the workplace is not only ver- and Organizations
bal, but also includes messages transmitted by text,
e-mail, and voice mail. Always be professional, courte- The HVACR industry includes a large number of
ous, and prompt when responding to these types of associations and related organizations. A comprehen-
messages. Proofread written messages for accuracy sive list is included in the Appendix. Involvement in ser-
prior to sending. In addition, when returning calls or vice organizations and industry associations provides
leaving a voice mail, be professional, prompt, pleasant, opportunities for networking and learning. In addi-
and concise. tion, many of these organizations are excellent sources
of information about careers, the HVACR industry, and
service procedures.
1.4.2 Lifelong Learning
The term lifelong learning refers to updating and Pro Tip
increasing one's knowledge of his or her career field Student Memberships
over the course of a lifetime. In today's fast-paced world Some professional organizations offer student
and with the increasing influence of technology, pro- memberships at a reduced rate for those who are
fessional development is a critical career component. enrolled in HVACR training. Participation in such an
Often, employers may offer in-house training opportu- organization may provide benefits including information
nities. An additional source of training and workshops about scholarships, a magazine or newsletter subscrip-
is through professional organizations. tion, an opportunity to attend conferences and meet-
In the HVACR industry, "lifelong learning" is cru- ings, or access to job postings. Student memberships
cial. You must stay informed of many topics, including are great items to list on your resume and may provide
the following: excellent networking opportunities. Associations that
may offer student memberships include Air Conditioning
• Changing government regulations related to Contractors of America (ACCA), American Society of
refrigerants. Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers
• New refrigeration and air-conditioning system (ASHRAE), and the Refrigeration Service Engineers
components. Society (RSES).

• New technology in control systems.

• New tools and equipment that may improve the
quality and productivity of your work.
1.6 Certification
Certification is an aid in identifying the scope and
level of a person's retained knowledge and ability to
1.4.3 Skills and Personal Traits apply that knowledge. Exams identify if a person has
Certain skills and personality traits lend them- mastered the subject area or needs additional train-
selves to success within the HVACR career path. The ing. To aid HVACR technicians throughout each stage
types of personal traits that are helpful within this of their career, the HVACR industry offers different

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 Chapter 1 Careers and Certification

Standardized assessments are used as an instru-

ment to measure achievement. Results can be com-
pared to other students across the country who have
taken the same exam. These exams show that you have
retained the knowledge needed to move on to the next
level of training. In addition, assessments can help
identify specific areas or topic where you need addi-
tional training.
Entry-level certifications are a series of discipline-
specific, end-of-course exams. These exams validate
that you have retained the knowledge in that discipline
necessary for employment in the HVACR industry. By
attaining multiple certifications during the course of
your HVACR education, you build a working portfolio
of your training and accomplishments.

Pro Tip
Assessments and Certifications
Be sure to complete any assessment and certifica-
Stride Tool Inc. tion opportunities offered by your school. These accom-
Figure 1-15. HVACR technicians must be comfortable plishments are meaningful to potential employers,
using computer technology. Here, a technician views gauge because the assessments and certifications provide
manifold measurements on a tablet computer. The gauge "proof" that you possess a certain level of knowledge.
manifold transmits the information wirelessly to the tablet. Be sure to list these accomplishments on your resume.

certification programs for students, apprentices, expe-

rienced technicians, and educators. 1.6.2 Professional and Specialty
With technology and the ever expanding growth Certifications
of knowledge, it is imperative that technicians be able Professional certifications are offered to experi-
to confirm their professional knowledge and compe- enced HVACR technicians. These certifications consist
tency. Certification has become a hallmark of quality of written and hands-on exams that prove demonstra-
and a demonstration of a commitment to developing tion of knowledge. Typically, 2-5 years of work experi-
one's skills. Certifications are credentials that show an ence is required prior to attempting such exams.
individual has attained a level of competence regard- In addition to professional certifications, the
ing a specific topic or set of competencies. Certifications HVACR technician may wish to or may be required to
can assist a technician in obtaining positions and obtain specialty certifications. Specialty certifications
career advancement. There are a variety of certifica- are certifications that often focus on a specific topic that
tions available including entry level, professional, and is either outside the scope of work for a typical HVACR
specialty. technician or more specific than topics included in
standard professional certification. For example, spe-
1.6.1 Student Assessments and cialty certifications cover topics such as energy audit-
ing, heat load calculations, and sustainable practices.
Entry-Level Certifications
Within every career path there are various levels.
The initial level at which you enter a career path is the 1.6.3 EPA Certification
entry level. Within the HVACR field, the entry level is The EPA requires all technicians who service
often participation in a co-op program or an appren- air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment that use
ticeship program. certain types of refrigerants to be certified. This require-
Many HVACR programs include end-of-course or ment includes all persons who install, maintain, ser-
end-of-program student assessments and entry-level vice, or repair equipment and may reasonably have the
certifications. These standardized assessments and opportunity to release these refrigerants into the atmo-
certifications are created and maintained by national sphere. In addition, anyone who disposes of refrigerant
HVACR and testing organizations. or air-conditioning equipment must be certified.

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18 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

EPA certification is achieved by successfully complet- available at both levels, including topics such as the
ing an EPA-approved test. This is required by Section 608 following:
of the Clean Air Act. Refer to the Appendix for detailed • Principles of Electrical and Refrigeration Theory
information about the EPA Section 608 certification. (prerequisite for all exams).
• Residential Air Conditioning.
1.6.4 Certifying Organizations • Light Commercial Air Conditioning.
Several organizations offer various types of • Light Commercial Refrigeration.
HVACR certifications. The following sections briefly • Heat Pumps.
describe some of the certifications offered by some cer- • Gas Heat.
tifying organizations. For additional information, refer
to the websites of these organizations. See Figure 1-16. • Electric Heat.
• Residential and Light Commercial Hydronic Heat.
HVAC Excellence A candidate must have two years of experience before
HVAC Excellence offers both employment-ready taking the professional certification exams.
certifications (for students) and professional certifica- HVAC Excellence also offers several Masters
tions (for working technicians). Many certifications are Specialist certifications. To attain a Master Specialist
certification, a candidate must have at least three years
of experience, must attain the related professional cer-
tification, and must successfully complete a practical,
or hands-on, exam.

NATE (North American Technical Excellence)

NATE (North American Technical Excellence) is
an independent professional certification organization.
NATE offers multiple certifications divided into installa-
tion and service (1-2 years of experience recommended)
and also senior level categories (5 years of experience
recommended). Certification is valid for two years, after
which time the technician must recertify.
Installation, service, and senior certifications are
available in several areas, including the following:
• Air conditioning.
• Air distribution.
• Heat pumps.
• Gas heating.
• Oil heating.
• Light commercial refrigeration (service only).
• Commercial refrigeration (service only).
• HVAC efficiency analyst (senior only).
NATE also provides Industry Competency Exams
(ICE), which are assessments for HVAC students.
These exams measure basic competencies for entry-
level HVACR technicians.

RSES (Refrigeration Service Engineers Society)

RSES offers three classifications of member-
ship: Certificate Membership (CM), Active Specialized
Member (SM), and Certificate Member Specialist (CMS).
HVAC Excellence; North American Technician Excellence
Certificate Membership (CM) is earned on suc-
Figure 1-16. These technicians wear certification patches
on their uniforms. Customers have greater confidence in a
cessful completion of an exam that tests a wide range
certified technician. of knowledge required in the installation and servic-
ing of refrigeration and air conditioning equipment.

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 Chapter 1 Careers and Certification

An understanding of the fundamentals of mechani- 1.7 Licensing

cal refrigeration theory, and a working knowledge of
installation, service, and troubleshooting, is required. Some states require state licensing for HVACR con-
Active Specialized Member (SM) and Certificate tractors or HVACR technicians. The types of licenses
Member Specialist (CMS) are RSES membership lev- and requirements vary greatly from state-to-state, so
els that can be earned by successfully completing be sure to research the licensing requirements (if any)
one or more written exams. Currently, there are eight in your state or municipality. In some cases, a contrac-
exams offered, each focusing upon a specialized area tor or technician must be licensed in order to work on
of expertise: relatively large projects.
The processes for obtaining a license vary, but
• Commercial Air Conditioning.
may require any or all of the following:
• Commercial Refrigeration.
• Payment of an application fee.
• Controls. • Experience working in the HVACR field (typically
• Domestic Service. 2-5 years).
• Dynamic Compression. • Adequate performance on a state licensing exam.
• Heating. Once the application process is approved, an addi-
• HeatPump. tional license fee is normally required to obtain the
license. Licenses are generally valid for one year. In
• HVACR Electrical. most cases, license renewal requires only payment of
the license fee.
UA Star
The United Association (UA) is a union of plumb- Pro Tip
ers, fitters, welders, and HVACR service technicians.
Technicians who have completed a UA apprenticeship Licensing Requirements
program can attain UA STAR certification. Currently, three State licensing requirements benefit qualified
UA STAR exams are available for HVAC: STAR HVACR HVAC contractors and the general public. Licensing
requirements prevent unqualified and untrained indi-
Mastery, STAR Commercial Refrigeration Mastery, and
viduals from performing HVACR service.
STAR Residential Light Commercial Mastery.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Some states require licensing for HVACR
contractors and technicians. This usually
• A job is short-term employment, while a career requires work experience, passing an exam,
is an opportunity to increase skill and attain and paying an application fee.
professional advancement.
• Career clusters are broad categories of
employment fields. These can be further Review Questions
divided into several pathways. HVACR Answer the following questions using the information in
is generally part of the Architecture and this chapter.
Construction career cluster.
• The work of an HVACR technician is divided 1. HVACR generally falls into the _ _ career
into installation work and service work. cluster.
A. Architecture and Construction
• The HVACR field includes many occupations,
B. Agriculture
including engineer, designer, drafter, estimator, C. Finance
energy auditor, building inspector, trainer, and
D. Hospitality and Tourism
product support technician.
2. The initial setup of HVACR equipment and
• The employment outlook for HVACR
systems is _ _ work.
technicians is good, with a 21% increase in
A. installation
positions forecast for the coming years.
B. management
• Career opportunities may be found by C. service
searching career and HVACR websites and D. None of the above.
through industry contacts and networking.
3. Fixing and performing maintenance on
• To apply for a position, submit a resume, a existing systems is _ _ work.
cover letter, and any relevant information that A. installation
may be requested on a job application form. B. management
• Before an interview, research the company C. service
and position, prepare a list of questions, and D. None of the above.
arrange to arrive a few minutes early. For an
4. The career requiring the highest level of
interview, dress and groom professionally,
education and licensing is an HVACR _ _.
listen attentively, make good eye contact, and
A. drafter
exhibit polite behavior.
B. engineer
• Good workers groom properly, manage time C. estimator
effectively, take initiative, stay focused, and D. technician
complete tasks efficiently.
5. To develop a bid, an estimator generally
• Professional behavior involves working as a adds together the cost of the following, except
team, maintaining a positive attitude, listening
attentively, developing solutions to problems, A. emotional investment
and communicating well. B. equipment and materials
• With changes in technology, system designs, C. labor and time required
and building/manufacturing regulations, D. permits and inspections
lifelong learning is necessary in an HVACR 6. An energy auditor generally performs the
career. following tests, except for _ _.
• Involvement in HVACR-related associations A. amperage draw on compressor
and organizations provides opportunities for B. blower door test
networking and continued learning. C. duct tightness test
• Attaining entry-level and professional D. thermal imaging
certifications can make you a more attractive
candidate for job opportunities and provides
you with credibility when dealing with
customers.

20 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 7. Building inspectors ensure that a building 14. All persons who intend to install, maintain,
project adheres to _ _. service, or repair HVACR equipment should
A. applicable codes first acquire _ _ certification.
B. contemporary style A. EPA
C. fashionable design B. GAMA
D. principles of good taste C. organic
8. A career search is enhanced by___, which D. specialty
is the process of connecting with other 15. HVACR state licensing generally requires the
individuals within a group or industry. following, except _ _.
A. certifying A. an application fee
B. financing B. a four-year college degree
C. licensing C. HVACR work experience
D. networking D. passing a licensing exam
9. An application process will usually involve
the following paperwork, except _ _.
A. application form
B. cover letter
C. resume
D. work order
10. After an interview for a position, send a _ _
to the interviewer(s).
A. bill
B. receipt of sale
C. thank-you letter
D. cover letter
11. Employers value good work habits. These
include the following, except _ _.
A. being dependable
B. being a gossip
C. being punctual
D. being responsible
12. Characteristics of good leadership include the
following, except _ _.
A. criticizing coworkers
B. motivating others
C. serving as a good role model
D. solving problems
13. Professional behavior includes the following,
except _ _.
A. analyzing a situation for a workable
solution
B. complaining about coworkers
C. maintaining a positive attitude
D. working as a team

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER2 Safety

Chapter Outline
2.1 Safety and the Government
2.2 Hazard Assessment
2.2.1 Electrical Hazards
2.2.2 Fire Hazards
2.2.3 Temperature Hazards
2.2.4 Pressure Hazards
2.2.5 Refrigerants as Hazards
2.2.6 Chemical Hazards
2.2.7 Breathing Hazards
2.3 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
2.3.1 Head Protection Learning Objectives
2.3.2 Hearing Protection
2.3.3 Eye Protection Information in this chapter will enable you to:
2.3.4 Respiratory Protection • Describe OSHA and its purpose.
2.3.5 Protective Clothing • Properly assess electrical, fire, temperature, pressure,
2.4 Safe Work Practices refrigerant, chemical, and breathing hazards.
2.4.1 Lifting
• Explain the components of a safety data sheet (SOS).
2.4.2 Ladder Safety
2.4.3 Scaffolding Safety • Discuss the need for personal protective equipment
2.4.4 Fall Protection Training (PPE) for head, hearing, eye, and respiratory
2.4.5 Confined Spaces protection.
2.4.6 Hand and Power Tools • Exercise safe practices when lifting, using a ladder or
2.4.7 First Aid Procedures scaffold, for fall protection, in confined spaces, and
2.4.8 Safety Certifications for hand and power tools.
Technical Terms Introduction
air-purifying respirator lockout/tagout (LOTO) Safe HVACR installation and repair work requires
ASH RAE Standard 34 Occupational Safety and trained and alert technicians. It is important to be aware
confined space Health Act (OSHA) of the work hazards, correct procedures, and protective
Globally Harmonized personal protective equipment that will keep you safe while at work. Most
System (GHS) equipment (PPE) hazards are avoidable and most accidents are prevent-
hazard safety data sheet (SOS) able. The four hazards that are most common in the trades
Hazard Communication signal word include: falls, electrical accidents, "caught-between"
Standard (HCS) stationary refrigerant accidents (for example, between heavy equipment and
hazard pictogram detector a wall), and "struck-by" accidents (hit by a falling object).
hazard statement supplied-air respirator
lockout (LO) tagout (TO)
24 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

2.1 Safety and the Government 2.2.1 Electrical Hazards

The national law that covers workplace safety is Second only to a nuclear reaction, an electrical arc
the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA). is the hottest thing on earth. An electrical arc is seven
This law covers the safety requirements of equipment times the temperature at the sun's surface. Electricity
as well as the personal safety of the technician. Become may cause shock, burns, explosions, and electrocu-
familiar with the relevant safety standards by visiting tion. Electrical hazards are the most difficult hazards
the OSHA website. Information can be found in differ- to identify. Often, there are no obvious visible signs to
ent categories, such as general industry, construction, alert a technician of a risk.
maritime, and agriculture. A well-designed and enforced lockout/tagout
Companies are required to report to OSHA every (LOTO) policy is critical for safety. Systems that
fatality or permanently disabling injury or any accident require lockout include electrical, hydraulic, pneu-
involving three or more hospitalized injuries. Carelessness matic, mechanical, and thermal. Never expect others to
can result in injury or a fatality; therefore, safety is a shared shut off a power source. A technician must personally
responsibility that must be taken seriously. shut off the power source to ensure that the circuit is
HVACR installation and repair can be done de-energized. Assume a power source is live until you
indoors and out, in residential and commercial set- directly shut it off, Figure 2-1.
tings. The correct clothing and personal protective Lockout/tagout (LOTO) is actually two separate
equipment (PPE) will ensure the comfort and safety practices that are often combined into one practice.
of the technician. In addition, working on rooftops, in Lockout (LO) is the practice of locking a mechanism or
ceiling plenums, and on suspended ductwork presents an electrical switch in the open position so that mainte-
potential fall hazards. It is important to evaluate work nance or service work can be performed safely. Tagout
conditions for fall hazards and use safe practices for (TO) is the practice of placing a tag on a mechanism
climbing, ladders, and scaffolding.
A technician should be alert to emergency proce-
dures and the location of main electrical disconnects
and gas shutoff valves. In addition, chemicals and refrig-
erants can be dangerous to the skin, eyes, or respiratory
system. It is the technician's responsibility to be aware
of safety data sheets (SDS) for a particular job. During
certain seasons, a technician may work an excessive
number of hours and become tired and careless. It is
important to remain alert and aware on the job.

2.2 Hazard Assessment

A hazard is a potential for harm. According to
OSHA, "In practical terms, a hazard often is associated
with a condition or activity that, if left uncontrolled,
can result in an injury or illness." Identifying, elimi-
nating, or minimizing hazards will ensure the safety This lock/tag may
of the technician and others. OSHA provides detailed only be removed by:
plans for conducting a formalized hazard assessment.
Name : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
For additional information, visit the OSHA website.
The OSHA audit program is mandated by law o.,t. : _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __

and requires a yearly audit. However, safe practices ExpecwdComplellon : _ _ _ _ _ __

and evaluation of risks should be an on-going process.
A simple hazard assessment should be performed by
the technician on arrival at the work site. This should
include an awareness of emergency exits, the loca-
tion of first aid equipment, the presence of hazard-
ous chemicals or materials, and ventilation concerns. U/ine
Common workplace hazards are described in the fol- Figure 2-1. Include your name and relevant information on a
lowing sections. tagout.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 2 Safety

or an electrical switch to inform others that service

Safety Note
work is in process and that this mechanism or switch's
position should not be changed. Often, lockout and Part of the Circuit
tagout are combined into lockoutltagout (LOTO), in Do not become a part of the electrical circuit by
which an electrical switch is locked open and tagged, becoming a conductor between two live wires or a live
Figure 2-2. wire and a ground. The human body can conduct elec-
According to OSHA standards, a technician must tricity. Move with care and take precautions to remain
"use lockout devices for equipment that can be locked alive and not become part of an electrical circuit.
out. Tagout devices may be used in lieu of lockout
devices only if the tagout program provides employee
protection equivalent to that provided through a lock- Safety Note
out program." Electrical panels have a location for Moisture and Electricity
a padlock to be used for lockout. In order to prohibit Never stand in wet or damp areas when checking
others from accidentally powering on a unit, the panel live connections. Water conducts electricity, and it could
should remain locked, and the technician should hold make you part of the circuit. When taking electrical mea-
the key. See Figure 2-3. surements, wear shoes with insulated soles and heels.
On some occasions, it may be necessary to work Note signs requiring PPE, such as eyewear or footwear.
with the power on. Confirm the voltage of the circuit
being checked and verify that the range selector on the Electrical shock occurs when the body becomes
testing instrument is set correctly. Make certain that a part of the circuit. As electricity flows through the
only the meter probes touch live equipment. Keep all body, it affects the heart and may stop it from pump-
skin and parts of the body clear of electrical terminals ing, resulting in death. Every technician should com-
and connections. plete a first aid course including CPR.

Ideal Industries, Inc.

Figure 2-2. A lockout/tagout kit for different electrical switch and valve builds.

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26 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Safety Note
Jewelry and Electricity
Do not wear jewelry when working on live electric
circuits. Since jewelry is often metal, it will conduct elec-
tricity. It could cause accidental shock or burns.

2.2.2 Fire Hazards

HVACR work may involve dealing with solvents
and fuels. Such materials are flammable and combus-
tible. Therefore, a technician must use caution when
working near items capable of producing ignition,
such as burners and torches. Look for symbols indicat-
ing flammability, Figure 2-4.
Fire is a chemical reaction. A portable fire extin-
guisher can be used to extinguish a small fire. A tech-
nician should be familiar with the different types of
fire extinguishers and how to use them. The average
fire extinguisher contains only ten seconds of extin-
guishing power. Therefore, time is of the essence.
There are different classes of fires, based on the
type of material being consumed, Figure 2-5. Fire
extinguishers are marked with symbols identifying
the types of fires they will extinguish. Always make
sure the fire extinguisher is marked for the appropriate
type of fire before using it.
U/ine
Figure 2-3. Various forms of electrical lockout equipment is Safety Note
available.
Extinguishing Electrical Fires
Never use water on an electrical (Class C) fire due
When using electrical tools, ensure they are to the high risk of electrical shock. Only use a Class C-
grounded and are connected only to grounded circuits. rated fire extinguisher.
Older handheld tools were often designed with metal
frames. If a tool is metal and has a power cord, confirm
there is a grounding wire in the power cord. In the
event that the motor develops a short to the metal cas-
ing, the ground wire will carry the current rather than
your body. This will result in a fuse or circuit breaker
opening the circuit. If an extension cord is used, it
should be connected to a ground-fault circuit inter-
rupter (GFCI) receptacle. A GFCI is a fast-acting circuit
breaker that will shut off electric power within as little
as 1/40 of a second in the event of a ground fault. An
electrical current leak will trigger the GFCI to open,
interrupting current flow. Modern hand tools tend to
be plastic-cased and often battery-operated. The motor
and tool are insulated within the tool, ensuring worker
safety. Such tools are both safe and convenient to use.
Exercise extreme care when using a screwdriver
or other tools in an electrical panel when the power
is on. A short circuit to ground could occur through a OSHA
metal tool, which may cause an electrical arc, resulting Figure 2-4. This sign indicates that a substance is flammable,
in electrical burns. is self-heating, emits flammable gas, or self-reacts.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 2 Safety

Fires Type Use Operation

Class A Fires Soda-acid Okay for use on

Ordinary Combustibles Bicarbonate of

~
(Materials such as wood,
paper, textiles.)
Requires .. .
soda solution
and sulfuric
acid
A Direct stream at base of
flame.
cooling-quenching Not for use on

Pressurized Water
11 8
Okay for use on
D

Water under

A
~
pressure
Direct stream at base of
flame.
Class B Fires Not for use on
Flammable Liquids
(Liquids such as grease,
gasoline, oils, and
11 8 D
paints.)
Requires .. .blanketing or
smothering.

Old New 2
(C0 )gas
under pressure
I
Carbon Dioxide (CO 2)
Carbon dioxide

~
Okay for use on

11 8
Direct discharge as
close to fire as possible,
first at edge of flames

II OJ
and gradually forward
Not for use on and upward.

A
Class C Fires Foam Okay for use on
Electrical Equipment Solution of

~
(Motors, switches, etc.)
Requires ...
a nonconducting agent.
aluminum
sulfate and
bicarbonate
A ll Direct stream into the
burning material or
liquid. Allow foam to
of soda Not for use on fall lightly on fire.

Old New
8 D

em
Class D Fires
Combustible Metals
Dry
Chemical

j
Multi-purpose

type

Okay for

Aae a e
Not okay for
Ordinary BC

type

Okay for

Not okay for

Direct stream at base of
flames. Use rapid left-
to-right motion toward
flames.

(Flammable metals such

as magnesium and
lithium.)
A
Requires .. .blanketing or Dry Chemical Okay for use on
smothering. Granular type material
Old New Smother flames by
scooping granular
material from bucket
Not for use on onto burning metal.

A 11 8
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 2-5. Always check that a fire extinguisher is compatible for use with an intended fire.

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28 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Using a Fire Extinguisher 2.2.3 Temperature Hazards

The following describes correct usage of a During installation and servicing of HVACR equip-
fire extinguisher. Remember the initials P.A.S.S. ment, a technician could be exposed to temperature
This stands for Pull, Aim, Squeeze, and Sweep. extremes. When working outdoors, wear sunscreen
1. Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher. and appropriate clothing for protection from UV rays.
This will release a locking mechanism allow- Working in hot temperatures can cause one's body to
ing the extinguisher to discharge. overheat. Signs of heat-related illness include an elevated
2. Aim at the base of the fire. Do not aim at the body temperature, headache, nausea, weakness, dizzi-
flames. To extinguish a fire, you must extin- ness, fainting, and confusion. Be alert and look for signs of
guish the fuel. overheating. Drink plenty of water to stay well hydrated.
When working outdoors during the winter, wear
3. Squeeze the lever slowly, releasing the extin-
weather-appropriate clothing and waterproof boots.
guishing agent. Releasing the handle will
Layers of clothing work well for retaining body heat.
cause the discharge to stop.
Be alert to hypothermia and frostbite. Hypothermia
4. Sweep from side to side. Use a sweeping symptoms include shivering, increased pulse and
motion, moving the fire extinguisher back breathing rates, loss of coordination, confusion or dis-
and forth until the fire is out. orientation, and a loss of consciousness. If you suspect
someone of having hypothermia, call emergency ser-
vices and move that person to a warm area.
Safety Note Frostbite occurs when temperatures are below
Torch Flame near Combustibles freezing. Symptoms include reddened skin that devel-
When using a torch near combustible materials ops gray/white patches. There may be numbness in the
or wood or finished surfaces, use a heat shield. This affected area.
is also true when using a torch near wires or within a
cabinet, Figure 2-6. Safety Note
Wind Chill
Cold temperatures are a danger, but a technician
Safety Note
must also be alert of wind chill. As temperatures drop
Ventilation during Welding below normal and wind speed increases, heat leaves
Do not braze or weld in an enclosed, nonventilated the body more rapidly.
area. A welding or brazing torch consuming oxygen
could cause the oxygen level to fall too low for safety.
Attics, rooftops, and mechanical rooms pose spe-
cific risks to the technician. They may be extremely hot
or cold, depending on the location and weather. Wear
Abrasive Heat shield
paper cloth appropriate clothing for the location. Extreme tempera-
tures may be encountered indoors within the work envi-
ronment as well. When working in a low-temperature
freezer, dress appropriately with cold weather clothing.
HVAC ducting may contain hot or cold air, and
hydronic piping may contain hot or cold water. Label
pipes with material and flow direction. Note any poten-
tial hazards. Always wrap hot pipes to avoid burns. Be
sure the jobsite first aid kit includes material to treat
burns, Figure 2-7.
Refrigerants have the potential to cause both frost-
bite and burns. As refrigerant pressure decreases, refrig-
erant temperature also decreases, which increases risk
of freezing. If refrigerant pressure increases, tempera-
Wire brushes Flint strikers ture increases, which increases the potential for burns.
BernzOmatic Severity of burn damage is dependent on the tempera-
Figure 2-6. A heat shield cloth may be available as part of an ture and pressure of the refrigerant, the amount of
accessory kit for a torch. refrigerant, and the length of time of exposure.

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 Chapter 2 Safety

Improper usage can result in damage to property, seri-

ous injury, or death. Refillable refrigerant cylinders
must be inspected every five years. The date for inspec-
tion should be stamped on the cylinder. Information
on a refrigerant cylinder label should include the
following:
• Type of refrigerant.
• Net weight of the refrigerant.
• Color coding.
• TDG (transportation of dangerous goods)
requirements.
• Bar coding.
• SDS (safety data sheet) reference.
Obtain an SDS for each specific refrigerant used and
U/ine follow manufacturer instructions. Refrigerant cylinders
Figure 2-7. Be prepared to quickly treat burns with a burn should have a cylinder pressure relief valve located at the
kit. These typically include burn dressings, gels, instant cold top in the vapor space. If pressure builds up too high, the
compresses, nonstick pads, and bandages. relief valve will begin releasing vapor. As vapor escapes,
pressure is reduced. Some of the liquid in the cylinder
vaporizes to occupy space left by the escaping vapor.
2.2.4 Pressure Hazards After pressure reduces adequately, the relief valve closes
There are a variety of pressure vessels that a techni- to retain the remaining refrigerant charge.
cian encounters, such as accumulators, liquid receivers, A refrigerant cylinder may have a fusible plug. This
refrigerant cylinders, fuel cylinders, boilers, and hot water is made of a material with a low melting temperature. If
tanks. Low-pressure and high-pressure boilers and com- a cylinder becomes overheated, its fusible plug melts to
mercial hot water tanks require periodic inspections. A release the entire refrigerant charge. This prevents the cyl-
placard on or near a vessel should indicate when it was inder from rupturing or exploding, but it also results in
inspected and the due date for its next inspection. A the loss of the cylinder's entire refrigerant charge.
visual inspection of accumulators and receivers is recom-
mended. Note any rust, corrosion, or cracks. Safety Note
Refrigerant Cylinder Safety Cylinders and Heat
Refrigerant cylinders contain gas under pres- Never heat a refrigerant cylinder with a flame. Do
sure, Figure 2-8. Use caution and care when handling. not allow a cylinder to reach a temperature more than
125°F. Higher temperature in a confined volume means
higher pressure.

Refillable refrigerant cylinders should not be filled

more than 80%. Do not drop a refrigerant cylinder. A
cylinder dropped without a cap on could become a
deadly projectile powered by inner pressure. Move the
cylinder only while the protective cap is on. If a cylin-
der is too heavy to carry, firmly strap it to a cart in a
vertical position with its protective cap secured on. If
a cylinder were to fall over, its cap would protect the
valve, preventing it from breaking off. Never roll a cyl-
inder on its base or lay it down to roll it.
Do not use cylinders that are dented, rusted,
or damaged. Damaged cylinders may fail at lower
OSHA pressures than specified. Examine a cylinder's valve
Figure 2-8. This sign indicates that a cylinder contains gas assembly for damage. Store and transport cylinders in
under pressure. a vertical position with the valve at the top.

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30 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Careless handling of a refrigerant cylinder may Oxygen also must be regulated due to its high
result in a release of refrigerant and result in frostbite, pressure. Oxygen may not be combined with oil. Oil
skin damage, or blindness. Wear safety glasses with residue located in an oxygen regulator connection can
side shields or a full-face shield, safety shoes, long cause an explosion, Figure 2-10.
pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and gloves. Avoid spilling
refrigerant on skin or getting it in the eyes. If exposed, Safety Note
wash skin with soap and water. If in contact with the Gas for Proper Procedures
eyes, flush with water and seek medical assistance. Do
Oxygen or any combustible gas should never be
not breathe refrigerant fumes. Do not smoke in an area used to test for pressure or leaks. These gases may
containing refrigerant vapor. react explosively with oil.

Safety Note Oxygen and acetylene are often used together.

Refrigerant in Confined Spaces Acetylene is extremely explosive. A pressure-reducing
Exercise caution when using or handling fluori- regulator must be used with acetylene. In addition,
nated refrigerants. Heavy concentrations in a confined when moving a cylinder, an approved hand truck with
space can displace oxygen and lead to suffocation. strap must be used and the protective cap must be in
place. During storage, cylinders must be upright in a
vertical position, chained, and separated.
Other Pressurized Cylinders
Nitrogen is used in some methods of leak detec-
tion and is also used in refrigeration system servicing to 2.2.5 Refrigerants as Hazards
purge air from tubing during welding and brazing. A ASHRAE Standard 34 names refrigerants and
low pressure of 1-2 psi is used for this purging process. assigns safety classifications according to their flam-
Commercial nitrogen cylinders contain approximately mability and toxicity. There are two classes of toxicity
2500 psi of pressure at room temperature. Therefore, and three classes of flammability, Figure 2-11.
the nitrogen must be pressure-regulated prior to use. Many refrigerant vapors and gases are heavier
Nitrogen under full cylinder pressure could burst a weak than air. In a confined space these vapors and gases
point in a refrigeration system and could be quite danger- can displace oxygen, resulting in a buildup of fumes.
ous. Always use an approved pressure regulator attached A technician may not note that the concentration of
to the outlet of a compressed gas cylinder, Figure 2-9. refrigerant is becoming excessive until it is too late.
Symptoms include dizziness and numbness. If this
occurs, quickly move to an area with fresh air. Always
ensure proper ventilation in a workspace. Be aware of
where entrances, stairs, and elevators are located in
case of the need for a quick evacuation.

Safety Note
Ventilation Requirements
Cylinder Ensure proper ventilation prior to beginning a job.
pressure Use fans to add fresh air into a confined space. Cross
gauge
ventilation will minimize refrigerant concentrations.

Working Toxic and combustible refrigerant gases in mechani-

pressure
gauge cal equipment rooms are potentially dangerous and can
create unsafe conditions. Equipment in these rooms may
leak harmful combustible or toxic gases including envi-
ronmentally harmful refrigerant gases. In such areas,
stationary leak detectors incorporating alarms may be
required, Figure 2-12.
Harris Group A stationary refrigerant detector is a refrigerant
Figure 2-9. A pressure regulator may have two pressure detector in a fixed location that will note an increase
gauges. One monitors cylinder pressure, and the other shows of refrigerant vapors or gases in advance of dangerous
the working pressure in the hose. levels. Some systems include a ventilation fan, flashing

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 2 Safety

OSHA
Figure 2-10. This sign indicates that the substance contained
within is an oxidizer. These are not combustible, but they do Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
promote combustion. Oxygen is a common oxidizer and is used Figure 2-12. A stationary refrigerant detection system can
to increase the heat and intensity of an acetylene flame. have multiple remote monitors to cover a large area.

ASHRAE Standard 34 Classification however, those used for water treatment can be harsh
Standards and require specific precautions. These products can
involve specific risks and especially the risk of chemi-
Toxicity
cal burn following eye or skin exposure. Be alert to the
Class A No evidence of toxicity below 400 ppm location of eye and body wash facilities, Figure 2-13.
(lower toxicity)
Class B Evidence of toxicity below 400 ppm Safety Note
(higher toxicity)
SDS and First Aid
Flammability It is the technician's responsibility to be knowl-
Class 1 Refrigerant that will not propagate a edgeable of the SDS (safety data sheet) for chemicals
flame under normal conditions in open being used. Be alert to first aid treatment prior to use.
air In the case of exposure, follow manufacturer directions
and seek medical assistance.
Class 2 Refrigerant may propagate a flame under
certain conditions in open air
Class 3 Highly flammable
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 2-11. Refrigerant toxicity and flammability classifications.
EYE
lights as visual alarms, and an audible alarm. If the WASH
programmed parts per million (PPM) of refrigerant is
reached, the alarm will sound, and the lights will flash.
When an alarm sounds, take all precautions necessary,
including use of special breathing apparatus. Turn on
ventilation if it is not already operating.

2.2.6 Chemical Hazards

During the course of work, a technician will use . KEEP AREA CLEAR .
various chemicals. These can be used to clean equip- U/ine
ment, for water treatment, or for a variety of other Figure 2-13. Whenever arriving at a facility, be sure to locate
purposes. Most chemicals used will be fairly mild; at least one eyewash station.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

32 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Various other chemical hazards exist. Never use car- the hazard. Hazard statements are standard phrases
bon tetrachloride as a cleaning agent, as it is extremely assigned to a hazard class and category that describe
toxic when inhaled and on the skin. Oil and refrigerant the nature of the hazard.
are contaminated during a motor burnout and contain
acid. These products are dangerous to the skin, eyes, and Hazard Communication Standard and Safety
lungs. When handling such a situation, use appropriate Data Sheets
PPE and be mindful of warning signs, Figure 2-14. The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) is
an OSHA standard that requires chemical manufactur-
Globally Harmonized System (GHS) ers, distributors, or importers to provide safety data
The Globally Harmonized System (CHS) is a stan- sheets (SDS) to communicate the hazards of hazard-
dardized system for labeling chemicals. The GHS is the ous chemical products. SDSs were formerly known as
basis of OSHA's hazard communication requirements. material safety data sheets (MSDS). An SDS is created
The standardized label elements included in the in a uniform format that includes section numbers,
GHS are symbols, signal words, and hazard statements. headings, and the following associated information:
Symbols, called hazard pictograms, convey health, physi- • Section 1, Identification. This includes product
cal, and environmental hazard information, assigned to a identifier; manufacturer or distributor name,
GHS hazard class and category, Figure 2-15. address, phone number; emergency phone
Signal words, such as "Danger" or "Warning," number; recommended use; restrictions on use.
are used to indicate the relative level of severity of • Section 2, Hazard(s) Identification. This includes
all hazards regarding the chemical; required label
elements.
• Section 3, Composition/Information on
Ingredients. This includes information on
chemical ingredients; trade secret claims.
• Section 4, First Aid Measures. This includes
important symptoms, effects, and required
treatment.
• Section 5, Fire-Fighting Measures. This lists
suitable extinguishing techniques, equipment;
chemical hazards from fire.
• Section 6, Accidental Release Measures. This lists
OSHA emergency procedures, protective equipment, and
Figure 2-14. This sign indicates that a substance can cause proper methods of containment and cleanup.
chemical burns or corrosion to skin, can damage eyes, and
• Section 7, Handling and Storage. This lists
can corrode metal.
precautions for safe handling and storage,
including incompatibilities.
• Section 8, Exposure Controls and Personal
Protection. This lists OSHA's permissible exposure
limits (PELs), threshold limit values (TLVs),
appropriate engineering controls, and personal
protective equipment (PPE).
• Section 9, Physical and Chemical Properties. This
lists chemical's characteristics.
• Section 10, Stability and Reactivity. This lists chemical
stability and possibility of hazardous reactions.
• Section 11, Toxicological Information. This includes
OSHA routes of exposure, related symptoms, acute and
Figure 2-15. One example of a hazard pictogram is this sign, chronic effects, and numerical measures of toxicity.
which indicates that a substance is harmful to humans. It may • Section 12, Ecological Information.
be carcinogenic, mutagenic, toxic to reproductive organs, toxic
• Section 13, Disposal Considerations.
to breathe, or can cause targeted organ toxicity or respiratory
hypersensitivity. • Section 14, Transport Information.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 2 Safety

• Section 15, Regulatory Information. hard hats, goggles, and respirators. Use of PPE alone
• Section 16, Other Information. This includes the will not prevent or protect from hazards. A techni-
date of preparation or last revision. cian must use a variety of strategies to protect and
maintain safety.
Safety Note
SDS Accessibility 2.3.1 Head Protection
Employers must ensure that SDSs are readily A head injury can cause permanent impairment
accessible to employees. If you cannot locate an SDS, or disability for life. A blow to the head can even cause
inform company management immediately.
death. Hard hats protect a technician from impact,
penetration, electrical shock, and bum hazards to the
head. They must always be worn at a construction site.
2.2.7 Breathing Hazards Hard hats must be worn with the bill facing forward,
Work sites often contain a variety of harmful sub- Figure 2-16.
stances such as dust, asbestos, adhesives, and solvents. Headgear comes in a variety of sizes with most
When using resins or adhesives, be certain to work in a items being adjustable for proper fit. Hard hats have a
continuously ventilated area. Dust can be harmful to a protective hard outer shell and a shock absorbing lin-
technician's respiratory system. In some instances, a res- ing. Straps ensure the hat stays in place.
pirator that has the ability to filter out dust must be worn.
In the past, asbestos was used as insulation in
homes, around piping, and in furnace rooms. We are
2.3.2 Hearing Protection
now aware that asbestos is extremely dangerous to Determining the need for hearing protection
humans. Asbestos fibers, when inhaled, are extremely requires consideration of the following:
carcinogenic (cancer causing). When cutting or remov- • The loudness of the noise in decibels (dB).
ing asbestos, a ventilation system with a high-efficiency • The length of time of exposure to the noise.
particulate air (HEPA) filter must be used.
Other breathing hazards can arise from the vari- • If the employee moves between different areas.
ous chemicals and substances used in HVACR work. • If the noise is produced from a single source or
Refrigerant vapors that have been exposed to heat or multiple sources.
flame are toxic. A technician will note a strong odor. OSHA's guidelines for permissible noise exposure
Vacate and ventilate such an area. are shown in Figure 2-17. OSHA requires that hear-
ing protection must be worn at noise levels of 90 dB or
Safety Note greater for 8 hours per day. A location where one must
Ventilation When Using a Torch raise their voice to be heard is likely an environment
where hearing protection is warranted. Hearing
When brazing in enclosed spaces, ventilation is
protectors must be worn consistently throughout a noisy
critical. A technician's head should remain below rising
fumes. Use a fan to circulate air and provide fresh air for
work environment. If removed for even a short period,
breathing and for brazing. the protection is considerably reduced.

2.3 Personal Protective Equipment

(PPE)
In any workplace, various hazards will be encoun-
tered. Potential hazards can be either health hazards or
physical hazards. Examples of health hazards include
overexposure to harmful chemicals, dust, or radiation.
Examples of physical hazards are high heat, electrical
connections, or sharp edges. Controlling a hazard and
eliminating it is most preferable; however, some hazards
cannot be removed entirely or controlled realistically.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is worn
by a technician to minimize exposure to health and U/ine
physical hazards. Examples of PPE include gloves, Figure 2-16. Always wear a hard hat on a construction work site.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

34 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Maximum Permissible Noise Exposure

Duration of Exposure Sound Level (dBA)
(Hours per Day)
8 90
6 92
4 95 A
3 97
2 100
1 1/2 102
1 105
1/2 110
1/4 or less 115
Adapted from OSHA
Figure 2-17. Table of permissible noise exposure levels.

There are three types of hearing protection:

• Single-use earplugs are made of foam, silicone
rubber, or a similar material. They are self forming
when inserted.
• Preformed earplugs fitted by a professional. These B
U/ine
can be either disposable or reusable. If reusable, Figure 2-18. Hearing protection equipment. A-A pair of
clean after each use. earplugs. B-Earmuffs connected to a hard hat.
• Earmuffs must seal perfectly and completely
around each ear. Glasses, facial hair, or
movements, such as chewing, may reduce seal
and effectiveness, Figure 2-18.

2.3.3 Eye Protection

The majority of injuries on the job are the result
of objects falling or flying, such as sparks flying into
the eye. In HVACR activities, a technician is exposed
not only to these concerns but also exposure to chemi- U/ine
cals, acid, and light radiation. At the least, a technician Figure 2-19. Wraparound safety glasses.
should always wear protective safety glasses or gog-
gles with side shields, Figure 2-19.
Full goggles should be worn when performing work is not possible, respirators must be used. There are two
in a dusty area or when using a powder-actuated tool types of respirators: air-purifying or supplied-air. Air-
(such as a nail gun). If exposed to a potential for more purifying respirators include a basic mask, half-face
severe impact or when working with chemicals or caustic mask, and full-face mask with cartridge, Figure 2-21.
cleaners, a full-face shield should be worn, Figure 2-20. Any mask must seal securely around the face to
When brazing, a full-face shield is recommended, but avoid allowing any access for dust or particles. Half-
a shaded lens is also necessary according to the intensity face and full-face masks provide the most secure seal-
of the flame being used. This is necessary to protect eyes ing around the face. Cartridges can be changed to
from cornea damage, due to the brightness of the flame. protect against certain chemicals and substances.
Air-purifying respirators are passive respirators
that remove dust and certain chemicals from the air.
2.3.4 Respiratory Protection When there is dust in the air from cutting, sanding,
Often, a respiratory hazard can be removed or alle- and working with insulation, it may be necessary to
viated with increased ventilation. However, when that wet the area down to encourage the dust to settle.

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 Chapter 2 Safety

When there is a limited amount of oxygen in the

air (less than 19.5%), when contaminants cannot be fil-
tered, or when filtering would overload an air-purify-
ing respirator, a supplied-air respirator must be used.
Supplied-air respirators provide supplemental oxygen.
Care of respirators is important. They should be
taken apart, cleaned with a mild cleaning solution,
and dried. Any component that shows wear should
be replaced. Note that respirator parts for different
brands are not interchangeable. Respiratory protection
devices require periodic performance flow testing.
Respirators should be stored to protect against dust,
sunlight, moisture, and extreme temperatures.

2.3.5 Protective Clothing

An HVACR technician's hands are exposed to
temperature extremes, abrasions, cuts, and chemi-
cals. Wearing the correct gloves minimizes such risks.
Protective gloves must be inspected prior to each use.
Figure 2-22 shows a variety of work gloves.
Types of gloves that are commonly used include
the following:
• Leather gloves-suitable for avoiding cuts, abrasions,
and for use during cutting, welding, soldering, or
when there is a danger of touching hot surfaces.
• Aluminized gloves-offer reflective and insulating
protection against heat. Require insert made of
synthetic material to protect against heat and cold.
• Aramid fiber gloves-protect against heat and
cold. These are cut- and abrasive-resistant.
U/ine • Synthetic gloves-Protect against heat and cold.
Figure 2-20. Safety goggles and a face shield provide the These are cut- and abrasive-resistant. May withstand
proper eye protection for different job activities. some diluted acids but not alkalis and solvents.

U/ine
Figure 2-21. A basic lightweight mask and a half-face respirator with space for two cartridge filters.

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36 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

U/ine
Figure 2-22. A variety of work gloves for different uses.

• Fabric gloves-protect against dirt, slivers, protection. Gloves that protect against electrical
abrasion. Not appropriate for use with rough, shock should be chosen based on the voltage of the
sharp, or heavy materials. electrical source.
• Coated fabric gloves-made from cotton flannel Work shoes or boots should be well fitted, pro-
with napping on one side, plastic coating on the viding support and stability. The footwear should be
other. Good for general purpose such as handling made of heavy leather and be nonconductive (to pre-
bricks or wire. vent electrical shock). Heat-resistant soles will protect
• Chemical and liquid resistant gloves-made with feet against hot work surfaces. Metal insoles protect
rubber or plastic. The thicker the glove material, against punctures. A steel-toe or composite-toe shoe
the greater the chemical resistance. Note thick protects the top of the foot and toes.
gloves may limit grip and dexterity. Be certain to
check that the gloves being worn are resistant to
the chemicals being used. 2 .4 Safe Work Practices
Wear abrasion-resistant gloves when handling During the course of a workday, a technician will
sheet metal or sharp objects. When handling refrig- be required to move around in a variety of ways, car-
erants, the technician is exposed to two risk fac- rying items of different size, shape, and weight. Much
tors. The first is the low temperature that the of the work will include the use of various hand and
refrigerant presents. The second is the danger of power tools. A technician must bear in mind the best
an acidic oil spray. Therefore, it is recommended way to conduct each task to ensure personal safety and
that gloves used offer both thermal and chemical prevent injuries to self and others around.

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 Chapter 2 Safety

2.4.1 Lifting The following are some general guidelines for lad-
der safety:
When lifting heavy or large objects, use tools that can
assist the process. Use of a hand truck, portable dolly, or • Place a ladder on a stable and level surface.
pry bar may simplify movement. When lifting items, con- • Position the bottom of an extension ladder no
sider wearing a brace for proper back support, Figure 2-23. further away from the wall than one quarter of the
Do not attempt to lift heavy equipment indepen- supported height.
dently. Ask others for assistance. When lifting heavy • If the ladder is being used to access an upper area,
objects, use your legs, not your back. Keep your back such as a roof, the ladder must extend a minimum
straight during lifting. of 3' above the step off surface.
• Tie, block, or secure the upper part of the ladder
2.4.2 Ladder Safety where it meets the building. This will prevent the
ladder from moving sideways.
Ladders used in HVACR work should be noncon-
• Follow the maximum carrying capacity of the
ductive, such as those made of fiberglass. Inspect lad-
ladder. Take into account both the weight of the
ders frequently for defects or deterioration. Be certain
there is no oil or grease or other potential slipping haz- technician and the materials.
ard on the rungs. Portable ladders must have nonslip • The "three points of contact" rule should be used,
feet. The more steady the base and feet, the less likely as it minimizes chances of slipping or falling.
the ladder is to tilt or sway. Climb facing the ladder with two hands and one
foot, or two feet and one hand in contact with the
Safety Note ladder rungs. Use towlines or a tool belt to carry
materials, Figure 2-24.
Ladder Safety
Never use a damaged or broken ladder. Never
place a ladder on top of scaffolding.

U/ine Juglugger
Figure 2-23. A back brace can provide back support when Figure 2-24. This technician is using a shoulder strap to carry
much lifting must be done. a cylinder of refrigerant to a rooftop.

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38 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Stay centered while on the ladder. Keep both hips 2.4.5 Confined Spaces
in line with or between the rails of the ladder. This
keeps your weight centered with the ladder. Do A confined space consists of an area that is closed
not overreach or lean. off from a larger space and is large enough for a per-
son to enter and perform work. Working in a confined
space restricts movement. In addition, working in a
Safety Note
confined space means limited airflow, increasing the
Ladders and Electrical Hazards risk for explosion, asphyxiation, or poisoning.
When setting up stepladders or extension ladders, Prior to entering a confined space, check to ensure
be aware of power lines. Do not place a ladder too near adequate oxygen exists and that no hazardous vapors
or against a live electrical hazard. If possible, use a lad- are present. Welding, brazing, or soldering in a con-
der made of nonconductive material, such as fiberglass. fined space is extremely dangerous and may cause an
explosion. If you do enter a confined space, have some-
one standing outside the space with an emergency
2.4.3 Scaffolding Safety breathing apparatus ready and available. Constant
Often, installation or repair of ductwork requires communication with this person is necessary. Have
the use of scaffolding. See OSHA regulations regard- adequate lighting and be aware of safe entry and exit
ing scaffolding and its usage: points. It may be beneficial to use a safety harness and
rope in case quick removal is necessary.
• Scaffolds must have toeboard, midrail, and top
rail. Safety Note
• Platforms must be at least 18" wide. CO in Confined Space
• Scaffolds must have ladders for proper access. A Carbon monoxide (CO) may build up in a con-
fall protection device or safety cage is necessary fined space. It is odorless and tasteless and will cause
for scaffolding over 16' high. poisoning.
• Scaffold wheels must be in locked position when
the scaffold is in use.

Safety Note
Scaffolding and Electricity
Before climbing scaffolding, ensure that proper
clearance from power lines can be maintained.

2.4.4 Fall Protection Training

Fall protection is required if a technician is work-
ing at heights higher than a 6' drop. Any time a tech-
nician is working around moving machinery, fall
protection must be used. Fixed fall protection would
include wall or guardrails of at least 42" in height. If
fixed fall prevention is not available, personal fall pro-
tection must be used. PPE for falls consists of a properly
fitted body harness connected to a properly anchored
fall arresting system, Figure 2-25.
The combination of the safety harness with the
anchored lanyard is intended to limit the fall to a
distance minimizing impact. Chest and leg straps
should fit snugly. The D-ring or connective device
should be positioned between the shoulder blades.
A technician should receive proper training regard-
ing fall protection prior to initial use of equipment.
Always check fall-protection devices prior to use for U/ine
signs of wear. Figure 2-25. Fall-protection safety harness.

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 Chapter 2 Safety

2.4.6 Hand and Power Tools emergency services. A person performing first aid should
remain calm, assess the situation, and direct others as nec-
Always read the manufacturer's instructions prior essary. Realize that the first minutes following an accident
to using a tool. Often, there will be recommendations are the most critical. Always follow your employer's docu-
regarding proper care and maintenance. It is important mentation processes following an accident. Know where
to use the appropriate tool for a task. The greatest haz- a first aid kit is available at all times and know how to use
ard with a hand tool is when it is used for a purpose other its contents, Figure 2-26.
than that for which it was intended. Check tools for wear
and tear and replace or repair as necessary. Make certain
tools are secure when working on ladders or scaffolding. 2.4.8 Safety Certifications
Always use a sharp tool by pushing it away from you, not Employers may request or require that their tech-
toward you. When working with hand tools, always wear nicians participate in an OSHA 10-hour certification
goggles and use gloves if necessary. program. The goal of the program is to train workers
When using power tools, always use a GFCI to on how to recognize, avoid, and prevent safety and
help protect from shock. Prior to plugging in the tool, health hazards in the workplace.
be certain to check the power switch and ensure it is Through this program, workers can attend a
in the off position. When using power tools, use the 10-hour class delivered by OSHA-authorized trainers.
appropriate PPE. Clean, lubricate, and maintain power The 10-hour class is intended for entry-level workers.
tools as per manufacturer's instructions. Disconnect a A 30-hour class is designed for workers with some
power tool prior to performing maintenance or when safety responsibility. Through these trainings, OSHA
not in use. Tool guards on equipment should never be assists in ensuring that workers are more knowledge-
tampered with, as they are there to protect the user. able about workplace hazards and their rights.
Any extension cords must be sized appropriately for
the tool. They should be of the outdoor type, rated for
600 V, and include an insulated grounding conductor.

Safety Note
Grounding Prong Missing
Never operate an electric tool with the ground
prong missing. If such a tool malfunctions, you could
become the grounding conductor.

2.4.7 First Aid Procedures

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, it is rec-
ommended that all HVACR technicians enroll in an
approved first aid course. Often schools or colleges
offer first aid as an elective. Knowing how to quickly
and correctly address injuries can save lives.
In an event that first aid is required, promptly begin U/ine
first aid as per your training and request someone call Figure 2-26. Learn how to use the contents of a first aid kit.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary 3. For proper fire extinguisher use, remember
the initials
• OSHA is the national code that covers A. I.W.I.N.
workplace safety. B. L.O.T.O.
C. P.A.S.S.
• A hazard is a potential for harm. D. Y.O.L.O.
• Lockout/tagout (LOTO) practices eliminate or 4. Before dealing with an electrical fire, make sure
reduce electrical hazards.
that the fire extinguisher is rated Class _ _.
• Properly store and use solvents and fuels to A. A
minimize fire hazards. B. B
• When working in hot conditions, be aware C. C
of the signs of heat-related illness. Wear D. D
appropriate clothing and PPE and stay 5. An elevated body temperature, headache,
hydrated. In the cold, wear layered clothing to nausea, weakness, dizziness, fainting, and
retain heat and waterproof boots to keep dry. confusion are signs of _ _.
Know the signs of hypothermia and frostbite. A. electrical shock
• Read a product's SDS and manufacturer B. frostbite
literature before use. C. heat-related illness
• Breathing hazards include dust, asbestos, D. hypothermia
adhesives, solvents, refrigerant, and other 6. A sudden uncontrolled release of refrigerant
chemicals. Use appropriate ventilation for a could cause the following, except _ _.
given task in a given location. A. blindness
• Personal protective equipment (PPE) minimizes B. electrical burns
health and physical hazards. C. frostbite
• Use nonconductive ladders and scaffolding in D. skin damage
the proper manner. Setup of step and extension 7. When storing or transporting refrigerant
ladders is critical to preventing falls. cylinders, they should be kept _ _.
• Read a tool's manufacturer directions and only A. at a 45° angle against something sturdy
use hand and power tools for their intended B. horizontal with the valve at either side
use. Wear appropriate PPE for a given tool's C. vertical with the valve at the bottom
use. D. vertical with the valve at the top
8. Since nitrogen cylinders can be charged
to such high internal pressure, a _ _ is
Review Questions necessary when using the nitrogen.
A. first aid kit
Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper. Do not B. hazard pictogram
write in this book. C. pressure regulator
D. set of earmuffs
1. The national code that covers workplace
safety is _ _. 9. Because many refrigerant vapors are heavier
A. AHRI than air, a confined space must have _ _.
B. ASHRAE A. a GFCI outlet
C. EPA B. good ventilation
D. OSHA C. LOTO supplies
D. a pressure regulator
2. A good method of preventing electrical
hazards is to 10. When cutting or removing asbestos, run a
A. use a hard hat ventilation system with a(n) _ _ filter.
B. use a lockout/tagout (LOTO) practice A. GFCI
C. ventilate the area well B. HEPA
D. wear a respirator C. PPE
D. SDS

40 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

11. If an environment requires workers to raise
their voices to be heard, _ _ protection is
likely warranted.
A. eye
B. fall
C. head
D. hearing
12. When working in a very dusty environment,
_ _ should be used for eye protection.
A. face shield
B. safety goggles
C. standard safety glasses
D. sunglasses
13. When working where there is a limited
amount of oxygen in the air (less than 19.5%),
use a(n) _ _ as respiratory protection.
A. basic mask air-purifying respirator
B. cartridge filter air-purifying respirator
C. supplied-air respirator
D. tightly tied bandana or neckerchief
14. When handling toxic or corrosive liquid
chemicals, wear _ _ gloves.
A. aramid fiber
B. fabric
C. leather
D. rubber or plastic
15. A ladder being used to access an upper area
should extend at least _ _ above the step off
surface.
A. 3"
B. 15"
C. 2'
D. 3'

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER3 Service Calls

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Describe three general categories of HVACR service.
Chapter Outline • Explain the steps in a standard troubleshooting
3.1 Servicing procedure.
3.2 Troubleshooting • Evaluate a problem in a logical and systematic
3.2.1 Troubleshooting Charts and Procedures sequence.
3.2.2 Using Nonstandard Charts • Select a remedy for a problem using a three-step
3.3 Customer Service procedure.
3.3.1 Technician Appearance and Conduct
• Explain how a technician's appearance and conduct
3.3.2 Arriving on the Job
affects customer relations.
3.3.3 Service Estimates
3.3.4 Service Contracts • Understand the basics for writing service estimates
3.3.5 Contractual Agreements and service contracts.
Technical Terms Introduction
callback repair The key to a successful business is repeat custom-
contractual agreement servicing ers, and the key to repeat customers is customer satis-
customer relations trouble code faction. Technicians need to go above and beyond just
maintenance troubleshooting properly installing and servicing HVACR systems. They
maintenance service also need to be honest, friendly, and prompt in dealing
contract with customers.
A knowledgeable and well-trained technician should
be able to explain what is wrong with a malfunctioning
system and offer possible solutions, including the bene-
fits and disadvantages of each option. Providing custom-
ers with enough information and advice to choose the
repair solution develops trust and a sense of ease.
A neat and orderly appearance is often seen as a
reflection of neat and orderly repair work. Customers not
only want a technician's work to be professional, they
also want their technician to look and sound professional.
44 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

3.1 Servicing thermostat with an Internet-enabled thermostat that can

be monitored and adjusted with a smartphone app.
In the HVACR industry, servicing generally refers
to work performed on installed equipment or sys-
tems. This definition can also be extended to include 3.2 Troubleshooting
installation of a new system in an existing building. Troubleshooting is a critical part of repair work.
Installation of a new system in a new structure would Troubleshooting is the systematic analysis of a prob-
normally be described as installing rather than as ser- lem. This analysis is generally guided by a chart pro-
vicing. See Figure 3-1. vided by the manufacturer of the equipment.
Most servicing occurs in one of three categories: Each system has its own unique features, and con-
• Repair. sequently, its own problems. This chapter will cover
• Maintenance. common troubleshooting areas and give the recom-
mended procedure to follow when servicing different
• Upgrades/system additions.
types of equipment.
Repair is service required to fix a system that is
not operating correctly. Typically, the homeowner or
Thinking Green
business owner identifies a problem and contacts an
HVACR service company. Often, the problem is that Proper Service Is Also Green Service
the system is no longer delivering sufficient cooling or Service technicians that follow proper service pro-
heating. Other common problems include leaks and cedures are already being green. Proper service proce-
unusual noises. dures are designed to maximize system effectiveness
Maintenance is service performed regularly to while minimizing energy consumption, refrigerant loss,
reduce the likelihood of a future breakdown and to and other waste. By following proper service proce-
dures, a service technician can make the system per-
minimize any reduction of system performance. For
form better, save the customer money, and reduce the
example, maintenance for residential air-conditioning environmental impact of the system.
systems is often performed annually and may include
cleaning the condenser coils and checking the evapo-
rator drain. Maintenance of commercial systems often 3.2.1 Troubleshooting Charts
includes filter changes and equipment lubrication.
The final general category of service-upgrades
and Procedures
and system additions-involves work that improves the One of the key requirements for a service tech-
capabilities of an existing system. For example, a home- nician is the ability to follow a standard procedure,
owner may want to replace an older programmable which is a sequence of actions, or steps, designed to

HVACR Work Categories

Installation Repair Maintenance Upgrades

Sample Sample Sample Sample

Air-conditioning and No heat problem for Annual maintenance Installation of a new

heating system in new a residential performed on a residential wireless thermostat for a
home furnace air-conditioning system homeowner
Refrigerated cases in a Reduced cooling Quarterly maintenance Installation of a more
new supermarket for a commercial performed on a efficient air handler for a
air-conditioning unit commercial rooftop unit commercial system
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 3-1. This diagram illustrates the broad categories of work performed by an HVACR technician.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 3 Service Calls

identify and correct a specific problem in the system.

Thinking Green
Using standard procedures saves time, money, and
frustration. By following the same sequence of activi- Avoid "Temporary Fixes"
ties, you will become more efficient through repeated In addition to costing the customer more money in
use of your skills. An example of a standard trouble- the long run, an improper or "temporary" fix also has
shooting procedure is as follows: a greater impact on the environment. When consider-
1. Obtain a description of the problem and a list of ing the environmental impact of an avoidable callback,
recent repairs from the owner. consider any refrigerant lost because of the inadequate
repair, the extra energy consumed because the system
2. Determine the possible cause from the problem's
is not functioning at maximum efficiency, any material
description. waste, and the opportunity cost. Time spent performing
3. Verify the suspected cause using pinpoint tests. an improper repair and the resulting callback is time not
If the suspected cause is not the actual cause, spent fixing another system.
determine another possible cause, keeping
in mind all information gathered. Repeat Many residential and commercial units include a
Step 3 until the true cause of the problem is controller that monitors system operation. Temperature
determined. and pressure sensors provide feedback to the controller
4. Identify a specific remedy for the problem. as to the condition of the unit. When a problem occurs,
Whenever possible, obtain a service manual or the controller signals a failure. Some units use a light
troubleshooting chart. The manual or chart should be emitting diode (LED) code with letters or numbers or a
written by the manufacturer of the equipment being light or series of lights, as shown in Figure 3-2.
serviced. It may be available from the building owner,
your employer's resources, or the manufacturer's web-
site. There are many different types of manuals in use. System status LED
However, they all perform the same function, which
is helping the technician diagnose and service a mal-
functioning system.
Most charts have three basic columns:
• Problem.
• Possible Cause.
• Remedy.
Follow a troubleshooting chart in an orderly, step-
by-step fashion. On arrival at the customer's site, you
should become familiar with the system in question.
Visually inspect the system. Examine all components
and wiring for any evidence of malfunction. If such
evidence is found, review the system's electrical wir-
ing and component diagram. The component dia-
gram reveals how bad components affect the system
problem.
Never attempt to make a quick decision that may
only temporarily fix the problem. Since it may not
uncover the root or cause of the problem, such a deci-
sion will often result in a callback for the same reason
as the original service call. An example of this would
be a complaint of "inadequate cooling." After deter-
mining that a system is low on refrigerant, a technician
could simply add refrigerant. However, without locat-
ing the leak that caused the problem, this would only
provide a temporary solution and an incorrect rem-
edy. There would likely be a callback to the same loca-
tion for the same problem. Callbacks must be avoided York International Corp.
because they can shake the customer's confidence in Figure 3-2. Note the LED used on this controller circuit board
the company. to indicate a heat pump's operating status.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

46 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

A trouble code is a form of visual communication An experienced technician begins troubleshoot-

that correlates with a manufacturer's explanation of ing by carefully listening to the owner's complaint.
where or what a unit's problem may be. The codes and The owner often is not familiar with the principles of
their meanings will vary from manufacturer to manu- operation of a system. Frequently, he or she will use
facturer and product to product. Figure 3-3 shows a terms that are not the same as those used in the field.
manufacturer's troubleshooting code for a status light. Therefore, a technician must listen carefully.
When analyzing a problem presented by the
Owner's Description of Problem owner, obtain as much information as possible. This
The first column of a troubleshooting chart nor- includes how the system is operating now and how
mally lists problems. This column may be titled it operated before any malfunction. After consulting
Problem, Trouble, Complaint, or similar. This column cor- with the owner, ask other occupants for any additional
responds to the complaint given by the owner. Usually information about system performance.
the complaint is described in general terms.
Checking Possible Cause
The next step is to check the Possible Cause col-
Status Light Trouble Codes umn of a troubleshooting chart. This column may also
be titled Probable Cause, Have You Checked, or similar.
LED Light Status Trouble
This listing analyzes the problem in terms of the major
One (1) flash Heartbeat (normal operation) components of the system. A system malfunction may
Two (2) flashes High pressure switch opens for at have multiple components listed as possible causes,
least 6 seconds which means it is important to test each component to
identify which one is the specific cause of the problem.
Three (3) flashes Discharge temperature is over 263°F
Figure 3-4 lists possible causes of a problem in a
Four (4) flashes Discharge temp is under 90°F after self-contained commercial food storage unit. As shown,
one hour of compressor run time the owner indicated that the problem is excessively long
Five (5) flashes Defrost failure or continuous unit operation. Possible causes could be a
Six (6) flashes Discharge sensor short low refrigerant charge, control contacts stuck or frozen
closed, or any of the other items identified.
Seven (7) flashes Outdoor sensor short or open
The possible causes should be investigated thor-
Nine (9) flashes Bonnet sensor failure oughly. After identifying the general part of the system
York International Corp. that is the possible cause of the problem, the technician
Figure 3-3. This chart shows the corresponding LED light should perform tests and inspections to determine the
status and trouble codes for a heat pump. actual cause.

Troubleshooting Chart
Problem Possible Cause Remedy
Unit operates 1. Shortage of refrigerant. 1. Fix leak, add charge.
for excessively
2. Control contacts stuck or frozen closed . 2. Clean contacts or replace control.
long period or
continuously. 3. Refrigerated space has excessive load or poor insulation. 3. Determine fault and correct.
4. System inadequate to handle load. 4. Replace with larger system.
5. Evaporator coil iced. 5. Defrost.
6. Restriction in refrigeration system. 6. Determine location and remove.
7. Dirty condenser. 7. Clean condenser.
8. Filter dirty. 8. Clean or replace.
9. Low airflow. 9. Replace filter. Clean evaporator coil.
Check motor speed.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 3-4. Troubleshooting charts are used by a technician to help identify possible causes and remedies for a customer's
complaint or problem.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 3 Service Calls

Suggested Remedy three-column chart. Figure 3-5 shows the servicing

The final column in a troubleshooting chart may and heating analysis guide for a gas-fired, forced-air
be labeled Remedy, Repair, Solution, You May Need To, or furnace. Although this chart uses a format different
some similar term. This is the third step when using a from the standard three-column chart, the three-step
troubleshooting chart. You will perform the appropri- concept can still be used.
ate task from this third column. To use a nonstandard troubleshooting chart,
There are many steps to follow in repairing refrig- begin by identifying where the possible problems are
eration equipment. Each part is checked in a step-by-step located on the chart. Using the servicing and heating
manner. Actual procedures will vary. They will depend analysis guide in Figure 3-5 as an example, the pos-
on the specific remedy selected, the type of part or device sible problems are listed under the heading Complaint,
being checked, and the specific system. The sequence of which is divided into two categories, No Heat and
procedures for checking and repairing or replacing a part Unsatisfactory Heat.
will vary. Procedures for an electrical device will be dif- After identifying which complaint listed in the chart
ferent from that of a mechanical device. most closely matches the owner's description of the prob-
lem, identify the possible causes of the problem. In the
Safety Note heating analysis guide example, the chart uses a sequence
Proper Procedures of check marks that correspond to the possible causes,
which are listed to the left of the check marks.
Always follow basic safety guidelines as you work
The third step is to identify possible solutions,
through a service procedure. Proper tools, gauges,
electrical meters, personal protective equipment (PPE), which is done by looking to the right of the check
and other necessary supplies must be used. marks. If the problem is believed to be caused by
improper airflow or distribution, the chart directs you
to check the static pressure of the ducts and indicates
3.2.2 Using Nonstandard Charts that you should see "Service Procedure S-17." A techni-
Troubleshooting charts vary, depending on the cian would then perform the service procedure as indi-
purpose of the equipment and the particular manu- cated. See Figure 3-6.
facturer. Be very careful to select the right trouble-
shooting chart from the equipment manufacturer.
Write down the exact model number of the system
3.3 Customer Service
being serviced and locate a chart based on that The role of the HVACR technician extends beyond
model number. Any components that have been troubleshooting and repair skills. The service techni-
added to the system must also be taken into consid- cian is not only required to be knowledgeable in refrig-
eration. General troubleshooting charts for hermetic eration and air conditioning, but must also meet the
refrigeration systems, domestic and light commer- customer's needs and understand business operations.
cial refrigeration systems, and industrial refrigera- One of the keys to a successful business operation is
tion systems are included in the Appendix. good customer relations. The term customer relations
Some troubleshooting charts include additional refers to the way a business interacts with customers.
information or use a different format from the standard As you interact with a customer, he or she will judge

Service Call Scenario

Examples of Service Calls and Troubleshooting Possible Causes: A list of potential causes of the problem.
Description of Problem: A more detailed description
In later chapters of this textbook, Service Call Scenario
based on the technician's evaluation of the system.
features provide examples of an HVACR technician
visiting a customer and addressing a repair issue. Each Testing: Testing performed to determine which of the
one of the Service Call Scenario features follows the potential causes is creating the problem.
basic troubleshooting model and includes the following Solution: The corrective action taken once the cause of
sections: the problem has been identified.
Customer Complaint: The customer's description of the Safety: A reminder of specific safety issues related to
problem. the testing performed and the solution implemented.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

48 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

you based on your job performance and attitude. As a It is essential to always be courteous when deal-
technician, it is your responsibility to instill in the cus- ing with customers, even when things are not going
tomer a sense of trust, value, and satisfaction with the well. This is especially true when the customer feels
work performed. This is accomplished mostly through that a problem is not being handled properly. If the
your verbal communication with the customer and service call is a callback, be especially sensitive to
your general attitude and appearance. These factors the customer's concerns because you will need to
combine to give an impression of your company to the regain his or her trust after a failure to remedy the
customer. problem the first time.

Servicing Heating Analysis Guide

. Complaint Test Method- See Service
Possible Cause Procedure
No Heat Unsatisfactory Heat Remedy

1ii
Q)
Cl)
Q)
1ii
Q) I
Cl) Cl)
Q) Q) E I .c
::::, 0)
~ ~ u. .c
(.)
::::,
::::,
0
() ()
0)
0 ~
C:
w
0
.c C: 0 0
0
Cl) _g 0
Cl) i2 z
No main power .I Test voltage S-1
Faulty thermostat .I Test thermostat S-3
Faulty limit switch .I .I Test fan and limit S-6
control
Faulty flame sensor .I Test flame sensor S-22
Faulty ignition control .I .I Test ignition S-21
module control module
Faulty induced draft .I Test motor S-8, S-9
blower motor
Faulty wiring harness .I Test wiring S-2
Broken or shorted igniter .I Test igniter S-20
Faulty combustion relay .I .I Test relay S-5
Sensor not in flame, .I Test flame sensor S-22
low micro-amps
Open auxiliary limit .I .I Push manual reset S-7
Improper heat anticipator .I .I .I Check heat S-38
setting anticipator setting
Improper airflow or .I .I .I .I Check duct static S-17
distribution
Improper thermostat .I .I .I .I Relocate
location thermostat

Amana Refrigeration, Inc.

Figure 3-5. Troubleshooting charts are created in many formats. This heating analysis guide for gas-fired furnaces uses a
variation on the three-column format to identify problems, causes, and remedies.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 3 Service Calls

Service Procedure S-17

Checking Duct Static S-17
The maximum and minimum allowable external static pressures are found in the specification section. These tables also show
the amount of air being delivered at a given static by a given motor speed or pulley adjustment.
The furnace motor cannot deliver proper air quantities (CFM) against statics other than those listed.
Too great of an external static pressure will result in insufficient air that can cause excessive temperature rise, resulting in limit
tripping, etc. Whereas not enough static may result in motor overloading.
To determine proper air movement, proceed as follows:
1. With clean filters in the furnace, use a draft gauge (inclined manometer) to measure the static pressure of the return duct
at the inlet of the furnace. (Negative pressure.)
2. Measure the static pressure of the supply duct. (Positive pressure.)
3. Add the two readings together for total external static pressure.
Note: Both readings may be taken simultaneously and read directly on the manometer if so desired. If an air-conditioning coil
or electronic air cleaner is used in conjunction with the furnace, the readings must also include these components.
4. Consult proper tables for the quantity of air.
If the total external static pressure exceeds the minimum or maximum allowable statics, check for closed dampers, registers,
undersized and/or oversized poorly laid out ductwork.
Amana Refrigeration, Inc.
Figure 3-6. Troubleshooting charts often include or reference specific service procedures to be performed once the cause of the
problem has been identified.

should be aware that positive remarks concerning the

Pro Tip
company contribute to good customer relations. It is
Customer Perspective also important to have respect for company vehicles
Keep the customer's perspective in mind when and equipment. This reflects a concern for the total
making a service call. Treat the customer's needs as an operation of the company.
emergency situation. In the eyes and mind of the cus-
tomer, it is an emergency. In the case of no heating and
no cooling problems, the customer may be experiencing
fear due to uncertainty of how long the no service condi-
tion will continue and how expensive the repair will be.
Provide as much information to the customer as you can
to help reduce uncertainty.

3.3.1 Technician Appearance and

Conduct
The appearance and conduct of the technician
contribute to the company image. A neat personal
appearance helps to create a sense of confidence that
is necessary in dealing with the customer. It affects
the customer's attitude toward the service performed.
Wearing a service company's uniform or work shirt
with the company name on it shows a professional
company attitude, Figure 3-7.
Arriving on time and displaying good work hab-
its create a desirable impression. Accurate, efficient
work and respect for the customer's property build a Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
customer's trust. The customer is then more likely to Figure 3-7. A technician must maintain a professional
be satisfied with the service. The service technician appearance.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

50 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

3.3.2 Arriving on the Job Any information that the customer volunteers con-
cerning previous problems with the equipment should be
After arriving at a jobsite, clearly state your
written on the service contract or work order. Also, any
name and identify your company. Confirm the
interest shown by the customer in add-on equipment or
equipment problem that the customer has experi-
new contractual agreements should be noted.
enced and make sure the customer knows you are
When servicing is completed, the proper billing
there to fix the problem to his or her satisfaction.
forms should be presented and explained for the cus-
The customer should then be asked some specific
tomer to sign. See Figure 3-8. If applicable, indicate to
questions:
the customer what can be done in the future to prevent
• What has occurred? the problem from occurring.
• When was the problem first noticed? Service records are absolutely essential if one
• How many times has it occurred? wishes to establish a permanent business. These
Any additional inquiries applicable to the situ- records contain details regarding ownership, type of
ation should be made. A polite and patient attitude equipment, type of work done, and materials used.
when asking these questions will help in obtaining This record enables "check backs" if the system does
the information needed to determine the problem not operate correctly. Furthermore, it establishes sales
and make the repair. prospects as systems get older.

OUANTTTY rTEM OR PART DESCRIPTION PRICE AMOUNT

1361GlobolCou,t•sar-lo,R.:M2AO 187301
DATE
L__i

-
www.alametk:anhc.com
CAC035'173 • CAC111'567
HEATING & COOLING DATE ORDERED

l--- - - - + - - - - - - - - --+-- t - - - - 1

Cll'Yo - - - - - -STATE - - - - - - .ZIP

= - - - - - - -t WK PHC>t,E
1- - - - - + - - - - - - ~ - - - + - - t - - - - 1
MAKE MOOEI.
[J GOOD
[ ) FAIR
EQUIPMENT
LOCATION
[] POOR

TRIP
DIAG.
I ft,\\ll Tit Mnt,-,.-oflY 10 Ofn:JI llW: .-a0VE ~ NCI- PO 10 0fll'.J£JI 41 01.m.»E> --t-----1-

1 - - -- TR.A:
- YB..-'--T-I ME
- - ~- - ---....__....__
::r
__ =
-~"~ ~r:'
: :~,~":~=--=~ =::--: ~ :=-=.;, ~ ~S_UB_T_O_TAL_+------+---,
-;:-i-:::,:,:;.: :::wllllw.,_,:, DISCOUNT
10
::
~

OFFICE
™~·- ----- I

IMRTED _ _ _ __

ltr_L_ _ _ __
X --
I I

All American Heating & Cooling

Figure 3-8. Note the checklist on this inspection report for quick assessment of a unit.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 3 Service Calls

3.3.3 Service Estimates agrees to keep the heating and cooling units in good
condition. This charge may or may not cover parts.
Many companies operating refrigeration equip- Contracts may also be on a time-and-materials basis.
ment ask for bids when repair, replacement, or service If a company sets up a service contract, technicians
is required. A service company bidding on this work should be provided with procedures and check sheets.
needs someone who specializes in providing esti- A check sheet should indicate the date, the name of the
mates. This specialist should be thoroughly acquainted technician making the call, and a list of tasks to com-
with material costs, labor costs, and service problems. plete. The following are some tasks typically included
The individual must be able to judge how much time is on a check sheet:
necessary to do the repair. Records kept of service and
maintenance work can be used as a reference for how • Test for refrigerant leaks.
much a job cost in the past or how much time it took a • Check head pressure.
technician to perform a similar task. • Check low-side pressure.
Estimates must also factor in overhead expenses.
• Check oil charge.
Such expenses include equipment costs and office and
shop services. In total, the estimate should account for • Check water valve.
all material costs, labor costs, and overhead costs while • Check water drain.
still including a margin of profit for the company. • Check and lubricate motor.
• Check belt condition and tension.
3.3.4 Service Contracts
• Clean evaporator.
It is good business to offer contracts for mainte- • Clean condenser.
nance and service. Many large companies have devel-
oped such contracts. There are two features of a service • Straighten fins.
contract that often appeal to purchasers: • Voltage readings.
• A 24-hour availability service clause. • Amperage readings.
• An absolute guarantee of work done. • Check circulating fans.
Consumers have become familiar with the concept • Check/replace filters.
of the maintenance service contract. For example, all
• Tighten electrical connections.
new cars are sold with an extended maintenance con-
tract available to the owners. This means that the pur- • Lubricate moving parts.
chaser can extend the service contract on the vehicle. Any parts that may require future replacement
Service agreements are used for many items, including should be indicated on the check sheet. Examples
household appliances, television sets, personal com- would be belts, filters, and other devices that usu-
puters, and other products. This wide application has ally have a limited and foreseeable operating life. By
created a public awareness of the benefits of mainte- bringing those replaceable parts previously noted to
nance contracts. Most HVACR service contracts include the next service call, it will save any time that would
twice-a-year service. The heating unit is checked in the have been necessary to return to the warehouse for
fall, and the air-conditioning unit is checked in the parts.
spring. This ensures that the units will be operable
prior to their season of usage, Figure 3-9.
3.3.5 Contractual Agreements
Thinking Green Contractual agreements are legal agreements
Seasonal Inspections that specify the terms and conditions of service that
often include initial repair work and follow-up periodic
During seasonal inspections, it is important to
maintenance. These are often purchased as a result of
inspect and maintain all of the system components that
may affect system efficiency. Rather than thinking of the a service call. The form is filled out by the technician
seasonal service as a set of unrelated individual tasks, after speaking with the owner.
think about the seasonal inspection and service as a Contractual agreements vary, depending on the
single operation designed to keep the entire system equipment and the services provided. To properly
operating at peak efficiency. complete the forms for a service agreement, a tech-
nician must be familiar with all the various types of
A typical service contract offers a weekly, monthly, services offered and understand the benefits of these
or annual rate. For this amount, the service company agreements for the customer.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

52 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

All American Heating & CooUng

1351 Global Court, Sarasota, Florida 34340
www.J1Uamericanhc.com

PRECISION TUNE-UP REPORT

CUSTOMER AME:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ OATE: _ _ __ __
ADDRESS: _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _
TELEPHONE: _ __ _ _ _ _ __ EMAIL_ _ _ _ _ __ __

SYSTEM#

AIR HANDLER: CO DENSER:

MAKE: _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ MAKE: _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __
MODEL: _ _ _ _ _ _ __ MODEL:. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
SERIAL: _ _ _ _ _ _ __ SERIAL: _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _

REPORT:

CO DENSING UNIT: EVAPORATOR UNIT:

SUCTION PRESSURE: _ _ _ _ __ FAN MOTOR RATING :_ _ _ _ _ _ __
HEAD PRESSURE: _ _ _ _ _ __ FAN MOTOR ACTUAL AMPS:_ _ __ __
COMPRESSOR RATED AMPS: _ __ LUBRICATION (If REQUTRED),_ __ __
COMPRESSOR ACTUAL AMPS:_ _ _ COfL INSPECTION:._ _ _ __ _ __ _
FAN MOTOR RATED AMPS: _ _ __ INSPECT DRAIN PAN:_ _ __ _ _ __
FAN MOTOR ACTUAL AMPS:_ _ _ VACUUM DRAIN LINE:_ _ _ __ __
LUBRICATION (lf REQUIRED)_ __ ALGAE TABLETS ADDED: _ _ __ _ __
COIL IN PECTIC :._ _ _ _ __ CLEAN OR REPLACE FILTERS:_ _ _ __
CONTACTOR & RELAYS:_ _ __ FILTER SIZE & TYPE:_ _ _ _ _ __ _
REFRIGERANT ADDED LBS & TYPE:, _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ __
ELECTRONIC AfR CLEANER TYPE AND SIZE:_ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ __
HEPA FILTER TYPE AND SIZE:._ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __
DEJ-IUMTDIFJER:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __
ZONE PA EL:_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _
ENERGY RECOVERY VENTILATORS:_ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __
UV UGI-ITS TYPE, SIZE LOCATION:_ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __
GAS FURNACE:_ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ __

ELECTRIC HEAT:_ _ _ _ _ __ MISCELLANEOUS: _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _

HEAT STRIP KW: _ _ _ _ _ __ l SPECT THERMOSTAT:_ __ _ _ __
JNSPECTJO OF ELEMENTS:_ __ INSPECT HUMIDISTAT:_ __ _ _ __
AMPERAGE READING: _ _ _ __ BREAKER SIZE:_ _ __ _ _ _ __ _

COMMENTS:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _

SERVICE TECHNICIAN:._ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ _ __ _

All American Heating & Coaling

Figure 3-9. A seasonal tune-up report used by a technician for a customer with a maintenance service contract.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

Summary
Chapter Review
4. Why is the procedure given in a
troubleshooting chart a good method to use?
I
• The three categories of servicing are repair, A. It saves time.
maintenance, and upgrades/system additions. B. It saves money.
C. It saves frustration.
• Troubleshooting is the systematic analysis of a
D. All of the above.
problem.
• Troubleshooting charts help a technician 5. With whom should a technician first speak
follow a standard procedure for identifying when troubleshooting a problem?
and fixing a problem. Troubleshooting charts A. The boss.
usually contain columns that list the problem B. The building owner.
or customer complaint, the possible causes, and C. The manufacturer.
the repair or solution. D. The wholesaler.

• When troubleshooting, a technician tests each 6. What is the first step in troubleshooting?
major component listed as the possible cause A. Attach proper test equipment.
of a problem to determine which specific B. Determine the possible cause.
component is the actual cause. C. Identify a specific remedy for the problem.
D. Obtain a description of the problem.
• A technician's appearance, timeliness, and
communication skills affect the customer's 7. When you are troubleshooting and servicing
sense of trust and satisfaction with the work a unit, quick and hasty decisions may result
being performed. in
A. additional and identical service work
• Service estimates take into account the cost of
required later
materials; the length of time certain jobs take;
B. necessary callbacks
the cost of labor; and the tools, instruments,
C. the unit being only temporarily fixed
and equipment needed.
D. All of the above.
• Maintenance and service contracts help
ensure the longevity of a system. Technicians 8. What does the first column in a
working on systems with service contracts use troubleshooting chart list?
procedures and records to expedite their work. A. The model number.
B. The necessary repair.
C. The possible cause.
Review Questions D. The problem.
9. The way a business interacts with customers
Answer the following questions using information in this
is called
chapter.
A. annoying callback
1. Which of the following is an example of B. customer relations
repair work? C. trouble maintenance
A. Changing furnace filters. D. troubleshooting
B. Replacing a failed compressor. 10. Why do units with maintenance agreements
C. Lubricating a fan motor. last longer and have fewer breakdowns?
D. Checking an evaporator drain. A. The units are tuned-up on a regular
2. Replacing a working blower fan with a new schedule.
fan that is more energy efficient is an example B. The units are cleaned on a regular
of which type of service work? schedule.
A. Repair. C. Written analysis of the system is kept.
B. Maintenance. D. All of the above
C. Upgrade/system addition.
D. Installation.
3. Define troubleshooting.
A. Analysis of a problem.
B. Labor that corrects a problem.
C. The use of instruments to solve a problem.
D. All of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 53

CHAPTER4 Energy and Matter

Learning Objectives
Chapter Outline Information in this chapter will enable you to:
4.1 Systems of Measurement i • Differentiate between matter and energy.
4.2 Matter and Energy • Summarize the relationship between force, work,

-::.5 .
4.3 Mass and Weight and power.
4.4 Density Differentiate between the Fahrenheit, Celsius,
4.4.1 Specific Volume

.
Rankine, and Kelvin temperature scales.
4.4.2 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
4.5 Force, Work, and Power
=
~ Use the appropriate formulas to calculate enthalpy,
specific enthalpy, and changes in heat for a given
4.5.1 Force ii substance.
4.5.2 Work
4.5.3 Power • Compare the radiation, convection, and conduction
4.5.4 The Relationship between Energy, Force, methods of heat transfer.
Work, and Power • Illustrate the differences between the three states of
4.6 Heat matter.
4.6.1 Temperature and Heat Relationship • Differentiate between sensible heat and latent heat.
4.6.2 Calculating Heat Energy
• Predict the effect of a drop in temperature or an
4.6.3 Methods of Heat Transfer
increase in pressure on a saturated vapor.
4.6.4 Heat and States of Matter
4.7 Measuring Refrigeration Effect • Summarize the relationships between mass, weight,
4.7.1 Ton of Refrigeration Effect and density.
4.7.2 US Customary Units for Measuring • Explain the concepts of specific gravity and relative
Refrigeration Effect density.
4.7.3 SI Derived Units for Measuring Refrigeration • Compare the different units used to measure
Effect refrigeration effect.
Technical Terms
absolute temperature scale
ambient temperature
law of conservation of
energy
Introduction
Chapter 4 Energy and Matter 55

The purpose of a refrigeration system is to transfer

heat from one location to another. This process of heat
I
British thermal unit (Btu) liquid transfer is based on scientific principles. Some of these
Celsius scale mass principles and concepts-such as energy, power, heat,
cold matter heat transfer, and temperature-are explained in this
conduction newton chapter. Additional scientific concepts are discussed in
convection potential energy the next chapter.
density power This basic science knowledge is the foundation
energy radiation needed to understand the operation of a refrigeration
enthalpy Rankine scale system. By learning these fundamentals, you will have
Fahrenheit scale relative density a deeper understanding of how a refrigeration system
foot-pound (ft-lb) sensible heat operates and be able to troubleshoot system problems
force (F) solid effectively.
gas specific enthalpy
heat specific gravity
heat insulator specific heat capacity
horsepower (hp) specific volume
joule (J) temperature
Kelvin scale therm
kinetic energy ton of refrigeration
latent heat watt (W)
latent heat of fusion weight
latent heat of vaporization work (W)
56 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

4.1 Systems of Measurement Examples are water flowing over a dam, a battery light-
ing a bulb, and a falling weight. As you can see from
This book provides values and measurements in these examples, energy of one type can change into
both US Customary and SI units. The US Customary another type under the right conditions. This is a foun-
system is based on the English system of measure- dational principle in the law of conservation of energy.
ments. The base units of the US Customary measure- The law of conservation of energy states that energy
ment system include the foot (ft) for distance and the cannot be created or destroyed; it is simply changed
pound (lb) for mass. from one form to another, Figure 4-1.
The SI (Systeme International d'Unites) system is the Think of the building block analogy once again.
modern version of the metric system. The base SI units Kinetic energy is used to stack the building blocks to
include the meter (m) for distance and the gram (g) for create the wall. As the wall is created, potential energy
mass. Additional US Customary and SI units will be is stored in each of the stacked bricks. The higher a
explained in appropriate chapters and in the Appendix. block is lifted, the more kinetic energy is used to lift
it and the more potential energy it stores when it is in
position. If the wall topples over, the potential energy
4.2 Matter and Energy is converted back to kinetic energy as the blocks fall to
The universe is made up of energy and matter. the ground.
You can think of matter as the building blocks of the
universe. Everything we can touch is made up of mat-
ter. Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas.
4.3 Mass and Weight
Energy is the ability to effect a change in matter. It The amount of a substance is commonly related
can also be defined as the ability or capacity to per- to how much it weighs. Food and metals, for example,
form work. Using the building block analogy, you can are sold on the basis of their weight. The gravitational
think of matter as a pile of blocks. Energy is required force exerted by the earth on an object is expressed
to transform those building blocks from a loose pile as the object's weight. As the amount of a substance
into a wall. increases, the force of gravity acting on it increases
Energy comes in many different forms. It can be proportionally.
chemical, thermal, light, electrical, or mechanical. It The force of gravity diminishes as the distance from
can be further subdivided into potential and kinetic the earth increases. This means that an object's weight
energy. Potential energy is stored energy. Examples varies based on its distance from the earth. The object
of potential energy are water behind a dam, electri- weighs less the farther it is from the earth. The term mass
cal energy in a battery, and a suspended weight that is used to express that the quantity of material is the same,
can fall or drop. Kinetic energy is energy doing work. regardless of the change in the force of gravity.

Steam- Generator-
thermal energy electrical energy
Flame-
them,a) ene,gy

Lightbulb---light and
thermal energy
Turbine-
mechanical energy

Propane tank-
chemical energy
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 4-1. This figure shows how energy is changed from one form to another. Some common energy forms include thermal,
electrical, mechanical, and chemical.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 4 Energy and Matter 57

Weight is often expressed as the force an object

exerts on a scale. The US Customary units of weight
are the ounce, pound, and ton. If an object weighs one
pound at the earth's surface, it is said to have a mass Hydrogen
of one pound. A small subscript f appearing under (178.9 ft3)
the pound unit abbreviation (lb 1) indicates that the
unit refers to the object's weight (pounds of force or
pound force). A small subscript m under the pound unit
(lbm) indicates that the unit refers to the object's mass
(pounds of mass). In SI units, mass is measured in kilo-
grams (kg). A kilogram is equivalent to 2.2 lbm.

4.4 Density Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher

Some substances are heavier than others. Density Figure 4-2. Specific volume is used to compare the amount
is a substance's mass per unit of volume. This refers to of space that a gas takes up when it weighs one pound.
Hydrogen is the lightest gas, so it takes more molecules,
the amount of a substance within a given amount of
which take up more space, to make one pound.
space. Comparative weights of gases, liquids, and sol-
ids may be shown by either density or specific gravity,
which will be discussed later in this chapter. In the US Unit equivalents, specific volume:
Customary system, density is expressed as pounds per 1 lb/ft3 = 16 kg/m3
cubic foot (lb/ft:3). In the SI system, density is expressed 1 kg/m 3 = 0.0625 lb/ft3
in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3).
4.4.2 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
4.4.1 Specific Volume Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a certain
When comparing densities of gases, it is common volume of a liquid or a solid compared to the mass of an
to express the densities in specific volumes. Avogadro's equal volume of water. Water is given a specific gravity of
law states that at equal pressures and temperatures, a one. Objects that float on water have a specific gravity less
specific number of molecules of one gas will take up than one. Objects that sink in water have a specific gravity
the same space as the same number of gas molecules greater than one. Mixtures of salt and water (brine) have a
of a different gas, regardless of mass. Since gases have specific gravity greater than one.
different masses, a pound of one gas will have more or The relative density of gases is defined as the ratio
less molecules than a pound of another gas, and will of the mass of a certain volume of a gas as compared to
therefore take up more or less space. Specific volume the mass of an equal volume of hydrogen. The mass of
is the volume of a specific amount of gas under stan- both gases are measured at 68°F and 29.92 in. Hg pressure.
dard conditions. Standard conditions are 68°F (20°C) Avogadro's law states that different gases at equal tem-
and 14.7 psia (101.3 kPa). peratures, pressures, and volumes contain equal numbers
The volume of 1 lb of dry, clean air at standard of molecules, regardless of the densities of the gases being
conditions is 13.454 ft3• By comparison, 1 lb of hydro- compared. Since hydrogen is the lightest of all gases, all
gen occupies 178.9 ft3. One pound of ammonia (R-717) other gases will have relative densities greater than 1.
occupies 21 ft3. One pound of carbon dioxide (R-744)
occupies only 8.15 ft3, Figure 4-2.
In SI units, the volume of 1 kg of dry, clean air at 4.5 Force, Work, and Power
standard conditions is 0.840 m 3 • By comparison, 1 kg of Force, work, and power are interrelated ways of
hydrogen occupies 11.17 m 3 • One kilogram of ammonia measuring the application of energy. In the sections
(R-717) occupies 1.311 m 3 • One pound of carbon dioxide that follow, the connections between these measure-
(R-744) occupies only 0.509 m 3 • ments will be explained.
If a gas has a greater specific volume than air, the
gas is called a light gas. If it occupies less space than
air, it is classified as a heavy gas. The specific volume is 4.5.1 Force
the inverse of the density. The higher a specific volume, Force (F) is energy applied to matter that, unless
the lower its density. The lower a specific volume, the counteracted by opposing forces, causes a change in the
higher the density. matter's velocity. The unit of force is the pound force (lb1).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

58 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

1 lb 1 lb l 1/61~
expressed in inch-pounds. At such times, the distance
through which the force acts is measured in inches.
The SI unit of work is called the joule (J). The joule
(J) is the amount of work done by a force of one new-
Earth Moon
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
ton through a distance of one meter. Work may also
be measured simply in units of newton-meters (N-m),
Figure 4-3. A one-pound object exerts 1 lb, on the surface
of the earth. On the moon, it exerts less force because the although this unit is usually reserved for measuring
acceleration of gravity is less than 32.2 ft/s 2 • torque (rotation or twisting).

Formula for calculating work:

The pound force is that force which, applied to a one- Work = Force x Distance
pound mass, will result in an acceleration of 32.2 ft/s 2 • This
value of acceleration is known as the acceleration constant. Unit equivalents:
On earth, where the acceleration of gravity is 1 ft-lb 1 = 1.356 J = 1.356 N-m
32.2 ft/s 2, an object with a mass of 1 lb exerts a 1 lb 1 on 1 J = 1 N-m = 0.737 ft-lb
the surface on which it rests, Figure 4-3. This force is
the weight of the object. If the object of 1-lb mass were Example:
on the moon, where the gravity is about 1/6 that on Calculate the work when lifting a weight of 2000 lb
earth, the weight of the mass would be 1/6 lbr a vertical distance of 10'.
In SI units, the unit of force is the newton (N). A
newton is that force which, applied to a one-kilogram Solution:
mass, will accelerate the mass at a rate of 1 m/s 2 • Since Work = Force x Distance
the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s 2 at the surface W = 2000 lb X 10 ft
of the earth and the newton is based on an acceleration W = 20,000 ft-lb
of 1 m/s2, the mass (in kilograms) must be multiplied
by a conversion factor of 9.8 when calculating gravita- or, expressed in inch-pound units,
tional force (weight) using SI units. 12
W = 2000 lb X 10 ft X ( in)
1ft
Formula for gravitational force (SI): W = 240,000 in-lb
F (in newtons) = mass (in kg) x acceleration due
to gravity (m/s 2) Example:
The propeller on a boat pushes the boat through
Unit equivalents: the water with a force of 200 N. If the boat travels
1 lb 1 = 4.45 N 10 km, how much work is done? (1 km = 1000 m).
1 N = 0.22 lb 1
Solution:
Work = Force x Distance
4.5.2 Work
Work (W) is force (F) multiplied by the distance W = 200 N x 10 km x (lOOO m)
1km
(D) through which it travels. The US Customary unit Then continue with the original equation and new
of work is called the foot-pound. One foot-pound is distance value.
the amount of work done in lifting a 1-lb weight a ver- W = 200 N x 10,000 m
tical distance of 1 ft, Figure 4-4. Work is sometimes W = 2,000,000 N-m

4.5.3 Power
1 lb
Power is the rate at which work is performed. It is
calculated by dividing the total amount of work per-
1 lb 1 ft formed by the time during which the work was taking
place.
Earth Earth The US Customary unit of mechanical power is
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher horsepower. One horsepower (hp) is the equivalent of
Figure 4-4. Work takes into account the distance over which 550 foot-pounds of work per second (ft-lb/s), Figure 4-5.
force is applied. The SI unit of power is the watt (W). A watt is a force

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 4 Energy and Matter 59

Solution:
5501b
Before calculating power, first determine the val- 2
After
ues for force, work, and time. As discussed earlier, to
determine gravitational force in SI units, multiply the

l
1 sec
5501b -------+- mass by the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2).
1 ft
Calculating force (SI):
Earth F = mass x acceleration due to
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
gravity
Figure 4-5. Power takes into account the amount of time it F = 100 kg x 9.8 m/s2
takes to perform a certain amount of work. F = 980N
The required force is 980 N. To calculate work,
multiply the force by the distance (W = F x D).
of one newton moving through a distance of one meter W=980Nx10m
in one second. The SI unit commonly used to measure W=9800N-m
mechanical power is the kilowatt (kW). A kilowatt is
equal to 1000 watts. The work is 9800 N-m. Finally, to calculate power,
divide the work by the amount of time (per second =
Formula for calculating power: 1 second).
Work
Work Power=--
Power=-- Time
Time
p = 9800N-m
Unit equivalents: ls
1 hp = 550 ft-lb/s = 746 watts = 0.75 kW P = 9800 N-m/s
1 kW = 1000 watts = 1000 J/s
Note that 1 N m is equal to 1 joule. Therefore,
= 1000 N-m/s = 1.33 hp
P = 9800 N-m/s = 9800 J/s
Since 1 watt is defined as 1 joule per second, the
Example:
convert from joule/seconds to watts is on a 1 to 1 ratio.
A 2000-lb weight is lifted 10' in two minutes. What
P = 9800 J/s = 9800 W
is the required power?
To make this easier to read and write, convert 9800
Solution: W to kilowatts (kW) by dividing by 1,000.
P (in kW) = P (in W) + 1000
The work is 20,000 ft-lb (2000 lb x 10'). To calculate
power, the time is expressed in seconds: 2 minutes = = 9800 W + 1000
120 seconds. = 9.8kW
Work
Power=-- 4.5.4 The Relationship between Energy,
Time
p = 20,000 ft-lb Force, Work, and Power
120 s Weightlifting provides a good analogy for remem-
P = 166.7 ft-lb/s bering the relationship between energy, force, work,
and power. Potential energy is the strength that the
weightlifter feels before stepping up to the barbell.
Converting to horsepower: When using that energy to push upward on the barbell,
Remember that 1 hp equals 550 ft-lb/s. Use that the weightlifter is applying a force. When lifting the
information to convert 166.7 ft-lb-s into horsepower: barbell overhead, the lifter has caused kinetic energy
and performed work. The power of the weightlifter is
p = 166.7 ft-lb/s l_h_p_
X __
550 ft-lb/s measured by the weight lifted and the speed at which
P = 0.3 hp the weight is raised overhead.

Example:
What is the power required to lift a mass of 4.6 Heat
100 kilograms at the rate of 10 meters per second? Heat is a form of energy that results in the motion
of atoms. Atoms are considered the smallest indivisible

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

60 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

part of an element because if the atoms were broken The increments of both scales are based on the
down further, they would no longer have the charac- temperature of melting ice at sea level (1 atmosphere
teristics of that element. All substances are made up of pressure) and the temperature of boiling water at
of tiny atoms, which combine to make molecules. All sea level. On the Fahrenheit scale, the temperature of
atoms are in a state of rapid motion. melting ice is 32°F. The temperature of boiling water is
As the temperature of a substance increases, the 212°F. This provides 180 spaces or degrees between the
atoms move more rapidly. As the temperature drops, the freezing and boiling temperatures.
atom movement slows down. If all heat is removed from a On the Celsius scale, the temperature of melting
substance, all molecular motion stops. The temperature at ice is 0°C. The temperature of boiling water is 100°C.
which all heat is removed is called absolute zero. There are 100 spaces or degrees on the scale between
Cold means low temperature or lack of heat. Cold freezing and boiling.
is the result of removing heat. A refrigerator produces
cold by drawing away heat from the inside of the refrig- Formula for temperature conversions:
erator cabinet. The refrigerator does not destroy the F = 9/5 x C + 32
heat. It pumps heat from the inside of the cabinet to C = (F - 32) x 5/9
the outside. where
Heat always travels from a substance at a higher F = temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
temperature to a substance at a lower temperature. If C = temperature in degrees Celsius
a substance is warmed, heat is added. If a substance is The 9/5 conversion factor is the same ratio as the
cooled, heat is removed. number of spaces or degrees between the freezing and
The amount of heat in a substance equals the boiling points of water on the two scales: 180/100.
mass of the substance multiplied by its temperature.
The amount of heat in a substance may greatly affect Example:
the nature of the substance. Adding heat causes most Convert 22°C to degrees Fahrenheit.
substances to expand; removing heat causes them to
contract. Solution:
Use the formula for converting degrees Celsius to
degrees Fahrenheit:
4.6.1 Temperature and Heat Relationship F = 9/5 x C + 32
Temperature is a measure of the heat intensity or Insert the known Celsius value:
heat level of a substance. Remember that all atoms in a F = 9/5 x 22 + 32
substance are in motion. As the substance gets hotter, Perform the multiplication:
those atoms move faster. As the substance cools, the F = 39.6 + 32
atoms slow down. Add the remaining values for the total:
Temperature alone does not give the amount of F = 71.6°
heat energy in a substance. In order to calculate the Temperature conversion charts are provided in
total heat contained in a substance, the temperature the Appendix.
must be multiplied by the mass of the substance. For
example, a small copper dish weighing a few grams, Absolute Temperature Scales
heated to 1340°F (727°C) does not contain as much Absolute zero is the temperature at which molec-
heat energy as 5 kilograms of copper heated to 284°F ular motion stops. It is the lowest temperature pos-
(140°C). However, the heat intensity of the smaller dish sible. There is no heat in the substance at this point.
is greater. It is important not to use the words heat and An absolute temperature scale is a temperature scale
temperature carelessly. that uses absolute zero as its starting point. It is used
in cryogenics (very low temperature work). There are
Temperature Scales two absolute temperature scales. These two scales are
The two most common temperature scales are the the Rankine scale (Fahrenheit absolute scale) and the
Fahrenheit scale and the Celsius scale. The Celsius scale Kelvin scale (Celsius absolute scale).
is used in the SI system of measurement and is named The Rankine scale uses the same increments
in honor of Anders Celsius, the Swedish astronomer (spaces between degrees) as the Fahrenheit scale.
who recommended the new system. Celsius is some- However, zero on the Rankine scale (0°R) is equiva-
times called the Centigrade scale. The Fahrenheit scale lent to -460°F. The Kelvin scale uses the same incre-
is named after German scientist Daniel Fahrenheit and ments as the Celsius scale. However, zero on the Kelvin
is used in the US Customary system. scale (OK) is equivalent to -273°C. Note that scientists

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 4 Energy and Matter 61

omit the degree symbol ( when writing Kelvin tem-

0
) Problem:
peratures. Therefore, Kelvin temperatures are often What are the temperatures on the Kelvin scale at 2
expressed with the numerical value and just the letter which water freezes and boils?
K, not using a degree symbol. Figure 4-6 compares the
Celsius, Kelvin, Fahrenheit, and Rankine scales. Solution, freezing point:
Absolute temperature scales are not used by the Water freezes at 0°C. A temperature on the Kelvin
technician during normal service work. They are typi- scale is 273 degrees greater than the same temperature
cally used by engineers in designing various parts of on the Celsius scale. Therefore, the freezing temperature
heating and air conditioning systems. The absolute of water is 273 degrees above zero Kelvin (K), or 273K.
temperature scales are also used to identify the opera-
tional performance of a product. These ratings can then Solution, boiling point:
be used by the technician to compare one manufactur- Water boils at 100°C. The boiling point of water on
er's products with those of another manufacturer. the Kelvin scale will be: 100 + 273 = 373K.

Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit Rankine

672 Boiling temperature

100 373 212
of water

80 353 176 636

60 333 140 600

40 313 104 564

528 Standard conditions

20 293 68
temperature
492 Freezing temperature
0 273 32
of water

-20 253 -4 456

-40 233 -40 420

II
I I I I
I I .. "II .
II. .. I I .
·o
Absolute zero

Ll Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 4-6. A comparison between the Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Rankine temperature scales is shown here.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

62 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Ambient Temperature work, the kilojoule (kJ) is used. One kilojoule equals
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the 1000 joules. The amount of heat required to raise the
air surrounding an object. This may be in reference to temperature of 1 kg of water 1°C is equal to 4.187 kJ.
a motor that is indoors or to a condenser that is out- See Figure 4-8B.
doors. Ambient depends on the context and the part in
question. For example, a motor operated at full power Calculating Change in Heat
may be guaranteed not to get hotter than 72°F (40°C) Whether a substance is cooled or heated, the
above the ambient temperature. Then, if the room tem- change in heat is calculated the same way, providing
perature (ambient temperature) is 86°F (30°C), the tem- no physical state change occurs (from solid to liquid or
perature of the motor could get as high as 158°F (70°C) liquid to gas, etc.). The temperature difference is multi-
when working at full power. plied by the mass of the substance, which is then mul-
Ambient temperature is not usually constant. It tiplied by the specific heat of the substance. The result
may change day-by-day and hour-by-hour, depending is the amount of heat added or removed to cause the
on usage of the space, sunshine, and many other fac- stated temperature change. The following are formulas
tors. This is why most equipment specifications will for US Customary and SI calculations. The Ll symbol is
include a maximum ambient temperature or an aver-
age ambient temperature.
Specific Heat Capacities of Common
4.6.2 Calculating Heat Energy Substances
As mentioned earlier, temperature indicates the Specific Heat Capacity
intensity of heat in a substance, but not the quantity of Substance
Btu/lb°F kJ/kgK
heat. To determine the quantity of heat in a substance,
you need to know the temperature and the mass of Alcohol 0.615 2.575
the substance. You also need to know the specific heat Brick 0.200 0.837
capacity of the substance. Copper 0.095 0.398
Specific Heat Capacity Glass 0.187 0.783
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the Glycerin 0.576 2.412
amount of heat added or released to change the tem-
Graphite 0.200 0.837
perature of one pound of a substance by 1°F. In the SI
system, specific heat capacity is the amount of heat Ice 0.504 2.110
needed to change one kilogram of a substance by one Iron 0.129 0.540
degree Kelvin. The specific heat capacity of a sub-
Mercury 0.033 0.139
stance is the same in both the Kelvin and Celsius scales
because they use the same increments. R-12 0.213 0.892
Different substances require different amounts of R-22 0.260 1.089
heat per unit of mass to cause changes in temperature. R-134a 0.204 0.854
The heat required to change the temperature of a sub-
stance also varies depending on whether the substance R-410A 0.200 0.840
is in its solid, liquid, or gaseous state. The specific heat R-502 0.255 1.068
capacities of common substances are shown, in both SI R-717 (liquid 1.100 4.606
and US Customary units, in Figure 4-7. Note that even ammonia @ 40°F)
though water and ice are the same substance, they
R-744 (carbon 0.600 2.512
have different specific heat capacities because they are dioxide @ 40°F)
in different physical states: solid and liquid.
Salt brine 20% 0.850 3.559
Heat Units Water (R-718) 1.000 4.187
The US Customary unit of heat is the British
Wood 0.327 1.367
thermal unit (Btu). The Btu is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1°F. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
See Figure 4-SA. Where large heat loads are involved, Figure 4-7. This table shows the specific heat capacity values for
the unit therm (equaling 100,000 Btu) is often used. some substances. See the Appendix for a more extensive list.
In the SI system, the unit of heat is the joule (J).
A joule is a very small unit of heat. For refrigeration

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 4 Energy and Matter 63

64°F after } 1 Btu

63°F before added
18°C after } 4.187 kJ
17°C before added
I
Thermometer Thermometer

Burner Burner

A B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 4-8. Each unit of heat energy (Btu and joule) is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
specific quantity of water by a specific amount. A-Raising the temperature of one pound of water from 63°F to 64°F requires one
British thermal unit of heat. B-lt takes 4.187 kJ of heat to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from 17°C to 18°C.

used to show a change, such as a change in tempera- Example:

ture or a change in heat. Calculate the amount of heat (in Btu) required to
raise the temperature of 62.4 lb of water from 40°F to
Formula for calculating change in heat: goop_
LiQ=mxcxLiT
Solution:
For US Customary calculations: The specific heat capacity (c) of water is 1 Btu/lb F. 0

LiQ = change in heat (Btu) To calculate the change in heat (LiQ), multiply the spe-
m = mass (lb) cific heat capacity (1 Btu/lb°F) by the change in tem-
c = specific heat capacity (Btu/lb°F) perature (80°F - 40°F = 40°F) and the mass (62.4 lb).
LiT = change in temperature (°F) LiQ = m xcxLiT
LiQ = 62.4 lb X 1 Btu/lb°F X (80°F - 40°F)
For SI calculations: Start by solving the equation within the parenthe-
LiQ = change in heat (kJ) sis: (80°F - 40°F).
m = mass (kg) LiQ = 62.4 lb X 1 Btu/lb°F X (40°F)
C = specific heat (kJ/kg°C or kJ/kgK)
Multiply out the equation one pair at a time, start-
LiT = change in temperature (°C or K)
ing on the left.
LiQ = 62.4 Btu/°F x (40°F)
Unit equivalents, heat:
Multiply the final pair to solve the equation.
1 kJ = 0.948 Btu
LiQ = 2496 Btu
1 Btu = 1.055 kJ

Unit equivalents, temperature: Example:

l°C = lK Determine the amount of heat (in Btu) that must be
l°F = l R 0 removed to cool 40 lb of 20% salt brine from 60°F to 20°F.

Unit equivalents, specific heat: Solution:

1 Btu/lb°F = 4.187 kJ/kg°C According to Figure 4-7, the specific heat capacity
1 kJ/kg°C = 0.2388 Btu/lb°F of 20% salt brine is 0.85 Btu/lb F. Multiply this value
0

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

64 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

by the change in temperature and the mass to calculate Enthalpy

the change in heat. Enthalpy, as it is used in refrigeration work, is the
D,.Q=mxcxD,.T total amount of heat in a substance, calculated from an
D,.Q = 40 lb X 0.85 Btu/lb°F X (60°F - 20°F) accepted reference temperature. For water and water
Start by solving the equation within the parenthesis: vapor calculations, the reference temperature is 32°F
(60°F - 20°F). (0°C). For refrigerant calculations, the accepted refer-
D,.Q = 40 lb X 0.85 Btu/lb°F X (40°F) ence temperature is -40°F (-40°C).
Multiply out the equation one pair at a time, starting The formula for calculating enthalpy is identical
on the left. to the formula for calculating change in heat. The dif-
D,.Q = 34 Btu/°F x (40°F) ference between calculating enthalpy and calculating
Multiply the final pair to solve the equation. a change in heat is that, in an enthalpy calculation, the
D,.Q = 1360 Btu difference in temperature is the difference between a
single measured temperature and the reference tem-
Example: perature. In a change in heat calculation, the difference
Find the amount of heat (in kJ) required to raise in temperature is calculated between two measured
the temperature of 1 kg of water from 4°C to 27°C. temperatures.

Solution: Formula for calculating enthalpy:

The specific heat capacity of water is 4.187 kJ/ H=mxcxD,.T
kg C. To determine the change in heat (D,.Q), multiply
0
where
4.187 kJ/kg°C by the mass (1 kg) and change in tem- H = enthalpy
perature (27°C - 4°C = 23°C). m = mass of substance
D,.Q=mxcxD,.T c = specific heat of substance
D,.Q = 1 kg X 4.187 kJ/kg°C X (27°C-4°C) D,.T = difference between measured temperature
Start by solving the equation within the parenthesis: and reference temperature
(27°F - 4°F).
D,.Q = 1 kg X 4.187 kJ/kg°C X (23°C) Example:
Multiply out the equation one pair at a time, start- What is the enthalpy of 1 lb of water at 212°F,
ing on the left. assuming 0 enthalpy at 32°F?
D,.Q = 4.187 kJ/°C X (23°C)
Multiply the final pair to solve the equation. Solution:
D,.Q = 96.301 kJ The specific heat of water (c) is 1 Btu/lb F. Thus,
0

H=mxcxD,.T
Example: H = 1 lb x 1 Btu/lb°F x (212°F - 32°F)
Find the amount of heat (kJ) that must be removed Start by solving the equation within the parenthesis:
to cool 15 kg of 20% salt brine from 16°C to 7°C. (212°F - 32°F).
H = 1 lb X 1 Btu/lb°F X (180°F)
Solution: Multiply out the equation one pair at a time, starting
According to Figure 4-7, the specific heat capac- on the left.
ity of 20% salt brine in SI units is 3.559 kJ/kg C. Use
0
H = 1 Btu/°F x (180°F)
the values for mass (15 kg) and change in temperature Multiply the final pair to solve the equation.
(16°C - 7°C = 9°C) to find the change in heat. H = 180Btu
D,.Q=mxcxD,.T The total enthalpy of 1 lb of water at 212°F is
D,.Q = 15 kg X 3.559 kJ/kg°C X (16°C - 7°C) 180 Btu.
Start by solving the equation within the parenthe-
sis: (l6°F - 7°F). Example:
D,.Q = 15 kg X 3.559 kJ/kg°C X (9°C) What is the total enthalpy of 5 kg of water at 80°C,
Multiply out the equation one pair at a time, start- assuming 0 enthalpy at 0°C?
ing on the left.
D,.Q = 53.385 kJ/°C X (9°C) Solution:
Multiply the final pair to solve the equation. The specific heat of water (c) is 4.187 kJ/kg C. Thus,
0

D,.Q = 480.465 kJ H = 5 kg x 4.187 kJ/kg°C x (80°C-0°C)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 4 Energy and Matter 65

Start by solving the equation within the parenthesis:

(80°C - 0°C).
H = 5 kg x 4.187 kJ/kg°C x (80°C)
Multiply out the equation one pair at a time, start-
ing on the left.
H = 20.935 kJ/°C x (80°C)
Solution:
h = _!i_
m
h = 2000Btu
100 lb
I
Multiply the final pair to solve the equation. h = 20 Btu/lb
H = 1674.8 kJ (total enthalpy at 80°C)
The total enthalpy of 5 kg of water at 80°C is 1674.8 Btu.
4.6.3 Methods of Heat Transfer
Specific Enthalpy
Heat always flows from a warmer substance to
Specific enthalpy is enthalpy per unit of mass. It
a cooler substance. The faster moving atoms give
is measured in Btu per pound or kilojoules per kilo-
up some of their energy to slower moving atoms.
gram. Tables showing the enthalpy of substances and
Therefore, each fast atom slows down a little and each
pressure-enthalpy diagrams are based on specific
slower atom moves a little faster.
enthalpy. Specific enthalpy is calculated by dividing
Heat can be transferred or moved from one body
the enthalpy by the mass of the substance.
to another by radiation, conduction, or convection.
Formula for calculating specific enthalpy: Three methods of heat transfer are commonly used in
comfort heating and cooling, Figure 4-9.
h = _!i_
where m Radiation
h = specific enthalpy (Btu/lb or kJ/kg) Radiation is the transfer of heat by heat rays. The
H = enthalpy (Btu or kJ) earth receives heat from the sun by radiation. Light rays
m = mass (lb or kg) from the sun turn into heat when they strike materi-
als. Materials that are more translucent absorb less heat
Unit equivalents: from the passing light. For example, air is heated very
1 kJ/kg = 0.4299 Btu/lb little as light rays pass through it. Likewise, a glass pane
1 Btu/lb= 2.326 kJ/kg absorbs little heat as rays pass through it. An object that
is completely opaque allows none of the light to pass
Example: through, so the light is either absorbed by the material,
If 100 lb of a substance absorbs 2000 Btu of energy generating heat, or the light is reflected away.
when heated from the reference state of 0 Btu/lb, what Light generates more heat when striking dark-
is the specific enthalpy? colored objects than when striking light-colored or

Radiation Conduction Convection

King Electrical Mfg. Co.; Sealed Unit Parts Co. Inc.; Cadet Manufacturing Co.
Figure 4-9. The three methods of heat transfer are radiation, conduction, and convection.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

66 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

polished surfaces. This is because light-colored and pol-

ished objects reflect more rays than they absorb. Only
absorbed light is changed into heat. Rough, dark-colored
surfaces will get hotter than light-colored or polished
surfaces because they absorb more of the light.
Any heated surface loses heat to cooler surround-
ing space or surfaces through radiation. Likewise,
A-Solid B-Liquid C-Gas
a cold surface will absorb radiated heat. Some space
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
heating systems use radiant heating sources located in
the ceilings, walls, or floors. Figure 4-10. This figure shows the three states of water.
A-Solid state. The shape and volume of the block of ice are
definite. Note the empty space around the sides of the block.
Conduction
B-Liquid state. The water takes the shape of its container,
Conduction is the flow of heat through a mate- but it does not continue expanding. C-Gaseous state. Vapor
rial due to molecular vibrations in the material. For or gas expands to fill its entire container and exerts pressure
example, a piece of iron with one end in a fire will soon uniformly in all directions.
become warm from end to end. This is an example of
the transfer of heat by conduction. The heat travels
through the iron, using the metal as the conducting solid are strongly attracted to each other. They stay in
medium. The flow can also be from one substance to the same relative position to each other, and consider-
another substance in direct contact. able force is necessary to separate them. Yet, they are
Substances differ in their ability to conduct heat. in a condition of rapid motion or vibration. The rate
In general, substances that are good conductors of elec- of vibration depends on the temperature. The lower
tricity, such as copper, aluminum, and iron, are also the temperature, the slower the molecules vibrate. The
good conductors of heat. Substances that conduct heat higher the temperature, the faster the vibration.
poorly, such as cork, foam plastics, and mineral wool, A liquid is any substance that has no definite shape
are called heat insulators. Such substances are used but has a definite volume. A liquid takes the shape of its
to insulate refrigerators and homes. Structures can use container. However, its molecules strongly attract each
insulators to maintain an inside temperature that is other. Think of the molecules as swimming among
different from the outside temperature. their fellow molecules without ever leaving them. The
higher the temperature, the faster the molecules swim.
Convection Warmer molecules move upward toward the top of
Convection is the movement of heat from one the container. This is because they take up more space
place to another by way of a liquid or gas. For example, because of their rapid movement. They become lighter
heated air moves from a forced-air furnace into the (less dense) than colder molecules.
rooms of a house. The heated air warms the rooms. A gas is any physical substance with no definite
Then cool air returns through cold air ducts to receive shape or volume, which expands to fill its container. The
another supply of heat. The same method may be used molecules, having little or no attraction for each other,
to cool a space. Unwanted heat is collected and dis- travel in straight lines. They fly around, bouncing off each
charged outside the space. A convection oven heats by other, off molecules of other substances, or off the con-
convection. It transfers heat to its contents through the tainer walls. They have little or no attraction for any other
air in the oven. substance. Figure 4-l0C shows how gases behave.
Almost any substance can be made to exist as a
solid, a liquid, and a gas. Any molecule can be made
4.6.4 Heat and States of Matter to vibrate, swim, or fly. Adding heat causes most sub-
Substances exist in three states, depending on their stances to expand and removing heat causes them to
temperature, pressure, and heat content. For example, contract. All substances change their physical state if
water at atmospheric pressure is a solid at temperatures enough heat is added or removed. For instance, water
below 32°F (0°C). It is a liquid from 32°F (0°C) to 212°F is a solid (ice) at temperatures below 32°F (0°C) at
(100°C). At 212°F (100°C) and above, water is a vapor atmospheric pressure. If enough heat is added to the
(gas). The 32°F (0°C) freezing point and 212°F (100°C) ice, it melts and becomes water, a liquid. Additional
boiling point for water apply only at atmospheric pres- heat causes the water to turn into steam, a vapor.
sure. Water is shown in its three states in Figure 4-10. Understanding how heat is absorbed and released dur-
A solid is any physical substance that keeps its ing phase changes provides the basis for understand-
shape even when not contained. The molecules of a ing how refrigeration systems function.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 4 Energy and Matter 67

Latent Heat Sometimes the heat added to a substance to cause

Heat that brings about a change of state with no it to melt is referred to as the latent heat of melting and 2
change in temperature is called latent heat. In refrig- the heat taken away to freeze a substance is referred to
eration work, the physics of latent heat is especially as the latent heat offreezing. Both of these terms refer to
important because the cooling effect of refrigeration the same heat as the latent heat of fusion.
systems is accomplished through evaporation and con- Between points D and E in Figure 4-11, 970 Btu/lb
densation of the refrigerant. Evaporation is a change in (2257 kJ/kg) of heat were added, and yet the tempera-
state from liquid to gas. Condensation is a change in ture did not change. This heat was required to change
state from gas to liquid. the water to steam. The latent heat added to a liquid to
Changes of state occur at the certain tempera- change it into a gas or the latent heat removed from a
ture and pressure combinations for a given substance. gas to change it into a liquid, is called the latent heat
When a substance is at the correct temperature and of vaporization. Sometimes, the latent heat removed
pressure, enough heat is added or removed to produce from a gas to cool it into a liquid is referred to as the
a state change. However, all of the heat energy added latent heat of condensation.
or removed while the substance is at its freezing point Figure 4-12 shows the latent heat of vaporization
or boiling point is used to change the state of the mate- for water and several common refrigerants. For water,
rial. The heat used to change its physical state does not this value is 970 Btu/lb (2257 kJ/kg). Every substance
change the temperature of the substance. has a different latent heat value. This is because each
Examine the graph in Figure 4-11. Note that a con- substance has a different molecular structure.
siderable amount of heat (144 Btu/lb, 335 kJ/kg) was
added between points B and C. Even so, the tempera- Sensible Heat
ture did not change. This heat was required to change Heat that causes a change in the temperature of a
the ice into water. The heat required to change a sub- substance is called sensible heat. When heat is added
stance from a solid to a liquid or from a liquid to a solid to a substance and the temperature rises as the heat is
is called the latent heat offusion. If a liquid substance added, the increase in heat is sensible heat. Likewise,
is at its freezing temperature, the latent heat of fusion heat may be removed from a substance. If the tempera-
must be removed from the substance to cause it to ture of the substance falls, the heat removed is sensible
change to a solid. heat.

Temperature-Heat Diagram for Water

280 (138)
Latent
240 (117)
heatr-

I/
--
D ------
......_____ I
I

E
I

J
200 (93)
E
!;'- 160 (71)
I
e:::, 120 (49) I I ~~
'!ii
G)
Cl. 80 (27)
II ~ I"-.
E
{!!.
40 (4)
B
II L----- "" 1::,Sensible
heat
L-----v-
0 (-31)
I f L.--------'
~
A
-40
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400
(464) (930) (1,394) (1,860) (2,324) (2,789) (3,254)
Heat Content Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 4-11. A temperature-heat diagram for water. From A to B, 36 Btu/lb were added to heat the ice to 32°F. From B to C,
144 Btu/lb were added to melt the ice, but the temperature did not change. From C to D, 180 Btu/lb were added to heat the water
from 32°F to 212°F. From D to E, 970 Btu/lb were added to vaporize the water, but the temperature did not change. The heat
added after point E increases the temperature of the steam, as shown by the dotted line.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

68 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

To calculate a vapor's superheat, subtract its mea-

sured temperature from its condensation point tem-
perature. In the case of water at atmospheric pressure,
this is 212°F (100°C). Thus, if water vapor has a temper-
ature of 240°F at atmospheric pressure, then its super-
heat value is 28°F (240°F - 212°F = 28°F).
Water (R-718) 970 2257 Subcooling is similar to superheat in that it mea-
sures the difference in temperature between a liquid
R-717 (Ammonia) 589 1371
and its boiling point. In Figure 4-11, water is subcooled
R-40 (Methyl chloride) 184 428 between Points C and D. To determine a liquid's sub-
cooling, calculate the difference between its measured
R-12 72 167
temperature and its boiling point. For example, if water
R-22 101 234 at atmospheric pressure has a temperature of 150°F,
then it has a subcooling value of 62°F (212°F - 150°F =
R-134a 93 216
62°F).
R-404A 87 202 Understanding how to calculate superheat and
subcooling is critical to determining whether an air
R-410A 117 275
conditioning or refrigeration system is working prop-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher erly and has the proper amount of refrigerant. More
Figure 4-12. This table shows the latent heat of vaporization information on superheat and subcooling will be cov-
of water and some common refrigerants at their normal boiling ered in more detail in later chapters.
points under atmospheric pressure. The latent heat of fusion
is not given, as refrigerants do not freeze at temperatures
commonly handled by HVACR technicians. A more extensive 4.7 Measuring Refrigeration Effect
list of substances and their latent heat values is available in
the Appendix. The ability of a refrigeration system to remove
heat can be measured in a variety of ways. The fol-
lowing sections explain the different units that can be
Two important sensible heat measurements that used to express the rate at which a refrigeration system
HVACR technicians use often are superheat and subcool- removes heat. The sections also explain how to convert
ing. Superheat is the difference in temperature between between the different units.
a vapor and its condensation point. For example, in the
graph in Figure 4-11, once the liquid water has been
completely vaporized at Point E, the addition of heat 4.7.1 Ton of Refrigeration Effect
increases its temperature. The higher its temperature, The cooling capacity of older refrigeration units
the more superheated the vapor becomes. is often indicated in "tons of refrigeration." A ton of

Ice absorbs
12,000 Btu/hr

\ii\1 I
Ice
2,000 lb

24 hours

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 4-13. Ice absorbs heat from its surroundings as it melts. The amount of heat absorbed to melt 1 ton of ice in 24 hours is
referred to as a ton of refrigeration.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 4 Energy and Matter 69

refrigeration represents the amount of heat energy Example:

absorbed when a ton (2000 lb) of ice melts during one What is the hourly Btu heat absorbing capacity of 2
24-hour day, Figure 4-13. The ice is assumed to be a a 1/2-ton refrigeration system?
solid at 32°F (0°C) initially and assumed to be entirely
water at 32°F (0°C) at the end of the 24-hour period. Solution:
Refrigeration effect = 0.5 ton x 12,000 Btu/hr
= 6000 Btu/hr
4.7.2 US Customary Units for Measuring
Refrigeration Effect
4.7.3 SI Derived Units for Measuring
Today, refrigeration systems are often rated in
Btu/hr instead of tons. The Btu equivalent of one ton
Refrigeration Effect
of refrigeration is easy to calculate. Multiply the mass Refrigeration effect can be expressed with units
(weight) of one ton of ice (2000 lb) by the latent heat derived from the SI system. You can calculate the SI
of fusion (melting) of ice (144 Btu/lb). Then, divide the equivalent of a ton of refrigeration effect by multiply-
product by 24 hours to obtain Btu/hr. ing the mass of the ice in kilograms by the latent heat
of fusion of ice in kilojoules per kilogram. This gives
Unit equivalents: you the total amount of heat absorbed to melt the ice. If
. . 2000 lb x 144 Btu/lb you divide this total by the length of time required to
One ton of refngerahon effect = - - - - - - - melt the ice in seconds, the result is the SI equivalent of
24 hrs
a ton of refrigeration effect.
Start by solving the equations above the fraction
bar (2000 lb x 144 Btu/lb):
Example:
1 ton = 288,000 Btu What is the refrigeration effect in kilowatts of a
24hrs refrigeration system with a 1 ton capacity?
Then, divide the two values remaining (288,000 Btu
+ 144 Btu/lb): Solution:
1 ton = 12,000 Btu/hr . . eff ect = - mxh
If, on the other hand, the Btu/hr capacity of the Rf
e ngerahon -
system is known, you can find the equivalent tonnage where t
rating by dividing the capacity by 12,000 Btu/hr. h (for water) = 335 kJ/kg
1 ton= 907 kg
Example: 24 hr = 86,400 s
What will be the ton rating of a refrigeration sys- . . 907 kg X 335 kJ kg
Refngerahon effect = - - = - - - - - - =
tem capable of absorbing 1,728,000 Btu in 24 hours? 86,400 s
Start by solving the equations above the fraction
Solution: bar (907 kg x 335 kJ kg):
. . ff 1,728,000 Btu/24 hours 303,845 kJ
Ref ngerahon e ect = - - - - - - - -
12,000 Btu/hr 86,400 s
Divide the remaining values to determine the ton-
Start by solving how many Btu are removed per nage (303,845 kJ + 86,400 s):
hour (1,728,000 Btu + 24 hours): = 3.5 kJ/s = 3.5 kW
72,000 Btu/hr
12,000 Btu/hr Unit equivalents:
1 ton refrigeration effect 12,000 Btu/hr
Divide the remaining values to determine the ton- 1 ton refrigeration effect 3.5kW
nage (72,000 Btu/hr + 12,000 Btu/hr):
= 6 tons of refrigeration effect

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary Review Questions
• There are two basic systems of measurement: Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper. Do not
US Customary and SL Both are important write in this book.
to know for HVACR work, depending on 1. The two main classifications of energy are
geographic location.
• Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and A. force and power
gas. Energy is the ability to perform work or B. matter and electricity
the ability to cause a change in matter. C. positive and negative
• The weight of a substance is a measurement D. potential and kinetic
of the force of gravity acting on the substance. 2. The law of conservation of energy states that
On earth, a substance's weight is equal to its
mass. The density of a substance is calculated A. energy can be changed from one form to
by dividing the mass of the substance by its another
volume. B. energy cannot be created
• The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of C. energy cannot be destroyed
the substance's density to the density of water. D. All of the above.
Relative density is the ratio of a gas's density to 3. _ _ is the rate at which work is performed.
that of hydrogen. A. Energy
• Force is energy applied to matter that causes B. Force
a change in the matter's velocity. Work is the C. Power
application of force through a distance. Power D. Weight
is the rate at which work is performed. 4. Temperatures measured on the _ _ scale
• Temperature is the heat intensity of a can be converted to Fahrenheit temperatures
substance. It is commonly measured using the by subtracting 460°F.
Fahrenheit or Celsius temperature scales. A. Celsius
• The amount of heat energy required to raise the B. Kelvin
temperature of 1 lb of a substance by 1°F or 1 kg C. Centigrade
of a substance by lK is a substance's specific D. Rankine
heat capacity. 5. The of a substance is the amount of heat
• Enthalpy is the total heat energy a substance added or released to change the temperature
contains, measured from an accepted reference of 1 lb of the substance by 1°F or 1 kg of the
temperature. substance by lK.
• Heat can be transferred through radiation, A. enthalpy
conduction, convection, or a combination of B. latent heat content
all three methods. Heat always flows from a C. sensible heat coefficient
warmer substance to a cooler substance. D. specific heat capacity
• A solid has a definite shape and volume. A 6. Enthalpy is the _ _.
liquid has a definite volume, but its shape can A. best means of transferring heat
change to conform to its container. A gas does B. heat required to change a substance from
not have a definite volume or a definite shape. a liquid to a gas
C. heat required to change a substance from
• Latent heat is heat absorbed or released as a
a solid to a liquid
substance changes state. Latent heat has no effect
D. total amount of heat in a substance,
on the temperature of a substance. Sensible
calculated from an accepted reference
heat is the heat energy absorbed or released to
temperature
change the temperature of a substance.
• One ton of refrigeration effect provides cooling
equivalent to melting a ton of ice over a 24-hour
period. The ton unit is equivalent to 12,000 Btu/hr.

70 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 4 Energy and Matter 71

7. _ _ is the method by which heat is

transferred from one substance to another
through a circulating medium, such as air or
water.
A. Conduction
B. Convection
14. Relative density is defined as the ratio of
the mass of a certain volume of a gas as
compared to the mass of an equal volume
of hydrogen. Knowing this concept and that
density is mass per volume, a heavy gas
would then have a relative density _ _.
I
C. Enthalpy A. equal to 1
D. Radiation B. greater than 1
8. Heat energy can be categorized as latent heat C. less than 1
and heat. D. None of the above.
A. active 15. A ton of refrigeration effect is defined as the
B. kinetic
C. potential A amount of heat energy absorbed when a
D. sensible ton of ice melts during one 24-hour day
9. Latent heat is heat added to a substance that B. amount of heat energy absorbed when a
ton of water at 68°F evaporates
A. causes the substance to change state C. cooling capacity of a system charged with
B. has no effect whatsoever on the substance a ton of R-134a refrigerant
C. raises the temperature of the substance D. cooling capacity required to completely
D. raises the temperature of the substance freeze a ton of 68°F water in one hour
and causes it to change state
10. The density of a substance is defined as the
mass of the substance
A. divided by the force of gravity
B. divided by its volume
C. multiplied by the force of gravity
D. multiplied by its volume
11. The weight of a substance is defined as the

A. force of gravity acting on the substance

B. density of the substance divided by its
mass
C. density of the substance multiplied by its
mass
D. number of molecules of the substance
divided by its density
12. If a substance has a specific gravity less than
1.0, it means that the substance is _ _.
A. denser than water
B. a gas, not a liquid
C. less dense than water
D. not affected by gravity
13. Objects that float on water have a _ _.
A. high superheat value
B. greater specific volume than water
C. specific gravity greater than 1
D. specific gravity less than 1

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTERS Gases

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
:ij • Describe the effect on gas pressure and temperature
Chapter Outline ::
5 when its volume is increased or decreased.
§=_ • Describe Pascal's law and provide examples of it in
5.1 Volume
the HVACR industry.
5.2 Pressure
5.2.1 Pascal's Law ii • Illustrate the effect of pressure and heat on the three
5.2.2 Relationship of Pressure to Volume and Heat states of matter.
5.2.3 Effect of Pressure on State Changes in Matter • Differentiate between gauge pressure and absolute
5.2.4 Measuring Pressure pressure.
5.3 Gas Laws • Understand how the concepts of Boyle's law,
5.3.1 Boyle's Law Charles' law, Gay-Lussac's law, and the combined
5.3.2 Charles' Law gas law explain the behavior of refrigerant in the
5.3.3 Gay-Lussac's Law operation of a mechanical refrigeration system.
5.3.4 Combined Gas Law
• Describe Dalton's law and explain how it can be
5.3.5 Avogadro's Law and the Ideal Gas Law
applied to HVACR work.
5.3.6 Dalton's Law
5.4 Saturated Vapor • Explain the significance of saturated vapors in a
5.5 Basic Processes That Provide Cooling Effect refrigeration system.
5.5.1 Air Exchange • Describe how the processes of air exchange,
5.5.2 Pressure Change pressure change, and state change provide a cooling
5.5.3 State Change effect.
Technical Terms
adiabatic compression
atmosphere
Gay-Lussac's law
heat of compression
Review of Key Concepts
Chapter 5 Gases

Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help

you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
73

I
Avogadro's law partial vacuum • Heat is a form of energy that causes the motion
bar pascal of atoms. Cold means low temperature or lack of
Boyle's law Pascal's law heat. Temperature is a measure of the heat intensity
Charles' law perfect vacuum or heat level of a substance. Enthalpy is the total
combined gas law pressure amount of heat in a substance. (Chapter 4)
critical pressure saturated vapor • The two most common temperature scales are the
critical temperature torr Fahrenheit scale (US Customary) and the Celsius scale
Dalton's law (SI system). Ambient temperature is the temperature of
the air surrounding an object. (Chapter 4)
• An absolute temperature scale is a temperature scale
that uses absolute zero as its starting point. There are
two absolute temperature scales: Rankine (Fahrenheit
absolute) and Kelvin (Celsius absolute). (Chapter 4)
• The three methods of heat transfer are radiation,
conduction, and convection. (Chapter 4)
• Matter has three physical states: solid, liquid, and
gas. The physical state of a substance is determined
by applied pressure and temperature. (Chapter 4)
• Latent heat brings about a change of state with no change
in temperature. Sensible heat causes a change in the
temperature of a substance. Superheat is the difference
between a vapor's temperature and its condensation
point. Subcooling is the difference between a liquid's
temperature and its boiling point. (Chapter 4)
• Evaporation is a process that absorbs heat into the
evaporating substance. Condensation is a process that
releases heat from a condensing substance. (Chapter 4)

Introduction
The previous chapter introduced some basic science
concepts related to temperature and heat. This chapter
provides additional foundational knowledge of scientific
concepts, focusing on the behavior of gases.
Refrigeration systems function by continuously chang-
ing the phase of a refrigerant from liquid to gas and then
back to liquid. One phase change absorbs heat while the
other releases heat. By controlling the location where these
phase changes occur, heat is transferred from one location to
the other using the refrigerant as the transport medium.
74 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

5.1 Volume A solid weight of 1 lb with a bottom surface area

of 1 in 2 exerts a pressure of 1 pound per square inch
Volume is the physical space that a substance occu- (1 psi) on a flat surface. Liquid in a container exerts an
pies. In most cases, solids and liquids are practically increasing pressure on the sides and bottom of its con-
noncompressible. This means that solids and liquids tainer as the liquid depth increases. The pressure of
have a specific volume that can be measured. On the gas in a container depends on the quantity and tem-
other hand, gases do not have a fixed volume. Gases perature of the gas. As the quantity or temperature of
expand to fill whatever container they are in. the gas increases, so does the pressure.
As a substance is heated, its volume tends to
increase due to expansion, which is caused by the Formula for calculating pressure:
increased motion in the substance's molecules. When
a substance cools, its molecules slow down, and its vol- p = _!___
ume tends to decrease due to contraction. A
If a gas is in a sealed container of a fixed volume, where
it can only expand a certain amount until it completely P = pressure (psi or Pa)
fills the container. When the gas completely fills its F = force (lb or N)
container and cannot expand further, any additional A= area on which the force is acting (in 2 or m 2)
energy put into the gas results in increases in pressure
and temperature. Example:
Determine the pressure generated when 250 lb of
force is applied over an area of 10 in 2 •
5.2 Pressure
The operation of a refrigeration system depends Solution:
mainly on pressure differences in the system. Pressure p = _!___
A
is force per unit of area. It is expressed in pounds per
square inch (psi). Pounds are the force, and inches are p = 250 lb
the area. Pressure is also expressed in pascals (Pa) or 10 in2
kilopascals (kPa) in the SI system. A pascal is a newton P = 25 psi
per square meter (N/m 2). Recall that the newton is the As shown by the pressure formula, if force increases
SI unit of force. and area remains the same, pressure will increase. If
Substances always push on the surfaces of their con- force remains the same but area increases, pressure
tainers or supports. A solid exerts a pressure on its sup- will decrease.
port. If the support were removed, the solid would fall to If the force value in the previous example was
another supporting level. A liquid exerts pressure on the increased to 500 lb and area remained 10 in 2, pressure
sides and the bottom of its container and the air above it. would increase to 50 psi. If the force remained at 250 lb
A gas expands to completely fill its container and exerts a but area increased to 25 in 2, pressure would decrease
pressure on all surfaces of its container. to 10 psi. See Figure 5-1.

If force increases, If area increases,

pressure increases pressure decreases

lt
2501b 5001b 2501b

t
10 in 2
t
10 in 2
t t
25 in 2

t t t j
p= .E. P=50psi P = 10 psi
A
P = 25 psi
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 5-1. This illustration shows how a change in force or area affects pressure. Increasing force increases pressure.
Increasing area decreases pressure.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 5 Gases 75

5.2.1 Pascal's Law to increase, or a combination of these. These three

The pascal unit of pressure is named in honor of
variables are especially important to gases and liquids. 2
They explain the behavior of refrigerants in an HVACR
the French mathematician and scientist Blaise Pascal, system. If temperature increases and volume is held
whose work revolutionized the study of hydraulics. constant, pressure increases. If temperature increases
Pascal's law states that pressure applied upon a con- and pressure is held constant, volume increases.
fined fluid is transmitted equally and undiminished As a gas is compressed into a smaller volume (as in
in all directions. A fluid is any substance whose mol- a compressor), its pressure and temperature rise. This
ecules move freely past each other. This includes both is due to the work (energy) added to the gas by com-
liquids and gases. pression. The energy added is often termed the heat of
Figure 5-2 illustrates Pascal's law. A piston is fit- compression. When a gas is compressed without gain-
ted into a small cylinder connected to a fluid-filled con- ing heat from or losing heat to its surroundings, it is
tainer. A force of 60 psi (415 kPa) is applied to the piston called adiabatic compression. Adiabatic compression
in the small cylinder. The pressure gauges show the results in a rapid increase in temperature because the
pressure being transmitted equally in all directions. heat of compression is not lost to surrounding materi-
als. A common example of compression that is nearly
5.2.2 Relationship of Pressure to Volume adiabatic is the compression stroke of a piston in a
gasoline engine. The piston compresses the mixture
and Heat of gasoline and air quickly enough that heat cannot
Pressure, volume, and heat are interrelated. As leave the mixture, causing the temperature of the fuel
energy is added to a substance, it may cause the vol- mixture to rise. In refrigeration systems, a compressor
ume of the substance to increase, the temperature of performs a similar function, which will be discussed
the substance to increase, the pressure of the substance in later chapters.

60 psi

Piston

Gauges in psi

60 psi
\/ 60 psi

60 psi
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 5-2. This drawing illustrates Pascal's law. A pressure of 60 psi (515 kPa) is pressing against all walls of the container. All
gauges have the same reading, indicating that the pressure is distributed equally throughout the fluid in the container.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

76 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

5.2.3 Effect of Pressure on State circuit. This pressure on state changes relationship is
shown in Figure 5-3.
Changes in Matter The critical temperature of a substance is the
The temperature at which a substance changes its highest temperature at which the substance may be
physical state (solid, liquid, gas) depends on the pres- liquefied, regardless of the pressure applied to it. At
sure acting on the substance. The higher the pressure temperatures above the critical temperature, the sub-
is, the higher the temperature needed to bring about a stance will always be in a gaseous state. For water,
state change. If the pressure applied to liquid water is the critical temperature is around 705°F (374°C). This
raised, the temperature at which it will vaporize into means that if water vapor is heated to above 705°F, then
steam is also going to be higher than normal. it cannot be turned back into liquid water no matter
Why does higher pressure require a higher tem- how much pressure is applied to it. It can only return
perature for liquid to vaporize? An increase in pressure to liquid state if its temperature is dropped to or below
pushing down on the water molecules forces the water 705°F (374°C). The Appendix lists critical temperatures
molecules to gain more energy in order to expand for common substances and refrigerants.
and separate from each other. The reverse is also true. The critical pressure of a substance is the pres-
If the pressure is lowered, the temperature at which sure at which the gaseous form of the substance lique-
the change of state takes place is also lowered. Water fies when the substance is at its critical temperature.
under low pressure will boil at a lower temperature When a gas is at its critical temperature, any pressure
because it is easier for the water molecules to separate less than the critical pressure causes the substance to
with less pressure pushing down on them. This prin- remain in gaseous form.
ciple is used to evacuate moisture from a refrigerant Pressure also affects the change between liquid
circuit. A vacuum pump lowers the pressure, which and solid states of matter. Generally, increasing pressure
causes moisture to vaporize and be drawn out of the increases the temperature at which a substance changes

Effect of Pressure on the Boiling Point of Water

Atmospheric pressure
310 (154) '
\

--
I
I B
270 (132) I
I -1---

E
230(110)
212 (100) ~ -
I
I
I

..I /
I
.,....... ------
- ~ - /
Boiling
point at
atmospheric
pressure
!;'- /"' I
190 (88)
e:::, / '' I
I

e
G) 150 (65) /
V I
I
I
0.
E
{!!.
VA I
I

110 (43) I I
I

I
I I
I

I
I
70 (21) I
I

I
I
30 (-1)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
(34) (69) (103) (138) (172) (207) (241) (276) (310)
Pressure psia (kPa)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 5-3. The pressure-temperature curve for water is shown here. At atmospheric pressure, water boils at 212 °F (100°C). At
point A, with a vacuum of 3 psia (20 kPa), water boils at 142°F (62 °C). Increasing pressure above atmospheric level raises the
boiling point temperature. At point B, which is at a pressure of 45 psia (311 kPa), water's boiling point is raised to 271 °F (133°C).
Higher pressure requires higher temperature for boiling. Lower pressure requires lower temperature for boiling.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 5 Gases 77

between solid and liquid. The melting point of water is a

special case. Increasing the pressure on water lowers the
freezing temperature. Decreasing the pressure raises the
freezing temperature. Figure 5-4 shows this relationship.
Water's pressure and state of change relationship
is the opposite of the general rule stated at the begin-
Water
Evaporating Temperatures at Different

Substance
Pressures

8.7 psia
192.2°F
Pressure
14.7 psia
212°F
29 psia
251.6°F
I
ning of this section. This occurs because water expands
when it freezes. Most substances expand when they R-12 -41.8°F -20.2°F 14°F
melt, and for them, the higher the pressure, the higher R-717 (ammonia) -40°F -36.4°F -0.39°F
the melting temperature.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Refrigeration systems use the effect of reduced
pressure to lower the boiling point of refrigerants Figure 5-5. This chart shows the effect of pressure on the
evaporating temperatures of three fluids used in refrigeration
inside the system. Consider the refrigerant R-134a. It
work.
boils under atmospheric pressure (15 psia or 100 kPa)
at -15°F (-26°C). If the pressure is lowered to 9 psia
(62 kPa), the boiling temperature is lowered to -35°F that register in pounds per square inch above atmo-
(-37°C). Figure 5-5 shows the effect of pressure change spheric pressure (psig or psi).
on the evaporating temperature of three substances
used in refrigeration work. Gauge Pressure and Absolute Pressure Scales
A reading of O psi on the gauge pressure scale is
equal to atmospheric pressure, which is about 14.7 psia
5.2.4 Measuring Pressure at sea level (although 15 psia is often used as an approx-
Atmospheric pressure is expressed in pounds per imate). This pressure value may also be referred to as
unit of area, inches of liquid column height, or in atmo- one atmosphere. Pressure above atmospheric pressure
spheres. In addition to the different units of pressure, registers on this type of gauge. For example, a gauge
pressure measurements may be made using a perfect pressure of 5 psig would be equal to an absolute pres-
vacuum as the zero point (absolute pressure) or using sure of 19.7 psia (5 psi + 14.7 psi).
atmospheric pressure at sea level as the zero point Absolute pressure scales register zero when pres-
(gauge pressure). The most popular gauges are those sure cannot be further reduced. A perfect vacuum is

Effect of Pressure on the Freezing Point of Water

2,028 (13,981)

1,764 (12,161)
~
~
'ii 1,470 (10,134)
~

c
ll.
'~
ca 1,176 (8,107)
~
"iii
0.
f:::, '-,.
882 (6,081)
Ill
Ill
G)

C: 588 (4,054)
"~
~
294 (2,027) I'--

0
"~
30.18 30.54 30.90 31.28 31.64 32
(-1) (-0.8) (-0.6) (-0.4) (-0.2) (0)
Temperature °F (°C)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 5-4. This chart shows the effect of pressure on the freezing point temperature of water.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

78 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

0 pounds per square inch absolute (0 psia). In solving forcing it up the tube. Since the sealed end of the tube
most pressure and volume problems, it is necessary contains a vacuum, there is no air pressure pushing
to use absolute pressures (psia). Absolute pressure is back down on the column of mercury. The barometer
gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure: 14.7 psi + in Figure 5-6 is a mercury gauge that works on this
psig = psia. principle.
The distance the fluid climbs in the tube depends
Pro Tip on the density of the liquid and the atmospheric pres-
Pressure Units sure. Under standard conditions, which are 68°F (20°C)
and 14.7 psia (101.3 kPa), a mercury column will mea-
It is important that a technician recognize whether
values are expressed in absolute pressure or gauge
sure 29.92" high.
pressure units. If the value is followed by psi or psig, It is often necessary to convert inches of mercury
the value is referring to gauge pressure. If the value into pounds per square inch absolute (psia) or other
is followed by psia, the value is referring to absolute units. Formulas are available for making accurate
pressure. conversions; however, the chart shown in Figure 5-7
makes converting easy. From this chart, you can see
that 2 in. Hg roughly equals 1 psia.
Example:
Calculate absolute pressure when the pressure Inches or Feet of Water Column
gauge reading is 21 psi. Low levels of air pressure or a vacuum can be
measured with a column of water instead of mercury.
Solution: A column of 29.92 in. Hg is equal to a water column
absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric about 34' high. The height is greater because water is
pressure so much lighter (less dense) than mercury.
= 21 psig + 14.7 psia Water columns are usually designed for measur-
= 35.7psia ing small pressures above or below atmospheric pres-
sure. These pressure measuring devices are called
Perfect and Partial Vacuums manometers. They are calibrated in inches of water
As already mentioned, a perfect vacuum is a pres-
sure that cannot be reduced any further. A perfect vac-
uum is used as the zero point for measuring absolute
pressures. A partial vacuum is any pressure below
atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia). Vacuum

Units for Pressure Measurement

Pressure measurements are often made using the
familiar psi unit. However, there are numerous other
units available for measuring pressure under certain
circumstances. These alternative units include inches
of mercury (in. Hg), feet or inches of water column,
torrs, bars, atmospheres, pascals, and kilopascals. The
following sections introduce these units and explain
I
29.92 in. Hg
Atmospheric
pressure
at sea level
why they might be used.

Inches of Mercury
In the US Customary system, pressure above atmo-
spheric pressure is generally measured in pounds per
square inch (psi). Pressure below atmospheric pressure
is measured in inches of mercury column.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
A simple mercury-column pressure gauge con-
sists of an open reservoir of mercury and a vertical Figure 5-6. This drawing shows the principle of a mercury
barometer. It consists of a glass tube closed at one end
tube that is sealed at one end. The open end of the tube
and filled with mercury. The open end is sealed and the
is submerged into the reservoir of mercury, which is tube is inverted into a reservoir of mercury. When the
exposed to atmospheric pressure. The closed end of seal is removed, the mercury in the tube drops to a level
the tube contains a vacuum. The weight of the atmo- corresponding to atmospheric pressure. Note: Mercury is a
sphere pushes down on the mercury in the reservoir, hazardous material. Do not work directly with mercury.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 5 Gases 79

30
29.92
Conversion Chart for Vacuum

Inches of Hg
Pressure Values
mmof Hg

760
psia
15
14.7
Ft of Water

33.4
Air duct

~ento'1e
atmosphere
I
29 14.5
28 711 14 32.2
27 13.5
26 660 13 29.9
Open to the Inches
25 12.5
pressure in .-~-u.,__......, of water
24 610 12 27.6 the duct pressure
23 11 .5
22 559 11 25.3
21 10.5
20 508 10 23.0
19 9.5
Water
18 457 9 20.7 Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
17 8.5 Figure 5-8. A water manometer is used to measure low pressure
16 408 8 18.4 in air ducts and gas lines. Pressure is indicated in inches of
water. It is measured by the difference in water level between
15 7.5 the two branches of the tube.
14 356 7 16.1
13 6.5
Torrs, Bars, and Millibars
12 305 6 13.8
The torr is a unit of measure that has been devised
11 5.5 for measuring high vacuums (pressure close to an
10 254 5 11 .5 absolute vacuum). The unit is named after the man
9 4.5
who invented the mercury barometer, Evangelista
Torricelli. One torr equals a pressure of 1 mm of mer-
8 203 4 9.2
cury (mm Hg), or 1/760 of an atmosphere, almost a per-
7 3.5 fect vacuum. A bar is 14.5 psia, which is nearly equal to
6 152 3 6.9 one atmosphere (14.7 psia). A millibar (mb) is equal to
5 2.5
0.001 bar, Figure 5-9.
4 102 2 4.6
3 1.5
2 51 1 2.3
1 0.5
0 0 0 0
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 5-7. This chart lists equivalent values for inches of
mercury, millimeters of mercury, pounds per square inch
absolute (psia), and feet of water for vacuum pressures.

column. Figure 5-8 shows how a water manometer can

be used for determining pressure in air ducts and gas
lines. A water column 2.3' high (or about 28") equals Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
1 psi. Figure 5-9. Vacuum gauges using torr, in. Hg, and mbar units.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

80 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Atmospheres
In some high-pressure refrigerating machines,
pressure gauges are calibrated in atmospheres. An
atmosphere is approximately 14.7 pounds per square
inch absolute (psia), which is frequently rounded to
15 psia. Two atmospheres roughly equals 30 psia.
Three atmospheres roughly equals 45 psia.
Pascals and Kilopascals
In SI units, atmospheric pressure is expressed in
kilopascals (kPa). Figure 5-10 compares pressures in
US Customary and SI units. From this chart, you can
see that kilopascals measure absolute pressure. This
means that 0 kilopascals equates to a perfect vacuum.
The pascal, rather than the kilopascal, is used Atmospheric '
for measuring high vacuums (pressures close to an pressure Vacuum
absolute vacuum). Normal atmospheric pressure is pressure
101.3 kPa. For practical purposes, gauges are often cali- (in. Hg vacuum)
brated at 100 kPa for atmospheric pressure. Uniweld
Figure 5-11. Compound gauges, like the one shown here,
Pressure Gauges measure pressures above atmosphere in psi and pressures
A service technician may have to measure both below atmosphere using units of in. Hg vacuum. On the gauge
pressure and vacuum in the same system. Therefore, shown, zero indicates atmospheric pressure.
some pressure gauges measure both. These are called
compound gauges. A scale on a compound gauge goes
up and also down from zero. Going up the scale mea-
sures above atmospheric pressure. Going down the
scale measures below atmospheric pressure (vacuum).
Figure 5-11 illustrates such a gauge.
In North America, compound gauges do not
always have kilopascal scales. As an alternative, these
gauges may have a bar scale and include an equation
to calculate the kilopascal measurement (bar x 100 =
kPa), Figure 5-12.

Conversion Chart for Pressure in SI Units

psia psig kPa
105 90 725 kilopascal
90 75 621
Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
75 60 518
Figure 5-12. This compound gauge has a pressure scale for
60 45 414 psi and bar. Remember that 1 bar equals 14.5 psia. For SI
units, the conversion equation shown allows easy calculating
45 30 311
of the kilopascal equivalent.
30 15 207
15 0 100
10 -5 69
5.3 Gas Laws
5 -10 35
Modern refrigeration systems are based on the
principle that refrigerants absorb heat as they turn
0 -15 0 from a liquid into a vapor and release heat as they
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher change from a vapor back into a liquid. For this reason,
Figure 5-10. This table lists equivalent pressures in both it is extremely important that a service technician have
US Customary and SI units. a good understanding of the way gases behave. The

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 5 Gases 81

following sections explain some of the physical laws

that govern the behavior of gases.

5.3.1 Boyle's Law

Robert Boyle (1627-1691) was one of the first true
chemists. He developed Boyle's law, which describes
Formula for Charles' Law (Pressure Constant):

where
v1 = v2
T1 T2

V1 = initial volume
v2 = final volume
I
the relationship between the pressure and volume of T1 = initial temperature
T2 = final temperature
a gas if the temperature remains constant. Boyle's law
The formula for Charles' law may not mean much
states that the volume of a gas varies inversely to the
on first look, but the formula can be rearranged to clar-
pressure, provided the temperature remains constant.
ify the principles that Charles' law represents.
If the pressure of an amount of gas doubles, its volume
drops to half of what it was originally. If the gas pres-
Ti= Vi
sure is reduced in half, the volume doubles. Therefore,
Tt = V ,!,
These rearranged formulas show the direct rela-
if either the pressure or volume is changed (with the
tionship of temperature and volume when pressure
temperature held constant), the corresponding volume
is held constant. Charles' law shows how volume
or pressure is changed inversely in exact proportion.
increases as temperature increases, when pressure
Formula for Boyle's Law (Temperature Constant): remains constant. It also shows the reverse of this: how
volume decreases as temperature decreases, when
Pz = v1 pressure remains constant.
P1 v2
where
P 1 = initial pressure 5.3.3 Gay-Lussac's Law
P2 = final pressure
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850) was a French
V1 = initial volume
chemist who discovered the relationship between pres-
v2 = final volume sure and temperature when volume is held constant.
The formula for Boyle's law may not mean much
While Boyle experimented with holding gas temper-
on first look, but the formula can be rearranged to clar-
ature constant and Charles experimented with hold-
ify the principles that Boyle's law represents.
ing gas pressure constant, Gay-Lussac experimented
Pi=Vt
with holding gas volume constant. Gay-Lussac's law
Pt=Vi
states that at constant volume, the absolute pressure of
These rearranged formulas show the inverse
a given quantity of a gas varies directly with its abso-
relationship of pressure and volume when tempera-
lute temperature. In other words, when a gas is held at
ture is held constant. Boyle's law shows how volume
a constant volume, its pressure and temperature will
decreases as pressure increases, when temperature
rise together or will fall together.
remains constant. It also shows the reverse of this: how
volume increases as pressure decreases, when temper-
Formula for Gay-Lussac's Law (Volume Constant):
ature remains constant.
!.i_ = p2
T1 T2
5.3.2 Charles' Law where
Jacques Charles (1746-1823) was a French scientist P 1 = initial pressure
who discovered the relationship of temperature and P2 = final pressure
volume of gases. While Boyle experimented with hold- T1 = initial temperature
ing temperature constant, Charles experimented with T2 = final temperature
holding pressure constant. Charles' theory was based The formula for Gay-Lussac's law may not mean
on the effects of temperature or volume when pressure much on first look, but the formula can be rearranged to
remained constant. clarify the principles that Gay-Lussac's law represents.
Charles' law states that with a constant pressure, Pi=Ti
the volume of a given quantity of gas varies directly to Pt=Tt
the absolute temperature. This means that if pressure These rearranged formulas show the direct rela-
is held constant, the volume of the gas will increase if tionship of pressure and temperature when volume
gas temperature rises, and the volume will decrease if is held constant. Gay-Lussac's law shows how tem-
temperature drops. perature increases as pressure increases, when volume

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

82 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

remains constant. It also shows the reverse of this: how shows the interrelationship of gas pressure, volume,
temperature decreases as pressure decreases, when and temperature. The combined gas law states that
volume remains constant. the ratio among a gas's pressure, volume, and tempera-
Gay-Lussac's law is extremely important and ture remains constant. Essentially, this law states that
applicable to compression refrigeration systems. A if a gas's temperature increases, its pressure or volume
refrigeration system is divided into the low side and must increase proportionally. If a gas's temperature
the high side. When the compressor is operating, the decreases, its pressure or volume must also decrease.
low side is under low pressure, and the high side is
under high pressure. Since each side of a refrigeration Formula for Combined Gas Law:
system is essentially a constant volume, Gay-Lussac's PxV=k
law is in effect. In other words, if a refrigerant's pres- T
sure is high, its temperature will also be high. On the where
low side of the system, pressure is low, so the tempera- P = pressure
ture will be low, Figure 5-13. V=volume
T = temperature
5.3.4 Combined Gas Law k = gas constant
The combined gas law combines the concepts When two of the variables are known, the third
of Boyle's law, Charles' law, and Gay-Lussac's law. It can be determined by rearranging the formula. The

Low Side High Side

Metering device
Evaporator

Low
pressure
and low
temperature

High pressure and

high temperature

Compressor

D Low-pressure vapor
• Low-pressure liquid Condenser
D High-pressure vapor
• High-pressure liquid

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 5-13. The operation of mechanical refrigeration systems are based on the principles of Gay-Lussac's law. In a fixed
volume, high pressure corresponds to high temperature, and low pressure corresponds to low temperature.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 5 Gases 83

combined gas law formula can be arranged to solve for 5.3.6 Dalton's Law
either temperature, pressure, or volume:
John Dalton (1766-1844) was an English educator 2
kxT
P=-- who experimented with mixtures of gases rather than
V one pure gas. Dalton discovered that in a mixture of
kxT gases, each gas acts as if it were occupying the space
V=--
p alone. Therefore, Dalton's law states that to determine
PxV the total pressure of a confined mixture of gases, the
T=-- pressure for each gas involved must be added.
k
There are several ways to use the combined gas Formula for Dalton's Law:
law equation and rearrange it for solving different
Pl +Pz+ ··· +PN=PT
variables. Remember that the ratio among the numbers where
must remain constant. PT = total pressure
P1 x v1 P2 x v2 P 1 = pressure of first gas
T1 T2 P2 = pressure of second gas
where + ... + PN = pressure of all other gases in mixture
P 1 = initial pressure Dalton's law is important to HVACR work, because
P2 = final pressure a refrigeration system should ideally contain only gas,
T1 = initial temperature which is the refrigerant for that system. However, due
T2 = final temperature to poor service practices, a refrigeration system can
V1 = initial volume become contaminated with air. When this occurs, total
v2 = final volume pressure within the system is the pressure of the refrig-
The principles of Boyle's law, Charles' law, Gay- erant charge plus the pressure of the air, Figure 5-14.
Lussac's law, and the combined gas law should be Pressures will no longer correspond with the pressure-
remembered throughout this book. Knowing their temperature (P/T) chart of the refrigerant due to the
concepts and how they apply to refrigeration is the key effect of the air.
to understanding system operations and being able to
troubleshoot and diagnose system problems.

Actual refrigerant Actual refrigerant

5.3.5 Avogadro's Law and the Ideal pressure equals pressure is less than
Gas Law measured ~ r e measured~ r e

Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856) was an Italian

physicist and mathematician. He was the first to the-
orize that equal volumes of gases at equal pressures
and temperatures contain equal numbers of molecules,
regardless of the mass of the gases. For example, a mil-
lion molecules of hydrogen at a given temperature and
pressure would occupy the same volume as a million
molecules of nitrogen at the same temperature and
pressure, even though the nitrogen has fourteen times
as much mass. This concept illustrates Avogadro's law.
System Containing
•
System Containing
The combined gas law shows the proportional Only Refrigerant Refrigerant and Air
relationship between temperature, pressure, and vol-
ume, but it does not include a variable for the quantity
D Refrigerant Molecules
of gas. Avogadro's law can be combined with the com-
bined gas law to create the ideal gas law. The ideal gas • Air Molecules
law provides a formula for calculating the pressure, Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
temperature, or volume for a known quantity of gas. Figure 5-14. When air is present in refrigeration system, the
This formula is used to generate many of the charts measured pressure of the system is greater than the actual
and tables used by refrigeration technicians. It is gen- pressure of the refrigerant.
erally used by engineers, rather than technicians.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

84 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

5.4 Saturated Vapor 5.5.1 Air Exchange

The term saturated vapor indicates a condition of In air exchange, heat transfers from warm air to a
balance on an enclosed quantity of a vaporized fluid. cooler surface without causing a state change. Heat always
The balance is such that some vapor will condense if flows from a warmer substance to a cooler substance. The
there is even the slightest lowering of its temperature heat can be transferred through radiation, conduction,
or an increase in its pressure. convection, or a combination of these methods. An exam-
Saturated vapors are often found where a sub- ple of a simple air exchange would be blowing warm air
stance is changing phases. For this reason, saturated across a set of cold pipes to cool the blowing air.
vapor is most often found in a refrigeration system's
two heat exchangers: the evaporator and the condenser. 5.5.2 Pressure Change
When a vapor is saturated, there is usually some of that
substance also present in liquid form. During refriger- The combined gas law points out that the pres-
ation system operation, the evaporator and condenser sure of a gas is directly variable to temperature and
each have saturated vapor. In the evaporator, liquid is inversely variable to its volume. Decreasing the pres-
boiling into vapor. In the condenser, vapor is condens- sure on a gas causes the gas to expand and/or causes
ing into liquid. its temperature to drop. This phenomenon, along with
In a saturated vapor condition, all of the substance a state change from liquid to gas, provides the cooling
has been vaporized that can be vaporized under the action in a refrigeration system.
existing conditions of pressure and temperature. If more
heat is added or if pressure is lowered, more liquid will 5.5.3 State Change
vaporize. If heat is removed or pressure increased, some
vapor will condense. In an evaporator, heat is added, so Heat is either absorbed or released when matter
that the liquid boils into vapor. In a condenser, heat is changes state. As a solid changes to a liquid or a liquid
removed, so vapor condenses into liquid. changes to a gas, heat is absorbed from the surround-
ing area. Evaporative cooling systems are based on this
principle. One simple example of an evaporative cool-
5.5 Basic Processes That Provide ing system is a desert bag.
A desert bag is made of tightly woven fabric and is
Cooling Effect filled with drinking water. Since the bag is not water-
It is important that you understand the underlying proof, some water slowly seeps through to the outside.
science behind refrigeration systems, and it is impor- Thus, the outside surface of the bag remains moist.
tant to understand how those principles are applied in Moisture on the surface of the bag evaporates rapidly.
modern refrigeration systems. The following are the Much of the heat that causes this evaporation comes
basic methods refrigeration systems use to transfer from the bag and its water. Thus, heat is drawn from
heat to provide cooling action. Modern refrigeration the drinking water inside the canvas. This causes the
systems often use a combination of these methods to water temperature to drop several degrees below the
provide maximum cooling effect. temperature of the surrounding air.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary law states that equal volumes of gases at equal
pressures and temperatures contained equal
• The volume of a gas is directly related to the numbers of molecules, regardless of the mass of
temperature of the gas and inversely related to the gases. Dalton's law states that in a confined
the pressure acting on the gas. mixture of gases, the pressure of each gas must
be added to calculate the total pressure.
• Pressure is force per unit of area. If the level
of force is increased, pressure increases. If the • A saturated vapor describes an enclosed
level of area increases, pressure decreases. In quantity of a vaporized fluid that could
US Customary, pressure is generally expressed condense if heat were removed or pressure
in pounds per square inch (psi). In SI, pressure increased. Saturated vapor often exists
is generally expressed in pascals or kilopascals. alongside a liquid form of the same substance.
This is common in evaporators and condensers
• Pascal's law states that pressure applied upon during refrigeration system operation.
a confined fluid is transmitted equally and
undiminished in all directions. This law • The three basic processes that provide a cooling
applies to both liquids and gases. effect are air exchange, pressure change, and
state change. These three processes are used
• The critical temperature of a substance is the in a refrigeration system to absorb heat out
highest temperature at which a substance can of a conditioned space and expel it into an
be liquefied. The critical pressure of a substance unconditioned space.
is the pressure at which the gaseous form of a
substance will liquefy when the substance is at
its critical temperature.
• Pressure, volume, and heat are interrelated.
Review Questions
If volume is held constant while temperature Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper. Do not
increases, pressure will increase. If volume is write in this book.
decreased, pressure and temperature rise.
1. A gas is any physical substance that has
• The higher the pressure is on a substance,
the higher the temperature needed to bring .
A. a definite volume, but takes the shape of
about a change of physical state. The reverse 1s
the container holding it
also true. The lower the pressure applied to a
B. a definite volume and shape
substance, the lower the temperature needed to
C. a relative density less than 1.0
bring about a change of physical state.
D. no definite volume or shape and expands
• Pressure scales that set zero at atmospheric to fill its container
pressure are referred to as gauge pressure scales.
2. According to the definition and the formula
Pressure scales that set zero at a perfect vacuum
for pressure, if the area increases, _ _.
are referred to as absolute pressure scales.
A. force decreases
• Vacuum may be measured in units of inches B. force increases
of mercury, (in. Hg), feet or inches of water C. pressure decreases
column (in H 20), torrs, bars, millibars, psia, D. pressure increases
microns, and kilopascals.
3. According to Pascal's law, if a piston applies
• Boyle's law states that if temperature is pressure to fluid in a sealed cylinder, the
held constant, volume varies inversely with pressure will _ _.
pressure. Charles' law states that if pressure A. be applied equally and undiminished to
is held constant, volume varies directly with all surfaces of the cylinder
temperature. Gay-Lussac's law states that if B. be greatest near the piston and least at the
volume is held constant, temperature varies farthest point from the piston
directly with pressure. C. remain unchanged, but the temperature of
• The combined gas law shows the the fluid will decrease
interrelationship of gas pressure, volume, and D. remain unchanged, but the temperature of
temperature. It states that the ratio among the fluid will increase
these variables remains constant. Avogadro's

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 85

86 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

4. Critical pressure is the _ _.

A. maximum pressure a substance is capable
of achieving
B. minimum pressure at which a gas at its
critical temperature can condense
C. minimum pressure at which a substance
at its critical temperature can remain solid
D. pressure applied to a solid that causes it to
change to a liquid
5. The _ _ the pressure on a substance, the
_ _ the temperature needed to bring about
a change of physical state.
A. higher, higher
B. higher, lower
C. lower, higher
D. None of the above.
6. law states that if volume is held
constant, temperature varies directly with
pressure.
A. Boyle's
B. Charles'
C. Dalton's
D. Gay-Lussac's
7. law states that in a confined mixture of
gases, the pressure of each gas must be added
to calculate the total pressure.
A. Boyle's
B. Charles'
C. Dalton's
D. Gay-Lussac's
8. According to the combined gas law, if the
pressure of a gas is held constant as its
temperature is increased, then the volume of
the gas _ _.
A. decreases
B. increases
C. remains constant
D. None of the above.
9. A saturated vapor will condense if the _ _.
A. temperature of the vapor is increased
B. pressure of the vapor is decreased
C. pressure of the vapor is decreased and the
temperature is increased
D. pressure of the vapor is increased and the
temperature is decreased
10. A cooling effect can be generated through

A. air exchange
B. pressure change
C. state change
D. All of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 5 Gases 87

Hampden Engineering Corporation

HVAC training kits place all the components of a system in an easy to access arrangement so students can measure, observe,
and understand all aspects of system operation.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER6 Basic Refrigeration
Systetns

Chapter Outline
6.1 Compression Refrigeration Cycle
6.2 High Side and Low Side
6.3 Compression Learning Objectives
6.3.1 Compressor
6.3.2 Oil Separator Information in this chapter will enable you to:
6.4 Condensing • Explain how phase changes are used in refrigeration
6.4.1 Condenser systems to transfer heat.
6.4.2 Liquid Receiver • Describe how phase change is possible through
6.4.3 Liquid Line pressure change or the addition or removal of heat.
6.4.4 Liquid Line Filter-Drier
• Summarize the four phases of the compression
6.5 Metering Device
refrigeration cycle.
6.6 Evaporating
6.6.1 Evaporator • Identify the components that divide the low and
6.6.2 Accumulator high sides of a compression refrigeration system.
6.6.3 Suction Line • Understand the purpose of each of the components
6.6.4 Suction Line Filter-Drier in a compression refrigeration system.
Technical Terms
accumulator
compressor
low side
low-side pressure
Chapter 6 Basic Refrigeration Systems

Review of Key Concepts

Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
89

I
condenser metering device • Evaporation is a process that absorbs heat into the
evaporator natural-convection evaporating substance. Condensation is a process
filter-drier condenser that releases heat from a condensing substance.
flash gas natural-draft evaporator (Chapter 4)
forced-air condenser oil separator • An increase in pressure raises a substance's
forced-draft evaporator reciprocating boiling point, and a decrease in pressure lowers a
high side refrigerant substance's boiling point. (Chapter 5)
high-side pressure suction line
• In a fixed volume, an increase in a gas's pressure will
liquid line superheated
increase its temperature. A decrease in pressure will
liquid receiver
decrease a gas's temperature. (Chapter 5)

Introduction
The purpose of any refrigeration system is to remove
heat from a space where it is not wanted. The two most
popular methods of producing refrigeration are com-
pression and absorption. Absorption refrigeration sys-
tems will be discussed in later chapters. This chapter will
introduce the basics of how a compression refrigeration
system operates and explain the purpose of each compo-
nent in the system .
90 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

6.1 Compression Refrigeration Cycle dry sponge has the potential to soak up a lot of water,
and low-pressure liquid refrigerant has the potential to
From residential comfort cooling systems to com- soak up and remove a lot of heat.
mercial freezers, all compression refrigeration equip- When the sponge is dipped in the canoe water, it is
ment removes heat using evaporation. Evaporation is similar to refrigerant entering the evaporator. Both the
one method the human body uses to cool itself. When canoe and the evaporator are the places that we want
our bodies detect that we are overheating, we sweat. to modify and control. In the evaporator, low-pressure
The perspiration absorbs heat from our skin and evap- liquid refrigerant soaks up heat and changes into low-
orates. This transfer of heat by evaporation cools us. pressure vapor refrigerant. The absorbing or soaking
The refrigerant in a refrigeration system works like up of heat by the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator
perspiration for buildings. It cools by absorbing heat. occurs for two reasons: a decrease in pressure and a
In refrigeration systems, refrigerants are fluids that difference in temperature.
absorb heat inside the refrigerated space and release First, as the refrigerant enters the evaporator, a
the heat outside. decrease in pressure causes the refrigerant's boiling
Removing heat from inside a refrigerated space is point to decrease. A lower boiling point allows some
comparable to using a sponge to remove water from a of the liquid refrigerant to evaporate, which is a pro-
leaking canoe. After the sponge soaks up some water cess that absorbs heat. Second, the rest of the cool
in the canoe, it is held over the side of the canoe and liquid refrigerant absorbs the heat of the warm air sur-
squeezed, releasing the water overboard. This pro- rounding the evaporator because of the temperature
cess transfers the water from the canoe into the lake, difference. Remember that heat naturally flows from a
where the addition of more water makes little differ- warmer to a cooler place. In this case, heat flows from
ence. Refrigeration systems transfer heat instead of the air around the evaporator to the refrigerant inside
water. In a refrigeration system, an evaporator is where the evaporator. Low-pressure liquid refrigerant is like a
the refrigerant "soaks up" heat. A compressor then dry sponge, but low-pressure vapor refrigerant is like a
"squeezes" the refrigerant into a condenser. In the con- wet sponge that has sopped up water.
denser, the absorbed heat is released "overboard" out- The compressor is a pump that draws the evapo-
side the system, Figure 6-1. rator's low-pressure vapor refrigerant into it. By com-
In a refrigeration system, the refrigerant repeat- pressing the refrigerant into an increasingly smaller
edly changes phase from liquid to vapor (gas) and back space, the compressor increases pressure and liter-
again. These liquid and vapor phase changes are due ally squeezes the low-pressure vapor refrigerant into
to changes in pressure and temperature. Low-pressure a high-pressure vapor refrigerant and expels it into
liquid refrigerant can be compared to a dry sponge. A the condenser. High-pressure vapor refrigerant is like
a soaking wet sponge that cannot absorb more water.
The compressor's squeezing causes an increase in both
Low Pressure High Pressure
the pressure and the temperature of the refrigerant.
Pressure is decreased In the condenser, heat is released from the high-
pressure, heat-soaked vapor refrigerant as a result of

Heat;s
absorbed
r-Q ~ I
.J.
Heat;s
released
the temperature difference between the hot refriger-
ant and the cooler air surrounding the condenser. The
added heat content from the compressor increases the
condenser's potential for releasing heat by raising the
temperature difference between the refrigerant and
Evaporator Condenser the air surrounding the condenser. This increased dif-
ference allows the heat to escape more quickly. The

l.. Compressor
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 00 00 00 00 00 0

Pressure is increased
_) condenser is like the space beside the boat where the
soaked sponge is wrung out into the lake. Refrigerant
leaves the condenser as a high-pressure liquid. Enough
heat is released in the condenser to change the vapor
back into liquid. This high-pressure liquid on its way
back to the evaporator is comparable to the wrung-out
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
sponge being brought back into the canoe for more
Figure 6-1. Using a sponge to remove water from a canoe
is an analogy for how a compression refrigeration system
water.
removes heat. Heat is absorbed and released due to phase In a compression refrigeration system, absorp-
changes and changes in pressure. tion and rejection of heat occurs as often as necessary.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 6 Basic Refrigeration Systems 91

Just as water can enter a canoe in several ways, such side ("low side") and a high-pressure side ("high side"),
as through leaks or waves splashing over the sides, Figure 6-2. 2
so too, can heat enter a refrigerated space. Heat leaks In the refrigeration cycle, the opening of the evap-
through the insulated walls and enters when the door orator just past the metering device is the beginning of
is opened. Heat flows from hot to less hot. Any warm the low side of the system. The low side of the system
substance placed inside a refrigerated space also serves is where heat is absorbed and removed from the refrig-
as a source of heat. Heat is not destroyed by a refrigera- erated space. It is under low pressure. The compressor
tion system. It is simply removed from the refrigerated serves as the divider between the low and high sides of
space and released outside. a refrigeration system.
The compressor then uses suction and draws in
low-pressure refrigerant, compresses it, and pushes it
6.2 High Side and Low Side into the high side under high pressure. The high side
of the system is where heat is rejected out of the refrig-
One of the most important factors in the operation eration system. It is under high pressure. The meter-
of refrigeration systems is pressure. Heat is absorbed ing device divides the high side from the low side.
or rejected based on pressure. High pressure causes The following sections explain the four phases of the
the rejection of heat. Low pressure allows the absorp- compression refrigeration cycle and the role that each
tion of heat. Refrigeration systems have a low-pressure system component plays in that cycle.

Low High
Metering device
Evaporator\ ,
I +-

' ii'

-+ +-

'
t
1
'
r----
I
I
I
t 1
t
I

' ' ,,,

Compressor

D Low-pressure vapor Condenser / \

• Low-pressure liquid
D High-pressure vapor
• High-pressure liquid

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 6-2. This diagram of a compression cycle shows the two pressure conditions. The low-pressure side extends from the
metering device, through the evaporator, and to the compressor. The high-pressure side starts at the compressor's discharge
valve and extends through the condenser to the metering device. The low side absorbs heat. The high side releases heat.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

92 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

From
Pro Tip compressor
HVACR System Pressures
An HVACR system is divided into the high side and
Ambient
temperature
~
the low side. Each side is a fixed volume. Remember Condenser and
that Pascal's law states that "pressure applied upon a ambient temperature
confined fluid is transmitted equally and undiminished are the same
in all directions." Therefore, the low side essentially has
the same pressure value throughout, and the high side
essentially has the same pressure value throughout.
The names used to refer to these pressures can To metering
vary. Low-side pressure can also be called suction device
pressure, evaporator pressure, and several other names, A
depending on circumstances. High-side pressure can
also be called discharge pressure, condenser pressure,
head pressure, and several other names, depending on
circumstances. Be aware of these different names of
From
compressor l l l l l l l l Ambient ~
system pressure. -+ - - - - - - - - - - temperature j

6.3 Compression
The compressor is the "heart" of a compression
refrigeration system. It acts as the pump of the refrig-
eration system. A compressor's role is two-fold. First, -+
it must create suction to draw heat-filled refrigerant Pressure and To metering
vapor from the evaporator (low-pressure area) into temperature device
the compressor. Because an operating compressor is increasing B
constantly drawing refrigerant out of the evaporator,
it creates low pressure there. Second, the compressor
compresses each quantity of refrigerant drawn in dur- co!~~:Ssor lllllllllllllll Ambient ~
ing suction, which increases both the pressure and -+ L..---------- temperature j
temperature of the refrigerant. The refrigerant vapor
leaves the compressor discharge line and enters the Vapor condensing at
condenser as a high-temperature, high-pressure vapor. same rate it is being
Upon startup, the compressor begins to move pumped into the
refrigerant molecules from the low side to the high condenser
side. These molecules of refrigerant enter the con-
denser from the compressor through the compres- -+
sor's discharge line. Before startup, the temperatures Pressure and To metering
inside and outside the condenser are the same. See temperature high device
Figure 6-3A. In order to promote heat transfer, the C
refrigerant vapor temperature must be increased so D Medium-pressure refrigerant
that it will give up heat to the surrounding air. D High-pressure vapor refrigerant
The longer the compressor runs, the more vapor • High-pressure liquid refrigerant
molecules it squeezes into the condenser. While the
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
condenser volume remains unchanged, its pressure
increases. With a constant volume, pressure and tem- Figure 6-3. A-Before the compressor starts, the pressure
is not high, and the condenser temperature is near ambient
perature both rise and fall together. Therefore, the con-
temperature. B-As a compressor operates, the temperature
denser temperature increases as its pressure increases. and pressure in the condenser increase, and some refrigerant
The high temperature of the refrigerant in the con- vapor condenses into liquid. C-The system is now in a state
denser causes heat to flow to the surrounding metal of equilibrium (balance). The pressure is high, much heat is
and air. This cooling continues until enough heat loss being removed, and vaporized refrigerant is condensing at the
makes some vapor molecules condense into liquid same rate that it is being pumped into the condenser.
molecules. As these molecules collect, they flow into
the liquid line. See Figure 6-3B.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 6 Basic Refrigeration Systems 93

The temperature and pressure continue to rise into a small volume at a high temperature and high pres-
until operational balance is reached. This is when the sure. This vapor is pumped into the condenser. The com- 2
number of vapor molecules that condense into liquid pressor is one of the two places that separate a system's
equals the number of vapor molecules that the com- low side and high side. A discharge line connects the com-
pressor pumps into the condenser. See Figure 6-3C. pressor to the condenser. It is smaller than the suction line,
If anything changes this balance, the condens- since vapor has been compressed to a smaller volume at
ing pressure and temperature adjust accordingly. For a higher temperature and pressure. A discharge line con-
example, if the room gets warmer, the pressure and tains superheated vapor at high pressure.
temperature rise again. This continues until just as
many vapor molecules are condensing as are being Safety Note
pumped into the condenser. Discharge Line Danger
After condensing, the refrigerant passes through the
When a system is operating, a discharge line
liquid line to the metering device. At the metering device, becomes very hot. Do not touch it.
refrigerant pressure is reduced to allow evaporation of the
liquid at a low temperature in the evaporator.
The reciprocating compressor is commonly used
in domestic, commercial, and industrial refrigeration
6.3.1 Compressor systems. Reciprocating is a term that describes moving
In a mechanical HVACR system, a compressor is a first in one direction and then in the opposite direction.
device that removes heat-laden, low-pressure vapor refrig- This movement may be in a back-and-forth direction
erant from the evaporator. It compresses (squeezes) vapor or an up-and-down direction. See Figure 6-4. While

Discharge valve Suction valve

closed closed

~ Discharge line Discharge valve

open
Suction valve
High-pressure
open
vapor

Low-pressure
vapor

Piston
0 t t

Intake Stroke Compression Stroke

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 6-4. As a reciprocating compressor moves back and forth, it draws in low-pressure vapor refrigerant and compresses it
into high-pressure vapor refrigerant.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

94 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

the compressor motor turns, the attached piston moves Oil and refrigerant mixture
up and down within the cylinder. It is this reciprocat- from compressor
ing movement of the compressor piston that provides
both the suction of the refrigerant into the compressor
and the compression of the refrigerant, which raises
•
the heat content and pressure and expels the refriger-
ant into the condenser, Figure 6-5. -+ Refrigerant to
The compressor is the most expensive and crucial condenser
component of a system. It can be thought of as being
the "heart" of the refrigeration system. Its capacity
must be matched to the capacity of the other compo-
nents to effectively push the refrigerant through the
high side at the exact rate the vapor is being removed
from the evaporator on the low side.

6.3.2 Oil Separator

Compressors are lubricated by oil. This oil is
placed inside the compressor crankcase or housing.
It is circulated to various compressor parts. In a her- -+ Oil return line
metic (sealed) system, this oil also lubricates the motor to compressor
bearings.
When the compressor operates, small amounts of
oil are pumped out with the hot, compressed vapor. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
A small amount of oil throughout the system does no Figure 6-6. An oil separator located in the discharge line.
harm. However, too much oil entering the condenser, Note the flows of refrigerant and oil.
metering device, evaporator, and filters interferes with
their !o peration. Oil can be separated from refrigerant
by placing an oil separator between the compressor An oil separator is a tank or cylinder that con-
1 and the condenser. The operation of such a
exhau.st tains a series of baffles or screens that collect oil. The
sepa~ tor is shown in Figure 6-6. oil, separated from the hot, compressed vapors, drops
to the bottom of the oil separator. A float controls a
needle valve to an oil return line connected to the com-
pressor crankcase. When the oil level is high enough,
the float rises and opens the needle valve. The pres-
sure in the oil separator is considerably higher than the
pressure in the compressor crankcase. This causes the
oil to return quickly to the compressor crankcase. The
oil serves as a liquid seal to prevent refrigerant from
entering the return line. The float closes the needle
valve when the oil level in the separator drops.
Oil separators are quite efficient. They allow very lit-
tle oil to pass into the rest of the system. Oil separators are
most commonly used in large commercial installations.
Cylinder
6.4 Condensing
End of Intake StroJ End of Compression Stroke A condenser is the part of a compression refrigera-
Volume (V 1) =8 in 3 (131 cm 3) Volume (V2 ) = 1/2 in3 (8.2 cm 3) tion system that releases heat from the vapor refriger-
Temperature (T1) =50°F 10°C) Temperature (T2) =250°F (121 °C) ant and allows the vapor to condense back into liquid.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Only liquid refrigerant should leave the condenser. A
Figure 6-5. The tempe lature of the vapor in the cylinder condenser must be sized with consideration to the size
increases as the vapor is compressed into a smaller space by of the compressor and evaporator.
the piston. High-pressure, high-temperature vapor discharged
by the compressor travels through the discharge line to

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 6 Basic Refrigeration Systems 95

the condenser. Exiting the condenser, the liquid refriger- Condensers frequently transfer heat into one of
ant travels through the liquid line to the metering device. two substances: air or water. Air-cooled condensers 2
are cooled by the flow of air. As hot, high-pressure
6.4.1 Condenser refrigerant vapor flows through the condenser tubes,
air around the condenser accepts the heat given up by
In the refrigeration cycle, a condenser removes the the condensing refrigerant. Often, air-cooled condens-
latent heat from the refrigerant vapor. By releasing the ers have fans that blow air over the tubes to remove
latent heat, the vapor condenses back to a liquid. heat more quickly. A condenser with a fan is a forced-
air condenser. Condensers without fans are natural-
Pro Tip convection condensers. These are also called static
Latent Heat Terms condensers, Figure 6-7.
A tool, part, component, or process in a refrigeration Water-cooled condensers are mainly manufac-
system may have numerous names. This can be confus- tured in three different designs: shell-and-tube, shell-
ing, but it is important for HVACR professionals to be aware and-coil, and tube-within-a-tube. In a shell-and-tube
of these different names. For example, in the paragraph condenser, cooling water flows through long, straight
above, the term latent heat can also be written as conden- copper pipes that run along the inside of a long cyl-
sation heat, heat of evaporation, evaporation heat, heat inder filled with hot refrigerant. In a shell-and-coil
of vaporization, enthalpy of vaporization, and enthalpy of condenser, water flows through a coil of copper tub-
condensation. These all refer to the heat necessary for a
ing that winds around the walls of a shell filled with
change of phase. In the case of a condenser, it is the heat
refrigerant. A tube-within-a-tube condenser consists of
for changing a vapor into a liquid.
two tubes. One tube is located inside the other. Water

coil

Hot air rises naturally

t_ __
Fans

Cool air flows up from

below to carry heat away
A B
Whirlpool Corporation; Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 6-7. A-This static condenser relies on natural convection to carry away the heat released by vapor refrigerant as it
condenses. B-A forced-air condenser uses one or more fans to disperse heat more quickly than a static condenser.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

96 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

flows through the inner tube in one direction. In the the rest of the system. This is called a pump down.
outer tube, refrigerant flows in the opposite direction Having a liquid receiver makes the quantity of refrig-
of the water flow. erant in a system less critical. When a smaller amount
of refrigerant is needed, the remaining refrigerant col-
lects in the liquid receiver.
6.4.2 Liquid Receiver Most liquid receivers have service valves. A fine
The liquid receiver is a storage tank for liquid refrig- copper mesh in the liquid receiver outlet prevents dirt
erant located on the high side between the condenser and from entering the liquid line. See Figure 6-9. Liquid
the liquid line. Occasionally, a liquid receiver is built into receivers are usually found on larger HVACR sys-
the bottom of a condenser, Figure 6-8. tems that have a significant refrigerant charge. These
During system servicing, refrigerant is often systems use either low-side float or expansion valve
pumped out of various system parts and into the liquid metering devices. Systems with a capillary tube meter-
receiver where the refrigerant can be sealed off from ing device do not use liquid receivers.

Blissfield Manufacturing
Figure 6-8. Liquid receivers can be small to very large. They allow for greater flexibility in refrigeration volume in the system,
which makes charge amount less critical.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 6 Basic Refrigeration Systems 97

desired evaporation temperature. Excessive flash

gas reduces the efficiency of the evaporator. When 2
a system has an expansion valve as its metering
device, flash gas in the liquid line can cause dam-
age to the expansion valve.

6.4.4 Liquid Line Filter-Drier

The liquid line contains a filter-drier. Liquid
line filter-driers are also called high-side filter-driers.
All systems should have a liquid line filter-drier
contaminants
installed. A filter-drier collects moisture, dirt,
metal, and other debris to prevent any from enter-
ing the metering device. The drying element in the
Vertical Liquid Receiver filter removes moisture. This moisture might other-
wise freeze in the metering device. Moisture is also
Inlet Service valve harmful when mixed with oil in a system because it
forms sludge and acid. Moisture is especially harm-
ful to hermetic units. A liquid line filter-drier is
shown in Figure 6-10.

6.5 Metering Device

The metering device controls the flow of refrig-
erant into the evaporator. Metering device, refrigerant
Mesh filters out control, and refrigerant flow control are terms often used
contaminants interchangeably. A metering device is located between
Horizontal Liquid Receiver the liquid line and the evaporator. Its function is to
lower the pressure of the refrigerant by restricting the
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
passageway into the evaporator, Figure 6-11.
Figure 6-9. Two common types of liquid receivers. Note
A metering device's restriction allows only a small
the liquid receiver service valves. They make service and
maintenance tasks easier to perform.
quantity of liquid refrigerant to pass. Since this small
quantity of liquid refrigerant does not fill all the avail-
able space in the evaporator, pressure is reduced. The
space that the liquid refrigerant does not fill is filled
with vapor refrigerant that flash boils because of the
6.4.3 Liquid Line
A liquid line is tubing that carries liquid refriger-
ant from the condenser or liquid receiver to the meter-
ing device. Copper tubing is most commonly used.
Liquid lines may be connected by brazing or using
flared fittings. Because refrigerant is compressed
at high pressure on the high side, a liquid line has a
smaller diameter than a system's suction line.
In some systems, the liquid line may be in
contact with all or part of the suction line. This
arrangement forms a heat exchanger between each
refrigerant line that warms the suction line and
cools the liquid line. This helps to prevent condens-
ing in the suction line and helps to prevent flash
gas in the liquid line. Flash gas is the instantaneous Emerson Electric Co.
evaporation of some of the liquid refrigerant. Some Figure 6-10. This liquid line filter-drier has arrows printed on
flash gas is acceptable in the evaporator because it to show the installer which direction refrigerant should be
it cools the remaining liquid refrigerant to the flowing through the device.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

98 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Inlet

A B

Dantass; Sealed Unit Parts Ca., Inc.

Figure 6-11. Two types of metering devices are shown here. A-A thermostatic expansion valve has a sensing bulb that reacts
to temperature and can modify the flow of refrigerant through the valve. B-A capillary tube, which is commonly used in domestic
refrigerators, has a narrow passageway that restricts the flow of refrigerant.

reduced pressure. The metering device maintains this Refrigerants with low boiling points are preferred,
lower pressure in the evaporator. as the temperature difference between the air and the
There are several types of metering devices: refrigerant is required for heat to flow from hot to cold.
• Fixed orifice. The temperature of the air flowing over the evapora-
tor becomes increasingly colder, which cools the con-
• Capillary tube.
ditioned area.
• Thermostatic expansion valve (TXV).
• Automatic expansion valve (AXV).
6.6.1 Evaporator
• Electronic expansion valve (EEV).
An evaporator is a heat-exchanging device that
• Low-side float (LSF).
absorbs heat into its refrigerant. When a refrigera-
• High-side float (HSF). tion system is running, liquid refrigerant entering
These types of metering devices and their charac- the evaporator from the metering device is suddenly
teristics are explained in Chapter 20, Metering Devices. under low pressure. The tremendous pressure drop
between the metering device and evaporator low-
ers the boiling temperature of the liquid refriger-
6.6 Evaporating ant. It is so low that some liquid refrigerant entering
In compression refrigeration systems, evaporation the evaporator immediately boils into vapor and
is the process by which refrigeration takes place. As absorbs heat. As the rest of the liquid refrigerant
mentioned earlier in this chapter, evaporation occurs travels through the evaporator, it boils into vapor by
when a liquid absorbs heat and becomes a gas or vapor. absorbing heat from the air around the evaporator.
In a refrigeration system, an evaporator is the compo- This absorption of heat is how the refrigeration of
nent that aids a refrigerant in heat absorption. the conditioned space begins.
Warm air passes through the fins of an evapo- Evaporators can be either natural draft or forced
rator. These fins add to the surface area of the evap- draft (forced air). With a natural-draft evaporator,
orator tubing, increasing the transfer of heat from air naturally moves by the evaporator due to
the air to the tubing. Heat is absorbed by the liquid changes in temperature and pressure. Remember
refrigerant, causing it to evaporate. The refriger- that hot air naturally rises. With a forced-draft
ant that had entered the evaporator as a liquid now evaporator, air is blown around the evaporator by a
changes to a vapor. fan, Figure 6-12.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 6 Basic Refrigeration Systems 99

A B
Lordan A.C.S. Ltd
Figure 6-12. Two different size evaporators. A-A large rail evaporator with distributor shown on its side. B-A specially made
miniature evaporator.

Pro Tip
Cooling Coil
In various publications and in the field, the terms
evaporator and cooling coil are often used interchange-
ably. However, this practice is not always accurate. Any
tubing that provides cooling using a refrigerant that
absorbs heat in order to evaporate is called an evapora-
tor. Any tubing that provides cooling using brine or any
fluid that absorbs heat but does not evaporate is called
a cooling coil. Often, cooling coils can be found on more
complicated systems, such as ground-source heat
pumps or complex commercial refrigeration systems
that include a secondary loop refrigeration system.

6.6.2 Accumulator
Refrigerant in a suction line is always supposed to be
in vapor form. However, vapor refrigerant may condense
before reaching the compressor. If this liquid refrigerant
enters the compressor, it can cause considerable dam-
age to the compressor. An accumulator is a tank in the
suction line that prevents liquid refrigerant from flow-
ing through the suction line and into the compressor. A Emerson Climate Technologies

typical accumulator has its inlet and outlet at the top. Any Figure 6-13. Note the inlet and outlet at the top of this
liquid refrigerant that flows into an accumulator falls to accumulator.
the bottom and must evaporate to enter the suction line,
Figure 6-13. Accumulators are also referred to as suction
accumulators because they are in the suction line.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

100 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Not all refrigeration systems have accumulators.

Most small systems do not require an accumulator.
Commercial system accumulators are explained in
Chapter 22, Refrigerant Flow Components.

6.6.3 Suction Line

A suction line is tubing that carries refrigerant
vapor from evaporator to compressor. A suction line
must be large enough to carry the vaporized refriger-
ant with minimal flow resistance. It should slope from
the evaporator down to the compressor. If it does not
slope, pockets of oil will collect.
A suction line is commonly made of copper tub- DiversiTech Corporation
ing. It should be insulated in order to prevent moisture Figure 6-14. Insulation is placed over a copper suction line to
from the air from condensing on the cold tubing. An prevent the formation of condensation on the line and prevent
insulated suction line keeps a system balanced and reduced system efficiency from heat absorbed outside the
running smoothly, Figure 6-14. conditioned space.

Thinking Green
low-pressure superheated gas. Although the term
Suction Line Condensation
superheated sounds like something hot, the suction
Condensation on the suction line means that line in which the superheated refrigerant flows is cool
more heat is being absorbed by the refrigerant vapor.
or cold to the touch, because the boiling point of the
The problem is that the vapor may be taking heat from
spaces that are not intended to be conditioned. This
refrigerant is so low.
additional heat absorption means that the refrigeration
system would be bearing a heavier load than it should. 6.6.4 Suction Line Filter-Drier
This causes reduced efficiency, extra work for the sys-
tem, and higher power bills for the owner. Insulating the Some systems include a suction line filter-drier
suction line can improve system efficiency. between the evaporator and compressor. A suction
line filter-drier performs the same function as a liquid
The vapor refrigerant moving through the suction line filter-drier, but it is designed for low-pressure use
line is superheated. This means that the temperature on the low side of the system. Suction line filter-driers
of the refrigerant is above its condensation (saturation) may be a part of the original system or added during
point. This additional heat content can be measured in system service for a particular purpose. Some filter-
degrees because it is sensible heat. Be aware that the driers are temporarily placed in the system to clean the
term superheat refers to the difference in temperature refrigerant. Certain system failures, such as compres-
between the actual temperature of the refrigerant and sor motor burnout, require the addition of specialized
the temperature that corresponds to the pressure of the filter-driers to protect the system from circulating acid
refrigerant. Measurement and calculation of superheat and contaminants. Figure 6-15 shows a typical suction
will be covered in later chapters. A refrigerant that is line filter-drier.
superheated must first decrease in temperature before A filter-drier used in the suction line should offer
it can begin to condense into a liquid. little resistance to vaporized refrigerant flow. The pres-
Remember that it is the compressor's suction of sure difference between the evaporator and the inlet to
vapor refrigerant through the suction line that pro- the compressor should be small. If a suction line filter-
vides the low pressure necessary for the low boiling drier is causing a large or noticeable pressure drop, it
point in the evaporator. This means that the refrig- should be removed from the system. Suction line filter-
erant inside the suction line is a low-temperature, driers are also called low-side filter-driers.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 6 Basic Refrigeration Systems 101

I
Emerson Electric Ca.
Figure 6-15. The direction of refrigerant vapor flow is
indicated on this suction line filter-drier. Note the service
connections on each side of the filter. These are convenient
for connecting gauges for taking pressure measurements.

Discharge
Liquid receiver service valve Suction service
service valve valve

Suction line
serv;ce valve ~

Accumulator

Pressure
motor control

Liquid receiver Electrical wiring box

Tecumseh Products Campany
Some commercial refrigeration condensing units have nearly all the basic components of an HVACR system in one convenient
location. This arrangement promotes ease of service and installation.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary 2. _ _ refrigerant is like a soaking wet sponge
that cannot absorb more water.
• Heat transfer is accomplished in refrigeration A. Low-pressure liquid
systems by refrigerant changing phase between B. Low-pressure vapor
vapor and liquid. As a refrigerant evaporates, it C. High-pressure liquid
absorbs heat. As refrigerant condenses, it expels D. High-pressure vapor
heat. Heat always flows from hot to less hot. 3. From the metering device through the
• The four processes that make up a compression evaporator to the compressor is the _ _ side
refrigeration system are compressing, of the system.
condensing, metering, and evaporating. A. low
A compression refrigeration system uses B. high
mechanical energy to drive the refrigeration C. condensing
process. D. heat-rejecting
• A compressor raises the pressure and heat 4. From the compressor exhaust through the
content of a refrigerant as it pumps the condenser and liquid line to the metering
refrigerant into the high side of the system. device is the _ _ side of the system.
A. low
• Condensation of refrigerant takes place in
B. high
a condenser. This process releases heat and
C. evaporative
changes the phase of the refrigerant from vapor
D. suction
to liquid.
• A liquid line is a refrigerant passage from a 5. Using suction, a compressor draws
condenser or liquid receiver and to a metering in refrigerant by creating _ _ in the
device. A filter-drier in the liquid line removes evaporator.
moisture and contaminants from high-side A. low pressure
refrigerant. B. high pressure
C. low temperatures
• A metering device restricts the passage of D. high temperatures
refrigerant to lower its pressure. A metering
device divides the high side of the system from 6. Using the process of compression, a
the low side. compressor increases refrigerant _ _.
A. pressure and volume
• Evaporation of refrigerant takes place in an
B. temperature and volume
evaporator. As liquid refrigerant absorbs heat, it
C. volume and heat content
changes into a vapor.
D. pressure and heat content
• A suction line is a refrigerant passage from an
7. Commonly used in different HVACR
evaporator to a compressor. It may contain an
applications, _ _ compressors use a back-
accumulator and a filter-drier.
and-forth or up-and-down motion.
• By allowing only vapor refrigerant to flow A. rotary
through a suction line, accumulators protect B. scrolling
compressors from damage that would be C. reciprocating
caused by pumping liquid refrigerant. D. centrifugal
8. A heat-exchanging device designed to expel
or reject heat is a(n) _ _.
Review Questions A. accumulator
Answer the following questions using the information in B. evaporator
this chapter. C. liquid receiver
D. condenser
1. _ _ refrigerant is like a dry sponge that has 9. A condenser that uses a fan to remove heat
the ability to soak up a lot of water. more quickly is called a _ _ condenser.
A. Low-pressure liquid A. static
B. Low-pressure vapor B. forced-air
C. High-pressure liquid C. natural-convection
D. High-pressure vapor D. water-cooled

102 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 6 Basic Refrigeration Systems 103

10. Heat flow can best be described as 18. A storage tank that traps liquid refrigerant on
A. flowing from hot areas to cold areas the low side of the system is a(n) _ _. 2
B. flowing from cold areas to hot areas A. accumulator
C. remaining stationary unless forced to B. condenser
move C. evaporator
D. remaining stationary regardless of forces D. liquid receiver
around it 19. An accumulator will function best with its
11. A storage tank for liquid refrigerant on the inlet positioned _ _ the tank.
high side of the system is a(n) _ _. A. at the top of
A. accumulator B. at the bottom of
B. condenser C. in the middle of
C. evaporator D. anywhere on
D. liquid receiver 20. The low-pressure line is sometimes called the
12. A refrigeration system with a(n) _ _ line.
metering device does not use a liquid A. condensing
receiver. B. suction
A. capillary tube C. liquid
B. low-side float D. discharge
C. automatic expansion valve
D. thermostatic expansion valve
13. Into which tank can a technician pump
a refrigeration system's entire refrigerant
charge to perform service?
A. Accumulator
B. Evaporator
C. Condenser
D. Liquid receiver
14. The high-pressure line between condenser
and metering device is called the _ _ line.
A. condensing
B. suction
C. liquid
D. discharge
15. To protect a system from dirt, moisture,
metal, and other debris, install a(n) _ _.
A. accumulator
B. filter-drier
C. metering device
D. oil separator
16. A heat-exchanging device designed to absorb
heat is a(n) _ _.
A. accumulator
B. evaporator
C. liquid receiver
D. condenser
17. The instantaneous evaporation of liquid
refrigerant in an evaporator is called _ _.
A. absorbent
B. subcooled liquid
C. superheated vapor
D. flash gas

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 7 Tools and Supplies

Chapter Outline
7.1 Hand Tools
7.1.1 Wrenches
7.1.2 Hammers and Mallets
7.1.3 Pliers
7.1.4 Screwdrivers
7.1.5 Vises
7.1.6 Twist Drill Bits
7.1.7 Cold Chisels ~
7.1.8 Punches f
7.1.9 Files ii
7.1.10 Hacksaws Learning Objectives
7.1.11 Levels Information in this chapter will enable you to:
7.2 Power Tools
• Explain how to use various hand tools.
7.3 Instruments
• Select the appropriate hand tool for a specific task.
7.3.1 Thermometers
7.3.2 Manometers • Select the appropriate power tool for a specific task.
7.3.3 Linear Measuring Tools • Monitor temperature with various thermometers.
7.3.4 Multimeters • Identify different types of fastening methods and
7.4 Standard Supplies devices.
7.4.1 Fasteners
• Compare cleaning methods and the use of various
7.4.2 Gaskets
solvents.
7.4.3 Abrasives
7.4.4 Brushes • Identify basic supplies needed on a typical
7.4.5 Cleaning Solvents installation or service call.
7.5 Employer-Provided Tools and Equipment • Follow approved safety procedures.
 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 105

Technical Terms Introduction

abrasives lineman's pliers The tasks involved in HVACR work encompass those
adjustable wrench machine screw of a number of trades. This requires the use of a variety
bolt mallet of tools, instruments, and supplies. General hand tools
box end wrench manometer are required for mechanical work. Electrical instruments, 3
cap screw open end wrench pressure gauges, and heat-sensing instruments are needed
center punch pin punch for electrical, pressure, and temperature measurements.
cleaning solvent pipe wrench Sheet metal tools are necessary for assembling ductwork.
cold chisel pliers This chapter will cover the tools, instruments, and sup-
combination (slip-joint) plumb plies most commonly used in HVACR work.
pliers prick punch
cracking punch
diagonal pliers refrigeration service valve
double-cut file wrench
drift punch screwdriver
file single-cut file
flare nut wrench socket wrench
gasket thermometer
hacksaw torque wrench
hammer twist drill bit
hex key wrench vise
level (orientation) wrench
level (tool)
106 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Thinking Green Corresponding Wrench and Bolt Sizes

Tool and Equipment Care Nominal Bolt Size Wrench Size
A service technician relies on his or her instru- 1/4" 7/16"
ments to provide a reliable and accurate snapshot of
the condition of the system being serviced. If an instru- 5/16" 1/2"
ment is in poor working condition or is out of calibration, 3/8" 9/16"
the service technician will be unable to accurately mea-
7/16" 5/8"
sure the system conditions. Therefore, the technician
will be unable to ensure that the system is functioning at 1/2" 3/4"
maximum efficiency. Similarly, tools and equipment that
9/16" 13/16"
are in poor condition can result in improper repairs and
increased waste. 5/8" 7/8"
3/4" 1"

7.1 Hand Tools Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher

The HVACR technician performs work chiefly Figure 7-1. This table matches wrench openings with
standard bolt heads and nuts.
with hand tools. To be successful, the technician must
choose quality tools, use them properly, and take care
of them. Many service failures can be traced to poor
hand tool skills. The table in Figure 7-1 shows what size wrench
Compared to an automobile engine, refrigeration will fit the most common bolt and nut sizes. Below
equipment is relatively light. It can easily be damaged 1/2" bolt size, the wrench size is 3/16" larger than the
by abuse or carelessness. Great care is necessary to bolt size. A 1/4" bolt uses a 7/16' wrench size (1/4" +
avoid damaging refrigeration units. This section pro- 3/16" = 7/16"). At 1/2" bolt size and larger, the wrench
vides useful suggestions for the selection, care, and use size is 1/4" larger than the bolt size. For example, on a
of hand tools. 5/8" bolt, a 7/8" wrench size is needed (5/8" + 1/4" =
7/8"). The size of the wrench opening (across the flats)
7.1.1 Wrenches is marked on the wrench.
Most refrigeration and air conditioning work
Caution
requires the use of various types of wrenches. A
wrench is a hand tool with fixed or movable jaws that Wrench Leverage
can be used to grip or turn nuts, bolts, or other objects. Avoid pounding on a wrench to obtain greater
turning force or torque. Avoid using a length of pipe or
Caution another wrench for more turning force or torque. The
extra torque could damage the fastener, the wrench
Proper Size and Application handle, or the wrench head. If a fastener is frozen, use
Many fasteners and HVACR system parts are cop- a larger wrench. Apply penetrating oil to the joint if there
per or brass, which are soft metals. Be sure to use the is corrosion.
proper size and type of wrench on soft metal parts to
avoid deforming or destroying them. Technicians should have a complete set of both
standard and metric wrenches in their service vehi-
Use wrenches properly so that they fit completely cle. However, in HVACR work, some fastener sizes
on the nut or bolt. Sockets should be inserted all the are more common than others. Technicians can put
way on the nut or bolt head. A loose or worn wrench together a service tool kit that contains only the most
may slip and round off the corners on nuts or bolts. commonly required tools, which they can carry from
Proper servicing then becomes impossible without room to room. The other tools can be left in the service
replacing the ruined part. vehicle until needed.
The following are the wrenches a service techni-
Safety Note cian is most likely to need:
Proper Wrench Usage • Set of 3/8" drive sockets (12-point, 7/16" to 1"), with
Always pull on a wrench rather than push on it. 3/8" drive torque handle, speed handle, swivel
Otherwise, the sudden loosening of the nut or bolt may handle, and T-handle.
result in a serious hand injury.
• Adjustable wrench (8").

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 107

• Set of Allen wrenches. or bolt. If the handle is turned in the other direction,
• Refrigeration service valve ratchet wrenches the handle moves freely but the shaft and socket do not
(3/16", 7/32': and 1/4") with square openings. move. This ratcheting function allows the handle to
be repositioned without turning the fastener, making
• Set of 15° open-end wrenches (1/2': 3/4': 7/8': and 1'').
the wrench useful in tight places where rotating the
• Box end wrench (1/2"). wrench 360° is not possible. A button or lever switch
• T-socket wrench (1/2"). on the socket head can reverse the direction of rotation.
3
Wrenches should be made of good alloy steel and If a nut or bolt head has enough room around it,
should be properly heat-treated. They should be accu- a 6-point socket is the best socket to use. Twelve-point
rately machined and ground to fit the nut or bolt head. sockets have slightly thinner walls and can sometimes
The wrench should fit the nut or bolt head tightly, so fit where there is not enough clearance for a 6-point
that as much of the surface area of the wrench contacts socket. Socket wrench handles have a 1/4", 3/8': or 1/2"
as much of the nut or bolt surface area as possible. For square drive, or shaft. The handles come in a variety of
these reasons, the following list of wrench types are designs, as shown in Figure 7-2.
arranged in the order of preferred use: Some sockets are designed to hold a loose fas-
1. Socket wrenches. tener securely inside the socket. This prevents the nut
2. Box end wrenches. or screw from falling out during alignment and initial
3. Open end wrenches. threading. This feature is very useful, since a dropped
4. Adjustable wrenches. nut or screw may be difficult to retrieve.
Metric-size nuts and bolts require metric-size
Socket Wrenches wrenches. Figure 7-3 shows a set of metric 6-point
A socket wrench consists of a handle with a sockets commonly used when working with metric-
socket head on one end. The socket head has a ratch- size nuts and bolts. The size marked on the socket cor-
eting square shaft that can hold a variety of sockets. responds to the diameter of the cap screw or bolt. It is
If the handle is turned in one direction, the shaft and not the distance across the flats as it is with fractional-
socket turn with the handle to tighten or loosen the nut inch wrenches.

~ 12-point
sockets

Button switches
direction of - - - - - - - - - - - . _
rotation

Square shaft
t
Extension for reaching
holds the socket tight places
Klein Tools, Inc.
Figure 7-2. This is a typical set of socket wrenches and handles.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

108 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Klein Tools, Inc.

Figure 7-3. Metric-size sockets. The size marked on each
Snap-On Inc.
socket corresponds to the diameter in millimeters (mm) of the
bolt or cap screw. Figure 7-5. These alloy steel box end wrenches have 12-point
ends. Both ends are offset (double offset) to provide gripping
or swinging clearance around the mechanism.
A variation of the socket wrench is the nut driver.
A nut driver is a small direct-drive socket wrench
wrenches are the next safest. Box end wrenches are
Figure 7-4. The most commonly used nut drive;
less likely to slip than open end wrenches.
sizes are 1/4", 5/16': and 3/8" because they fit most
Box end and socket wrenches are easier to posi-
unit panels and motor end bell bolts. Though some
tion on the fastener if they are double broached (12-
have handles that can be fitted with assorted socket
point). Figure 7-6 illustrates both 6-point and 12-point
heads, many have fixed heads. These nut drivers look
box end wrenches. A 12-point socket is easier to use if
like screwdrivers that have a socket head instead of a
the handle must be operated in a small or restricted
screwdriver tip.
space. A 6-point socket is best for worn hex nuts or
Box End Wrenches bolts. This is because a 6-point socket or box end has
A box end wrench is a type of wrench that has an thicker wrench walls and applies force over a greater
enclosed gripping head that is placed around a nut or surface area than a 12-point wrench.
bolt. Often, a box end wrench (also called a box wrench) Box end wrenches may be straight, offset, or dou-
can be used in tight spaces where a socket wrench can- ble offset. Most box end wrenches are double-ended.
not fit. Box end wrenches are usually 12-point and pro- Both ends may be the same size with one end offset,
vide a powerful, non-damaging grip on the nut or bolt,
Figure 7-5. Socket wrenches are the safest, but box end
Nut
Wrench handle

Contact points (6)

Nut
Wrench handle

Contact points (6)

Klein Tools, Inc. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 7-4. Fixed-head nut drivers are often available in Figure 7-6. Box end wrenches as they appear fitting over
sets with a range of commonly used sizes. Note how the nut hex nuts. The upper wrench is a 6-point box end. The lower
drivers are color coded by size to make selecting them from a wrench is a 12-point box end. Note that the 6-point wrench
tool kit easier. has more surface area contact on the 6-point nut.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 109

or they may be different sizes. Box end wrenches hav-

ing both flat and 15° offset handles are necessary for a
complete tool kit.
Open End and Combination Wrenches
An open end wrench is a type of wrench that has a
gripping head with an opening so the head can be slid
on the nut or bolt head from the side. These wrenches
are used in close spaces and on unions, where socket
wrenches and box end wrenches cannot be used,
Figure 7-7.
Open end wrenches with jaws that are spread or Reed Manufacturing Co.
that have burrs should not be used for refrigeration Figure 7-9. With an adjustable wrench, the handle should be
work. Open end wrenches used in servicing work pulled as shown by the direction of the arrow on the handle.
should have thick jaws. Thin wrench jaws have a ten- The red arrows around the head show the pressure of the
dency to bite into soft brass and copper parts. wrench against the corners of the nut. Turning the wrench in
the direction shown tends to press the movable jaw against
Another popular type of wrench used in refrig-
the wrench body, thus tightening the grip.
eration work is the combination wrench. Typically,
both ends of a combination wrench are the same size,
Figure 7-8.
Pipe Wrenches
Adjustable Wrenches Pipe wrenches are wrenches designed to grip
Odd-size nuts and bolts are often found in refrig- pipes, studs, and other cylindrical (round) surfaces.
eration work. Therefore, wrenches with adjustable jaws The greater the torque on the wrench handle, the
are necessary in a tool kit. An adjustable wrench is a tighter the wrench will grip the object. Pipe wrenches
wrench with gripping jaws that can be moved to form should not be used on nuts or bolt heads, Figure 7-10.
the desired size opening, Figure 7-9. Force should be An internal-type pipe wrench, Figure 7-11, may be
applied to an adjustable wrench in the proper direction. used for installing pipes, nipples, or fittings. A chain
This causes the movable jaws to press against the wrench wrench is another type of adjustable pipe wrench. It
body, thus tightening the grip on the nut or bolt head. can be used on square, round, or irregular shapes. An
advantage of the chain wrench is that it can be used in
Safety Note confined areas. Another variation is the strap wrench,
Adjustable Wrench Fit which uses nylon to grip the pipe, Figure 7-12.
Adjustable wrenches must be kept in good repair.
If a wrench does not fit tightly, it may slip and result in
a ruined wrench, a bruised hand, or a deformed nut or
bolt head.

Klein Tools, Inc.

Figure 7-7. This is a typical open end wrench. Each end has
a different sized head.

Klein Tools, Inc. Reed Manufacturing Co.

Figure 7-8. A combination wrench has an open end head and Figure 7-10. Note the ridges along the gripping surface of
a box end head. It has the same size head on both sides. these pipe wrenches.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

110 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

4-
Snap-On Inc.
Figure 7-13. Flare nut wrenches are used when turning SAE
flare nuts.

Reed Manufacturing Co. Hex Key and Torx® Wrenches

Figure 7-11. Internal pipe wrenches, like this one, grip the Hex key wrenches are small hand tools with
pipe from the inside. differently sized hexagonal shafts that grip match-
ing hexagonal indents in the heads of screws. These
wrenches are typically constructed of alloy steel with
Flare Nut Wrenches a hexagonal (six-point) tip. A common type of hex key
A flare nut wrench, as shown in Figure 7-13, wrench is a fold-up tool with many key sizes in one
is similar to an open end wrench, but has a smaller handle. Individual L-keys and T-handle hex keys are
opening in the gripping head. Flare nut wrenches are frequently used for long-reach operations, such as
used to tighten and loosen flare nuts with SAE fittings. setscrews on pulleys. Be aware that hex keys are also
Forged flare nut sizes are an SAE standard used in sometimes called Allen wrenches.
automotive, marine, and refrigeration service. A flare Another type of wrench similar to the hex key
nut wrench can be slipped over the tubing to reach the wrench is the Torx®wrench, which has a star-shaped
flare nut. A box end wrench cannot do this. An open shaft. The star shape provides a greater contact area
end wrench could be used, but a flare nut wrench grips and distribution of pressure than the hex shape. This
the nut better, reducing the risk of damaging the nut. means the technician is less likely to damage the screw
Other types of flare nut wrenches, such as open ratch- or wrench when trying to loosen or tighten a fastener.
eting wrenches, are also available. Several types of key sets are shown in Figure 7-14.

Chain Wrench Strap Wrench

Reed Manufacturing Co.

Figure 7-12. Two other types of adjustable pipe wrenches.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 111

Hex Key Wrench Set Torx Key Wrench Set

I
MIil

T-Handle Hex Key Set L-Style Hex Key Set

I
Klein Tools, Inc.
Figure 7-14. Key wrenches are available in a variety of styles.

Refrigeration Service Valve Wrenches

Refrigeration service valves are different from
other valves. They often have stems with a square end
milled on the valve shaft or have a hex opening. A
refrigeration service valve wrench is needed to turn
a service valve's stem. Service valves come in different
sizes depending on the size of the unit, Figure 7-15.
Some service valve wrenches have one ratcheting
end and one fixed end. Wrenches with two ratcheting
ends often have a feature allowing the technician to
lock the ratcheting mechanism, so it can be used as a
fixed wrench.

Pro Tip Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division

Cracking Service Valves Figure 7-15. Refrigeration service valve wrenches often
have a different size head on each end of the wrench to
When cracking open valves, use only the fixed or accommodate the various sizes used on HVACR systems.
locked end of a service valve wrench. Cracking is the
slight opening required to cause the valve needle or
plunger to leave its seat. This allows only a very slow Some refrigeration service valve wrenches have a
flow of refrigerant. The fixed end of the wrench allows reversible ratchet, Figure 7-16. The operator can reverse
a technician to control the slight opening and closing the direction of turning without removing the wrench
of a valve. For rapid opening and closing of valves, the from the stem. These wrenches are often used to open
ratchet end may be used.
or close a compressor access valve. They may also be

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

112 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Klein Tools, Inc.

Figure 7-18. Torque wrenches are used to measure the
Bacharach, Inc.
amount of tightness being applied to nuts and screws.
Figure 7-16. Reversible ratchet service valve wrenches may
have different size and shape openings on each end. The
top has a 1/2", 6-point socket opening and a 3/16" square Torque wrenches are usually only wrench han-
opening. The bottom has a 3/8" square opening on one end dles with a pressure gauge. They are used with sockets
and a 1/4" square opening on the other end. of different sizes. On the handle is a pressure gauge
with a dial or pointer, which measures the foot-pounds
or inch-pounds of torque.
used to tighten or loosen a nut or bolt by changing the The manufacturers of HVACR equipment deter-
reversible ratchet. mine the proper torque that should be applied to the
Many manufacturers use valve stems other than various fasteners in their products. The recommended
the 1/4" square. Some valve stems are made so that the torques for the many parts in a refrigeration system are
milled end is inside the valve body. To accommodate specified in manufacturer service manuals.
these valves, adapters are available in various sizes. To use a torque wrench, the operator fits the
The male or drive part of the socket is usually 1/4" proper sized socket onto the wrench. The socket is
square. There are a few that use a larger drive (9/32"). then applied to the nut, and the handle of the wrench
The sockets that fit the valve stem come in five sizes: is pulled until the indicator shows that the required
3/16", 7/32': 1/4", 5/16'', and 3/8': Figure 7-17. torque has been applied. At that torque, the nut is at the
tightness recommended by the manufacturer.
Torque Wrenches
All materials are somewhat elastic (stretchable,
compressible, and twistable). Even cast iron and hard- 7.1.2 Hammers and Mallets
ened steels used in the construction of compressors are A hammer is a hand tool consisting of a long
elastic up to a point. When tightening bolts, nuts, and handle attached to a hard head used for pounding or
other attachments on compressor parts and assem- striking. It is important that the hammerhead be firmly
blies, it is important to apply a turning force (torque) fastened to the handle. The handle must also be in
that will provide the proper amount of tightness. good condition.
Otherwise, warpage or other part damage may occur. Hammers are available in a wide variety of designs,
To measure and regulate the amount of tightness, a and a refrigeration technician will need to use several
torque wrench is used, Figure 7-18. different types on a regular basis. Most technicians will
include a 12- or 16-ounce ball peen hammer in their tool
kits. A claw hammer may also be needed for mounting
pipe supports and fastening sheet metal to wood. See
Figure 7-19.

Pro Tip
Hammer Usage
Below are some tips for using a hammer in HVACR
work:
• Grasp the handle about two-thirds of the way back
from the head.
• For light, accurate blows, hold the hammer with the
index finger on the top of the handle and use wrist
action.
Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
• For heavy blows, hold the hammer with fingers
Figure 7-17. Refrigeration service valve wrenches use around the handle and use elbow muscles.
adapters to operate service valves with hex openings.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 113

A
=·
B

Figure 7-19. Two types of hammers commonly used by HVACR technicians. A-A ball peen hammer. B-A standard straight-
Klein Tools, Inc.
I
claw hammer.

A mallet is a type of small hammer used for safely pliers is tongue-and-groove pliers, Figure 7-22. Tongue-
striking parts. In service work, a mallet is often needed and-groove pliers are similar though they are often larger
to drive parts into place or to separate them without and may have angled heads or rounded jaws.
damaging their surfaces. For such work, a 1 1/2-lb to
2-lb mallet is desirable. Mallets are made of rawhide, Cutting Pliers
rubber, wood, plastic, or lead. See Figure 7-20. Cutting pliers are pliers with jaws that can be used
for cutting various materials. These are mostly used
when working on electrical tasks. One type of cutting
7.1.3 Pliers pliers, called lineman's pliers, is a powerful cutting
Pliers are multipurpose hand tools that are often and gripping tool, Figure 7-23. Another type, called
used for bending, gripping, and cutting. They are diagonal pliers, has jaws angled for use in close quar-
made of alloy steel, usually with manganese, although ters for a nearly flush cut. See Figure 7-24. The different
some are chrome-vanadium steel. Top-quality pli- types of cutting pliers are usually insulated to protect
ers are usually drop forged. Many different types are the technician when working on electrical parts.
available, as described below.
Common Gripping Pliers
Combination (slip-joint) pliers are size-adjustable
pliers that are handy for general use, Figure 7-21. However,
they should not be used on nuts, bolts, or fittings. They
can slip and damage the surface. A variation on slip-joint
Klein Tools, Inc.
Figure 7-22. Like slip-joint pliers, tongue-and-groove pliers are
size adjustable by changing the pivot point along different grooves.

Klein Tools, Inc.

Klein Tools, Inc.
Figure 7-20. A mallet is often used to drive or separate parts.
Figure 7-23. Lineman's pliers function as cutting pliers and
gripping pliers.

Klein Tools, Inc. Klein Tools, Inc.

Figure 7-21. By shifting the pivot point on slip-joint pliers, the Figure 7-24. These diagonal cutting pliers are useful for
size of the span of the jaws is adjusted. electrical work in tight places.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

114 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Special Pliers
End-cutting pliers, duck bill pliers, and long-nose
pliers are frequently used in hard-to-reach places,
Figure 7-25. Round-nose pliers are used to shape wire
into loops and to bend sheet metal edges. These pli-
ers are usually insulated, as they are often used when
working on electrical jobs.

7.1.4 Screwdrivers
A screwdriver is a hand tool consisting of a han-
dle, shaft, and head with a sized and shaped tip, used
for turning screws. See Figure 7-26. A complete set of
screwdrivers is necessary for both HVACR installation
and shop work. The length of a screwdriver is mea-
sured from the blade tip to the handle. Handles are not
included in the measurement. The recommended aver-
age sizes are 2 1/2': 4': 6", and 8".
The types of screwdrivers are named for the shape Klein Tools, Inc.
of the blade or bit. See Figure 7-27 for a variety of screw Figure 7-26. A screwdriver set typically includes screwdrivers
openings and matching screwdriver bits. One of the most of different sizes and head tips, such as slotted and Phillips.
common screwdrivers is the slotted or straight blade. The
screwdriver bit should fit the screw slot snugly. The blade
should be wide enough to fill the screw slot end-to-end.

End-Cutting Pliers Long-Nose Pliers

Duck Bill Pliers Needle-Nose Pliers

Slim Long-Nose Pliers Curved Long-Nose Pliers

Klein Tools, Inc.

Figure 7-25. Specialty pliers are manufactured for use in specific applications, such as in areas that are difficult to reach.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 115

Standard Types of Screwdriver Bits and Screw Openings

Keystone
Bit
Cabinet
Bit
Phillips
Bit
Frearson Clutch Head
Bit Bit
Allen
Bit
Bristol
Bit
I
®@ @@©@
UUUUUtf
Slotted Phillips Frearson Clutch Head Allen Bristol
Screw U Recess VRecess Recess Recess Recess
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 7-27. These common types of screw heads may be found on refrigeration equipment. The corresponding screwdriver bits
are shown above each screw head.

The Phillips screwdriver has a tip that fits a Better quality screwdrivers have strong handles
recessed cross in the head of the screw. Phillips screw- firmly bonded to the blade. Plastic handles are popu-
drivers are available in the 3" size for No. 4 and smaller lar. Some screwdrivers may be equipped with a clip
screws, the 4" size for No. 5 to No. 9 screws, the 5" size that holds screws while starting them. Other spe-
for No. 10 to No. 16 screws, and the 8" size for No. 18 cialty styles of screwdriver include stubby and offset,
screws and larger. Figure 7-28. Stubby (short) screwdrivers are available

A B
Milwaukee Electric Taal Carp.; Klein Tools, Inc.
Figure 7-28. Specialty screwdrivers. A-Stubby screwdrivers are used in tight spaces. B-Offset screwdrivers are often required
to access inconveniently located screws.

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116 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

for working in small spaces. An offset screwdriver is

necessary in refrigeration work. There are many places
where an offset screwdriver is the only tool capable of
turning a hard-to-reach screw.

Caution
Safe Screwdriver Use
Each job has a proper tool. For instance, never use
a screwdriver as a chisel by pounding on it with a ham-
mer. For electrical work, especially in confined areas,
use screwdrivers with insulated shafts.

7.1.5 Vises Reed Manufacturing Co.

Figure 7-29. A vise like the one shown can be used to hold
A sturdy machinist's vise is necessary in the shop parts for cutting, drilling, or filing.
and helpful in the field. A vise is a clamping appara-
tus that opens and closes using a screw mechanism. A
vise is particularly convenient for holding parts while
drilling, filing, or assembling, Figure 7-29.
One vise should be large enough to hold most com-
pressor bodies. A special pipe vise, which has a hacksaw
blade slot, is useful for a large service shop. This blade slot
allows accurate cutting of piping and tubing.
When clamping parts that must not be marred,
such as copper tubing, brass fittings, and valve bodies,
make sure the contact areas of the vise jaws are made
from a soft material. Many vises have jaw pad inserts
that can be installed as needed. These inserts can be
made of copper, brass, aluminum, rubber, or plastic
and can be screwed into the jaw faces. Covers that slip A
over the jaws are also available in a variety of materi-
als, Figure 7-30.

7.1.6 Twist Drill Bits

Twist drill bits are frequently used for installa-
tion and repair work. The term twist drill bit refers to
the method by which the drill bit flutes are manufac-
tured. Drill bit designs are available for working with
metal, wood, plastic, and masonry. A twist drill bit
may be turned by a drill press, portable electric drill,
or cordless drill. B
Most commonly, twist drill bits have straight Reed Manufacturing Co.
shanks. This means that the section gripped by a Figure 7-30. A-This vise has brass jaw caps installed over
three-jaw chuck is straight and cylindrical in shape. its regular jaws. B-These vise jaw caps are used when
See Figure 7-31. The shank of a twist drill bit carries a holding a tube or pipe.
stamped identification giving the kind and size of the
drill bit. Twist drill bits may be made from high carbon
steel or from alloy steel for high-speed use. Flute Shank
Most twist drill bits have two cutting edges or "lips." t
These edges must be sharp and equal in length. They
must also have proper clearance and rake angles for the
material being drilled. See Figure 7-32. Twist drill bits also Klein Tools, Inc.
have flutes, which remove chips from the hole. Figure 7-31. A straight-shank twist drill bit used on metal.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 117

Common Tap Drill Sizes

Tap Tap Drill Tap Tap Drill
4/36 No. 43 14-20 No. 9

8°-12°
clearance
angle

18°-45°
rake
4-40
No. 44
No. 45
3/32
No. 43
No. 44
14-24
No. 10
No. 11
No. 6
No. 7
No. 8
I
angle
4-48 No. 41 1/4-20 No. 5
No. 42 No. 6
Kennametal, Inc. 5-40 No. 37 13/64
Figure 7-32. Note the angles and shapes of this twist drill No. 38 No. 7
point correctly ground for steel. The clearance angle shown
(8"-12") is found on drill bits in the 1/2" range. As diameters No. 39 No. 8
are reduced, clearance angles increase. A 1/16" diameter 5-44 No. 36 1/4-28 7/32
twist drill should have a clearance angle of about 20".
No. 37 No. 3
No. 38 5/16-18 17/64
To ensure that the drill bit forms the correct size
hole, both cutting lips must be exactly the same length 6-32 No. 33 G
and angle. If one lip is longer, the hole being drilled No. 34 F
will be oversize. If one lip has a smaller angle, it will do 7/64 5/64-24 J
all the cutting and soon grow dull.
No. 36 I
Drilling speed depends on the type of material
being drilled and the diameter of the hole. In general, 6-40 No. 32 3/8-16 0
the smaller the twist drill bit is, the faster it should be No. 33 5/16
turned. Always be sure the drill bit is actually cutting 8-32 No. 29 3/8-24 R
as it turns. If the cutting edges are just rubbing against
8-36 No. 28 Q
the stock, they will quickly heat up. Overheating will
destroy the hardness of the drill bit. No. 29 7/16-14 3/8
10-24 No. 24 u
Drill Bit Sizes
No. 25 7/16-20 25/64
Drill bits are sized by the diameter of the finished
hole that they create. Those intended for working with No. 26 w
metal come in three different set sizes. Identification 10-32 No. 19 1/2-13 27/64
systems for sizes include fractional numbers, whole No. 20 1/2-20 29/64
numbers, and letters. See the Appendix. Fractional sizes
No. 21 9/16-12 31/64
come in sets from 1/16" to 1/2" in steps of 1/64". Larger
sizes are also available. Numbered sets begin with No. 1 No. 22 9/16-18 33/64
and range through No. 80 (0.228"-0.0135"). The higher 12-24 No. 15 5/8-11 17/32
the number, the smaller the drill bit. No. 1 through No. 16 5/8-18 37/64
No. 60 are the most commonly used sizes. Letter size
No. 17 3/4-10 21/32
twist drill bits range from "X' (0.234") to "Z" (0.413").
Number and letter twist drill bit sets are often used as 12-28 3/16 3/4-16,___ 11/16
tap drills to make holes for inside threads. They pro- No. 13 T ~
vide a greater range of sizes than the fractional bits. Outside Number of
No. 14
diameter threads per
Tap Drill Sizes No. 15 inch
A tap drill should be slightly larger than the inside Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
diameter of the threads for which the hole is being drilled. Figure 7-33. These are the tap drill sizes recommended for
Always refer to tap-drill size tables for the correct size common tapping operations. Note that for certain sizes the tap
drill. For most refrigeration and air conditioning work, the drill may be a fractional -inch size, a number size, or a letter
tap drill table in Figure 7-33 is satisfactory. size.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

118 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Caution
Tap Drill Holes
It is very important that the hole to be tapped is
first drilled to the correct size. If the hole is oversized,
the threads will not be full size. If the hole is undersized,
the tap must remove too much metal and will probably
break. See Figure 7-34.

Hole Saws
Installation, retrofits, and repair work in HVACR
may require technicians to drill holes through walls
of different material. Such jobs often require the use of
hole saws, Figure 7-35. Hole saws are often available in
sets with a variety of sizes for different applications.
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.

7.1.7 Cold Chisels Figure 7-35. This electric drill is fitted with a hole saw.

A cold chisel is a narrow metal tool with a bev-

eled edge for cutting through various materials,
Figure 7-36. As an example, you may find a corroded
fastener that must be removed from an evaporator. A
cold chisel can be used to cut the fastener. A 3/4" flat Klein Tools, Inc.
cold chisel is a size used by many HVACR technicians. Figure 7-36. A cold chisel can be used to cut through metal
fasteners that cannot be loosened.

r. I Th~ead
d1a.
ITh~eadl
d1a.
Tap Safety Note
drill
dia.
Q)
~
Mushrooming
~
0
Be sure to keep the head (hammering end) of the
.8 chisel free from "mushrooming." Flying pieces of metal
from a mushroomed head may cause injuries.
8
8
A B 7.1.8 Punches
The term punch refers to a broad category of cylin-
drical tools used for a variety of functions, including
marking metal, punching holes in material, and driv-
ing out pins. They are available in various lengths and
are usually made of heat-treated, chrome-alloy steel.
The cutting edge or point is hard, while the head is
tough and shatterproof. Always grind away any mush-
room head that forms. A fairly heavy 6" punch will be
the most useful for HVACR work. A variety of shapes
are available. There are four common types of punches:
center punch, drift punch, pin punch, and prick punch.
C
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Safety Note
Figure 7-34. Hole size is important when tapping threads in Eye Protection
metal. A-Tap drill correct size, correct thread depth. B-Tap Always wear safety goggles or a face shield when
drill too large, threads not full depth. C-Tap drill too small, tap
working with chisels or punches.
likely to break.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 119

A center punch is used for center punching the to damage this sharp point. See Figure 7-37 for a com-
location of a hole to be drilled. A heavy blow on parison of the different types of punches.
the punch makes a depression in which a drill can
be started without the bit sliding around. A center
punch can also be used to make alignment marks on
7.1.9 Files
refrigeration parts before dismantling. It has a 60° to Files are hand tools with cutting ridges, or teeth, used
90° point. to clean and shape metal surfaces. Various sizes and types
3
The most commonly used punch is an automatic are needed for different metal parts. Files are classified
center punch. An automatic center punch performs the according to tooth size, tooth shape, and tooth pattern.
same function as a standard center punch, but does not Single-cut files have teeth cut in one direction. Double-
require the use of a hammer. It has an internal spring- cut files have teeth cut in two directions, Figure 7-38.
loaded mechanism that stores energy as the punch Single-cut files are used for finishing surfaces, and dou-
is pushed against a surface. When the punch is fully ble-cut files are used for fast metal removal.
depressed, the spring-loaded mechanism releases all Files typically come in 4': 6': 8': 10", and 12"
of its energy to deliver a single blow to the center point lengths, but larger files do exist. The sizes of the teeth
of the punch. This has the same effect as a hammer vary and are available as dead smooth, smooth, sec-
blow on a standard punch. ond cut, bastard, rough, and coarse. The larger the file
A drift punch is used to drive out keys and to line of a given type, the coarser the teeth will be. Thus, a
up holes in mating surfaces. The punch tapers from its second cut 12" file has coarser teeth than a second cut
flat point to the stock diameter. A pin punch is used for 6" file.
driving retainer pins in or out. The blunt end is called Many file shapes are available. They include rect-
the bill. Pin punches are measured in overall length, by angular, half round, round, triangular, square, wedge
diameter of the stock, and by diameter of the bill. Pin shape, and so on. See Figure 7-39.
punch bill diameters are available from 3/32" to 5/16''. File shapes are available in three types of rectan-
The prick punch, or scratch awl, has a long, sharp gular cross-section: mill, hand, and flat. The mill file
point and is used only for layout work. Be careful not has only single-cut teeth. It is uniform in thickness but

---~~ Center Punch

[__
I _ ______Jt_
Pin Punch
___.

[I
Drift Punch Prick Punch
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 7-37. Various types of punches are shown here.

...__ Single-cut file

Handle Tang

...__ Double-cut file

Cooper Tools, Nicholson

Figure 7-38. Hand files may be either single-cut or double-cut. Files should always have handles to avoid hand injuries.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

120 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Flat Rectangular

Half Round

Round

Square
Cooper Tools, Nicholson
Figure 7-39. Note the various file shapes.

tapers slightly in width. The hand and flat files have medium soft metals, 24 teeth per inch for general work,
double-cut teeth. The edges are parallel but the thick- and 32 teeth per inch for thin metal, tubing, or hard
ness varies slightly. The hand file has one edge that has metal. A thinner or harder metal will require a blade
no teeth, called a safe edge. The flat file has teeth on all with more teeth per inch. The type of blade, its length,
four surfaces. and the number of teeth per inch are usually printed
on a hacksaw blade.
Pro Tip Hacksaw blades are directional and must be
File Maintenance assembled in the frame in the proper direction. A
hacksaw blade should not be stroked faster than
Use file brushes and file cards to clean the file teeth,
which quickly become filled with metal, Figure 7-40. If
60 strokes per minute. Most blades are made of high
clogging material is not removed, the files become use- carbon steel, and their cutting edges (points) are
less. Do not use a file card for any other purpose than very sharp and very small. Cutting too rapidly will
file cleaning in order to prevent the bristles from becom- cause these points to overheat and lose their tem-
ing clogged with dirt. pered hardness.

7.1.10 Hacksaws Frame

A hacksaw is used for cutting tubing and for ( ~ - - - - - - - - -A- - - - - - - - - ~

other work requiring metal cutting. Figure 7-41 shows

a popular type of hacksaw, with a rigid frame and a
12" blade. Blades are available with different numbers
of teeth per inch. Blades with 14 teeth per inch are
used for soft metal and wide cuts, 18 teeth per inch for

Blade Handle

American Saw & Mfg. Company

Cooper Tools, Nicholson Figure 7-41. Hacksaws usually have a rigid frame to hold the
Figure 7-40. Keep files clean by using a file brush. blade in proper tension.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 121

Caution
Keeping Blade Teeth Sharp
Lifting the blade slightly on the back stroke will help
keep the cutting edges sharp. If the blade is not lifted,
chips may roll between the work and the cutting edge of
the blade, dulling the teeth.

Most hacksaw blades have teeth that are hard-

ened, while the back of the blade is soft and flexible.
Such a design allows for faster, smoother cutting. This
type of blade is both shock and heat resistant and is
virtually unbreakable.
Special hacksaw frames are available for working
in small holes and confined areas, Figure 7-42. There
is also a stub hacksaw blade and an adapter drive to fit
electric drills. 45° Level Plumb

7.1.11 Levels
When installing registers, grilles, in-duct humidi-
fiers, and other devices, it is important to make all cuts
straight, level, and plumb. A level is a tool used to set
a line at level (perfectly horizontal), plumb (perfectly Milwaukee Electric Taal Carp.
vertical), or perfect 45° angle. Technicians will often Figure 7-43. Using a level to make all installations plumb and
use a spirit level, which has several small vials within level shows professionalism, which customers will appreciate.
the straight, long frame. Each vial is filled with a liq-
uid that contains a bubble that moves based on the
physical orientation of the level. By holding the level
so that the bubble remains in the middle of the vial, A standard level may also be called a spirit level,
the line along which the level is held can be considered as the fluid inside each vial is often a spirit or alco-
straight, Figure 7-43. hol. These liquids allow the bubble to move and react
quickly to level changes. Also available are laser levels
in different makes and models, Figure 7-44.

Milwaukee Electric Taal Carp. Milwaukee Electric Taal Carp.

Figure 7-42. Compact hacksaws come in a variety of makes Figure 7-44. Laser levels can be used in different types of
for different jobs. installation work, much like spirit levels.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

122 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

7.2 Power Tools

Hand tools are used throughout HVACR work on an
everyday basis. However, some jobs progress more quickly
or smoothly with the use of power tools. An industry as
diverse as HVACR requires a variety of power tools.
Electric drills are one of the most commonly used
power tools. An electric motor rotates a shaft that may
be fitted with a variety of bits. Electric drills are used
for installation, retrofit, and service work. When drill-
ing into particularly hard surfaces like concrete or
other masonry, it may be better to use a hammer drill,
Figure 7-45.

Safety Note
Electrical Drill Ground
Electric drills should be grounded for safety. Most elec-
tric drills are equipped with a three-prong grounded plug. If
the circuit to which the drill is connected does not have a
three-prong grounded socket, a grounded adapter should
be used. Some hand drills have the electric motor insulated
from the case and do not need grounding. Grounding is Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.
covered further in Chapter 13, Electrical Power. Figure 7-46. This technician is using an impact driver to
quickly secure the hangers for this ductwork.
Close cousins of the electric drill are the impact
driver and power screwdriver. These tools operate the
Not all holes can be cut and properly formed
same way as drills but for a different purpose. Drivers
using hand tools or a hole saw on an electric drill. For
make the assembly and disassembly of units quick and
larger holes and precise cuts, use a reciprocating saw.
efficient, Figure 7-46.
Though these tools can be used for a variety of jobs,
reciprocating saws are especially handing when pre-
Safety Note
paring to install ductwork and air registers in a build-
Eye Protection ing, Figure 7-47.
Always wear safety glasses to protect your eyes
from flying chips when using either a drill press or por-
table drill. 7.3 Instruments
The technician uses instruments to determine
conditions, such as pressure and temperature, inside
a refrigeration system. The most common instruments
are thermometers and pressure gauges. Later chapters
will cover specific types of pressure gauges and special
instruments such as hygrometers, ammeters, voltme-
ters, and ohmmeters.
An instrument must be carefully handled and kept
in good condition if it is to remain accurate. If its accuracy
is in doubt, the instrument should be sent to a repair com-
pany for testing and calibration (adjustment).

7.3.1 Thermometers
A thermometer is an instrument for measur-
ing temperature. In HVACR, a thermometer is often
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp. used to measure the temperature of an evaporator,
Figure 7-45. This technician is using a hammer drill to make liquid line, suction line, return air, or supply air. An
a hole in masonry. ice water bath can be used to check a thermometer's

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 123

There are numerous other thermometers that are

popular and easy to use. Dial stem thermometers, as
shown in Figure 7-48, may be operated either by a
bimetal strip or by a bellows charged with a volatile
(vaporizes readily) fluid. Their temperature ranges
vary, but they are usually from -40°F to 160°F (-40°C
to 70°C) in two-degree increments.
3
Caution
Thermometer Limits
Never expose any type of thermometer to tempera-
tures beyond the limits of its scale. Doing so may ruin the
instrument. Also, do not allow the fluid in the thermometer
to get so cold that the fluid freezes. This will cause the fluid
to expand within the bulb and break the thermometer.

Although analog thermometers are still used,

digital thermometers generally have a greater tem-
perature range and accuracy. Many multimeters for
HVACR work include a temperature probe attachment.
This provides the service technician with the flexibility
to use the multimeter to measure both electrical vari-
ables and temperatures, Figure 7-49.

Pro Tip
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp. Measuring Multiple Variables
Figure 7-47. This technician is using a reciprocating saw to Bear in mind that when a multimeter is measuring
cut holes for air registers in a new building. an electrical value, it might not be able to measure tem-
perature as well. This is when a small digital thermom-
eter is useful. Use the multimeter to measure electrical
values, such as voltage or current. At the same time,
accuracy. When its sensor is immersed in this solu- use the digital thermometer to measure temperature
tion, the thermometer should read within 1°F (1°C) of values, Figure 7-50. Meters and thermometers with
32°F (0°C). clamp temperature probes attach directly to an object,
Many sizes and types of thermometers have been such as a suction line or liquid line, to get accurate sur-
developed for the technician's use. Glass-stem thermom- face temperature measurements.
eters usually read from -30°F to 120°F (-35°C to 49°C)
in two-degree increments. Some thermometers have a
special magnifying front built into the glass. This mag-
nifies the liquid-filled tube for easier reading. A glass-
stem thermometer tube may contain mercury or pure
ethanol, toluene, kerosene, or isoamyl acetate dyed red
for clarity. A mercury-filled thermometer is faster but
more difficult to read.

Safety Note
Mercury Toxicity
Mercury is a highly toxic substance, which has
been known to cause poisoning as a liquid and in vapor
form. Use of mercury in thermometers is being phased
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
out across the world. Extreme care should be used
when using thermometers that contain mercury. For Figure 7-48. This dial stem thermometer is calibrated in
these reasons, most thermometers use another sub- 4-degree increments from -40°F to 160°F (-40°C to 70°C).
stance dyed red for clarity. This is the temperature range most used by technicians in
HVACR work.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

124 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division

Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp. Figure 7-51. This pistol-grip, handheld infrared thermometer
Figure 7-49. This multimeter has a temperature function and can measure temperature from a distance. Use the laser as a
probe attachment. sight for aiming the measurement placement.

used in digital thermometers and control units. The fun-

damentals of these devices are described in Chapter 14,
Basic Electronics.

7.3.2 Manometers
A manometer is a type of pressure gauge that
measures values around atmospheric pressure. The
principle of operation of the manometer is explained in
Chapter 27, Air Movement and Measurement. A manom-
eter with a pitot tube is used for measuring air velocity
in ductwork. The common procedure is to insert the
pitot tube in the duct and connect it to a manometer.
hi/mar This will give the technician both the total pressure
Figure 7-50. This digital thermometer has two probes for and static pressure reading on the manometer. This
two different measurements at once. This is especially useful can then be used to determine the velocity. A variety
when measuring both superheat and subcooling. of manometer designs exist, as shown in Figure 7-54.
To measure duct pressures, a water manometer is
usually used. The scale is usually movable, making it
Figure 7-51 shows how a handheld digital ther- easier to adjust for the neutral point. Figure 7-55 shows
mometer can be used to measure temperature on a con- a manometer connected to an air duct to determine its
denser or evaporator from a distance. The temperature pressure.
reading is compared to specifications for the specific
type of system. Figure 7-52 shows a minimum-maxi- Caution
mum thermometer. This type is useful when attached Manometer Blowout
to a system that is unattended for some time.
Be aware of what pressure values you expect to
Recording thermometers or data loggers help locate
measure before connecting a manometer. Always fol-
malfunctions by making 24-hour or 7-day temperature low manufacturer setup directions to avoid blowing out
records, Figure 7-53. Common features include the ability the manometer's liquid. Sudden pressure changes may
to record maximum and minimum temperatures at any force the liquid out of the manometer, rendering the
time interval, cable connections so that the data may be instrument useless.
downloaded to a computer or mobile device, and software
that can be used to graph temperature changes over time. Manometers can also be used to measure the pres-
These instruments enable service technicians to monitor sure difference between two different places in an air
the operation of a unit for long periods of time. duct. An example of this is a manometer used to mea-
The thermocouple and the thermistor are two types sure the pressure drop across an air filter in an air dis-
of temperature-sensing electronic devices commonly tribution system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 125

Internal/external
setting
Minimum/maximum
selector

Digital display
Internal/external
setting

Alarm

Light display
I
- - - External sensor
Pacific Transducer Carp.
Figure 7-52. This minimum-maximum digital thermometer has both an internal and an external sensor.

Manometer scales are based on the following data:

Unit equivalents:
14.7 psi = 29.92 in. Hg
14.7 psi = 34' water
1 in. Hg = 0.491 psi
1 psi = 2.035 in. Hg
1 psi = 2.31' water
1 psi = 27.67" water (in. Hp)
1' water (ft. Hp) = 0.432 psi
1" water (in. Hp) = 0.036 psi

Digital Manometer U-Tube Manometer

Amprabe Inclined Manometer

Figure 7-53. This data logger is capable of recording Dwyer Instruments, Inc.
temperature and humidity. Figure 7-54. These are examples of common manometers.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

126 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Scale in electrical variables. The most common measure-

inches ments made with multimeters are voltage (ac or de
Pressure being
Open to volts), resistance (in ohms, Q), and current (ac or
measured
atmosphere de amps). Before the development of multimeters,
it would have taken a voltmeter, an ohmmeter, and
an ammeter to measure these different variables,
Pressure indicated Figure 7-57.
by the difference in connecting Multimeters can be either analog or digital. While
liquid level in the tube analog meters generally read only the variables pre-
Air duct
MOC) viously mentioned, newer digital multimeters can be
used to measure a variety of other variables. Special
attachments can further broaden the measuring capa-
bilities of multimeters.
T Since multimeters are used primarily in the elec-
trical and electronic tasks of HVACR work, the vari-
ous functions available on multimeters and how to use
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
them will be covered in Chapter 17, Servicing Electric
Figure 7-55. Note how a manometer is connected to an air
Motors and Controls.
duct to measure duct pressure.

7.3.3 Linear Measuring Tools 7.4 Standard Supplies

Measuring tools used by technicians include rul- In addition to tools and instruments, HVACR tech-
ers, tapes, and micrometers. Measuring tools are used nicians use a steady stream of supplies in the systems
in cutting tubing and determining installation loca- they service. However, unlike tools and instruments,
tions. A 9" or 12" stainless steel ruler is frequently supplies are used and must be replaced on a regu-
needed when overhauling or installing refrigeration lar basis. Supplies that technicians will need include
systems. The ruler should be graduated in increments screws, bolts, assorted fasteners, gaskets, abrasives,
of 1/32". Numerals and graduations should be clearly brushes, and cleaning solvents.
visible. Installation workers may find a 25' flexible steel
tape useful when laying out a job, Figure 7-56. 7.4.1 Fasteners
Various techniques have been developed to fasten
7.3.4 Multimeters pieces together. In metal work, solder, braze, welds,
A multimeter is a single instrument that com- crimps, rivets, bolts, machine screws, pins, spring fas-
prises a collection of meters measuring different teners, and force fits have been used with success.

Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.

Figure 7-56. Always take accurate measurements before cutting and installing materials.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 127

Standard Metal Screw Style

Round Flat Fillister Oval Truss
Head Head Head Head Head

~ ~ f Y<j>
~TT ?
Binding
Head
Pan
Head
Hexagon
Head

Size Identification Chart for Metal Screws

No. 0 No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4
Washer
Head

No. 5 No. 6
I
u LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ
No. 8 No. 10 No. 12 No. 16

LJ LJ t? tr
Self-Tapping Metal and Sheet Metal Screws
Round Acorn Hexagon Pan or Binding Flat
Amprobe ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~

Figure 7-57. The settings around the selector knob highlight

' ' y ' l

the versatility of modern multimeters.

Type A TypeZ TypeZ Type F Type A

Thread Thread Thread Thread Thread
The type of fastening device used depends on the Truss or Oval Metal Sheet Metal
kind and condition of the metal and on how frequently Oven Head Head Drive Screw Drive Screw

i I
the pieces must be dismantled. If the parts are to be

V
'
put together permanently, riveting, welding, solder-
ing, and brazing are popular fastening methods.
Type A Type F Type U Type 21
If the parts must be dismantled for frequent repair Thread Thread Thread Thread
or service, fastening devices must be used that can be
Wood Screw Styles
easily removed without damaging the parts. Nuts and
bolts, cap screws, machine screws, and setscrews are
used in these situations. Figure 7-58 shows an assort-
~ Round
ij Head
Q
ij
Flat
Head
1:fij Oval
Head
ment of fastening devices. In the SI system, fastener
sizes are specified in millimeters. In the US Customary Socket Screw Styles (Allen or Bristol Openings)
system, fastener sizes are expressed in inches and frac-
tions of an inch. In both cases, fastener sizes are based
on the diameter of the threaded portion of the fastener.

Machine Screws
; i II • Q
Socket Flat Headless Socket Socket Head
Head Head Pipe Plug Stripper Bolt
Many small parts are fastened using specially
threaded devices called machine screws, which are Setscrew Styles (Head and Headless)
like a hybrid between a screw and a bolt, as they can be Square Hexagon Any Style Any Style Any Style
Headless Head Head Head Head Head
simply screwed into place or held with a tightened nut.
~
Machine screws are made of steel, stainless steel, brass,
alloys, or other materials. These screws are available in
a variety of head shapes. Various methods are used to
I 1Flat
Point
Cone
Point I Oval
Point I Cup
Point
I~ Dog
Point I Half Dog
Point

Klein Tools, Inc.

turn machine screws. Some less commonly used screw Figure 7-58. Fasteners must be carefully used and driven
heads are shown in Figure 7-59. with proper tools.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

128 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Metric screws can have four thread types: coarse,

@ average, fine, and extra fine. Diameters of metric bolts,

nuts, and screws, as well as the thread pitches, are in
millimeters. Bolt size is determined by outside thread
diameter.
Square Countersunk Frearson Spline
Head (Scrulox) (Reed & Prince)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher [ti Loosening a Tight Bolt or Nut
Figure 7-59. These screw heads are less commonly used. II There are several safe ways to loosen a tight
bolt or nut. Any of the following methods can be
used to loosen corroded threads:
Machine screws come in various diameters. Eight
• Soak the threads with penetrating oil (an
are in the numbered sizes, while three are in the frac-
oil with a very low viscosity, specifically
tional inch sizes. The larger the number is, the larger
formulated to seep through rust to lubricate
the diameter. Each size may have either fine or coarse
corroded threads). Apply the oil at the top of
threads. A table of machine screw sizes and threads is
fastener, and allow it plenty of time to seep
given in Figure 7-60.
down through the corroded threads before
Bolts and Cap Screws attempting to loosen the frozen bolt or nut.
A bolt is a narrow, threaded shaft or bar with a You may need to allow the oil to soak in
head on one end that screws together with a nut to act overnight on badly corroded threads.
as a fastener. In general, bolts and cap screws are used • Heat the nut or bolt with a propane or
in sizes 1/4" and larger. According to ISO specifications, acetylene torch. Keep in mind that the part
the length of threads on a bolt is usually two times the being heated will expand. So, if you want
bolt diameter plus 1/2". The threading on a cap screw to remove a nut, you would heat the nut,
is usually longer than the threading on a bolt. Threads but not the bolt. If you want to remove a
sometimes extend up to the head of the cap screw. A frozen cap screw from a part, you would
cap screw is threaded into a part of a mechanism and heat all around the edges of the threaded
does not require a nut. bore, which should increase the bore's
diameter slightly. Make sure the area
being heated is free of lubricants. Never
heat a vessel filled with a gas or liquid.
Common Machine Screw Sizes Observe all appropriate safety guidelines
Screw Number Diameter Threads Per Inch
when operating the torch.
or Fractional (in) • Lightly tap the nut or bolt with a hammer. Be
Coarse Fine
Size careful not to apply too much force, which
2 0.086 56 64 could actually damage the part or fastener.
If you are working on copper, aluminum,
3 0.099 48 56
or another soft material, you should use a
4 0.112 40 48 plastic mallet rather than a steel hammer.
5 0.125 40 44 Keep in mind that it is the steady vibration
from the tapping, not the force of the blows,
6 0.138 32 40
that loosens corroded threads.
8 0.164 32 36
10 0.190 24 32
7.4.2 Gaskets
12 0.216 24 28
Most mating surfaces are somewhat rough. To make
1/4 0.250 20 28
a leak-proof joint, gaskets are often used between the sur-
5/16 0.3125 18 24 faces. Gaskets are placed between the mating surfaces of
3/8 0.375 16 24 parts being connected. As the joints are tightened, the gas-
kets are compressed. Gaskets, being soft, conform to the
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher irregularities in the mating surfaces and seal the joints.
Figure 7-60. With machine screw sizes, a single diameter They keep refrigerant from leaking out, prevent oil leak-
screw size can have two different threads per inch, depending age, and keep air out of the system. Gaskets are commonly
on whether it is coarse or fine. This is a list of common sizes. used between the valve plate and the compressor body,

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 129

between the service valve and the compressor body, and • Aluminum oxides-320 (extra fine), 240 (fine), 150
between the valve plate and the compressor head. Gaskets (medium fine), and 100 (medium).
are also used on the crankcase and at the crankshaft seal These abrasives come in 9" x 11" sheets or in rolls
on open or external drive units, Figure 7-61. of different widths. Size 1" is the width typically used
Gaskets can be made of neoprene, silicone, sponge for HVACR work. Sheet abrasives, whether paper or
rubber, felt, plastics, cork, rubber, or various metals. cloth, should be backed by a block of wood, metal, felt,
Metals are the most common gasket materials. Lead is or rubber. Special sanding blocks may also be used.
3
popular, being soft and noncorrosive. Aluminum has Always use clean abrasive paper.
also been used. Composition gaskets made of plastic-
impregnated paper are also popular.
Gaskets must not restrict the openings. They must
7.4.4 Brushes
not lose their compressibility. Replacement gaskets A clean steel wire brush is an excellent tool to pre-
must not be thicker than the original gaskets. The sur- pare copper and steel surfaces for welding or brazing.
faces of parts that contact the gasket must be free of The brushes should have fine steel wire bristles that are
burrs, bruises, and foreign matter. thickly set. The handle should be comfortable. Special
cylindrical brushes are good for cleaning outside and
inside surfaces of tubing and fittings. See Figure 7-62.
7.4.3 Abrasives These brushes range in diameter from 1/4" to 2 1/2"
Metal surfaces can be cleaned, smoothed, or formed (6 mm to 63.5 mm) to fit the diameter of the fitting.
to accurate size with abrasives. Abrasives are sand-like Solder flux brushes are used for applying paste.
grinding particles, often attached to paper or cloth by glue Paintbrushes may be used for removing dust or dirt
or other adhesives. Sandpaper was the most widely used from an object or for applying cleaning agents.
abrasive product for many years. Today, emery, alumi-
num oxide, and silicon carbide are also commonly used.
Each abrasive has several grades or variations in
7.4.5 Cleaning Solvents
coarseness: Many refrigeration components must be thor-
• Emery cloth-0000 (finest), 000 (extra fine), 00 (very oughly cleaned before and after repair. Any cleaning
fine), 0 (fine), 1/2 (medium fine), and 1 (medium). method must remove oil, grease, and sludge. In refrig-
eration and air conditioning, the cleaning method
• Silicon carbide-500 (finest), 360 (very fine), 320
must also remove moisture, or at least it should not add
(fine), 220 (medium fine), and 180 (medium).
moisture. Cleaning must not damage parts nor harm
people. There are several cleaning methods available,
including the following cleaning solvents:
• Steam. If parts are exposed to hot water or steam,
any grease on them will usually become fluid and

CMP Corporation Worthington Cylinders

Figure 7-61. Gaskets and the parts they seal against within a Figure 7-62. This wire brush is used for cleaning the inside
large reciprocating compressor. and outside surfaces of tubing before soldering or brazing.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

130 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

flow off the surface. Steam and hot water may 7.5 Employer-Provided Tools and
burn the operator if they are carelessly applied.
Steam cleaning is primarily used in industrial Equipment
applications where equipment may become A set of quality, well-maintained tools is required
covered in grease. for servicing refrigeration units. Also, complete
• Caustic cleaning solution. An alkaline cleaner records of each job should be kept in an orderly man-
dissolved in hot water will remove grease and oil. ner. Most companies provide a panel truck or pickup
This solution must be used carefully, otherwise truck equipped with major items such as:
burns or eye injury can result. • Vacuum pump.
• Oleum (mineral spirits) or kerosene. These • Recovery/recycling unit.
petroleum products are popular for cleaning.
• Tubing and piping.
These products clean well and leave a smudge-
free surface. However, they present a fire hazard • Combination soldering, brazing, and welding
and should always be used in small amounts. outfit.
They should be contained in self-closing tanks. • Supply of replacement parts and materials.
The area where they are being used should be A. Controls.
exhaust-ventilated (have a hood and an explosion-
B. Fittings.
proof exhaust fan). Mineral spirits are commonly
used when cleaning small parts to remove paint C. Lubricants.
residue or grease build-up. D. Refrigerant.
• Alcohol. Alcohol is also a good cleaning fluid. • Leak detectors, especially electronic testers.
However, it is both flammable and toxic. Special • Electrical testing instruments.
precautions must be taken: provide excellent A service technician is usually expected to fur-
ventilation, do not use near open flames, and use nish his or her own hand tool kit. It is important to
in small amounts. keep tools clean. This will result in better and faster
• Degreasing vapor. Degreasing vapor involves work and extended tool life. Keep tools together on the
using a cleaning fluid contained in a tank. The job, either in a tool kit or in the truck. They should be
fluid is warmed, filling the upper part of the tank organized and arranged neatly. Use good lighting on
with vapors of the cleaner. Any parts suspended the job for ease of work and safety. Keep an extension
in this cleaning vapor are quickly and thoroughly cord and a movable light that can be safely mounted in
cleaned. Such a tank must be specially vented. your work area, Figure 7-63.
Degreasing tanks are primarily used by compressor
remanufacturers where the components of a
compressor, such as pistons and valves, are soaked
in the tank to remove all built-up residue.
• Other cleaning fluids. A wide variety of cleaners are
available. Check the manufacturer's recommended
use to be sure the cleaner is appropriate for your
application. Always read and carefully follow the
manufacturer's instructions.

Safety Note
Excluded Cleaning Solutions
Carbon tetrachloride should never be used to
clean refrigeration or air conditioning components. This
chemical is toxic and can be absorbed through the
respiratory system or the skin.
Never use gasoline for cleaning. It has a low flash
point. Gasoline fumes are heavy and may travel far
to ignition sources, causing an explosion or flash fire.
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.
Do not use propane to clean parts. Propane is very
combustible. Figure 7-63. Sufficient light is necessary in poorly lit locations
and when power must be turned off for some electrical work.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 131

Below is a list of some common tools to take on

service calls:
• Refrigerant hoses with quick-connect fittings.
• Soldering/brazing torch (air-fuel or oxyacetylene).
• Hand vacuum cleaner.
• Gauge manifold (for R-410A, R-134a, etc.).
• Process tube adapters for connecting 3/16': 1/4':
5/16'', and 3/8" copper tubing to charging hose.
• Tubing bender for 1/4': 5/16': and 3/8" tubing.
• Flaring tool (3/16" to 1/2" capacity).
• Tubing cutter.
• Pinch-off tool.
• Swaging tool set (1/4" to 5/8").

Pro Tip
Clean Jobsite
The jobsite may require cleaning before start-
ing work, while working, and after work is completed.
A clean jobsite is a safe jobsite. Cleanliness also Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.
shows professionalism, which customers are happy
Figure 7-64. A vacuum is useful for cleaning up after an
to see, Figure 7-64.
installation job.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • For electrical measurements, technicians use
multimeters, which package the functions of
• It is best to use the type of wrench that can voltmeters, ohmmeters, and ammeters into a
provide the most surface area contact between single instrument.
the wrench and the object that needs to • Fasteners, such as machine screws, bolts,
be turned, such as a nut or bolt. Specialty and cap screws, are found throughout a
wrenches are available for specific purposes refrigeration system.
such as gripping pipes, loosening flare nuts, or • Gaskets are soft materials placed between two
turning refrigeration service valves. rough surfaces that compress to form a seal
• Hammers are often used when installing between the surfaces.
supports for pipes and fastening sheet metal to • Abrasive materials are used to clean, smooth,
wood. Mallets are used to drive parts into place or form metal surfaces. Brushes are used to
during service work. clean or prepare metals for connecting, such as
• Combination (slip-joint) pliers are versatile and in brazing or welding.
have numerous uses. HVACR technicians often • Cleaning solvents are used on many
use lineman's pliers and diagonal pliers in refrigeration system components before and
electrical work as well. after repair. Oil, grease, sludge, and moisture
• The most commonly used screwdrivers are should be removed before finishing service
slotted (straight blade) and Phillips. Due work and returning a system to operation.
to space constraints in refrigeration work, • Employers often provide certain tools, supplies,
technicians should have stubby (short) and and equipment. Technicians are usually
offset screwdrivers available when necessary. expected to supply their own hand tools.
• Vises are used for holding parts when cutting, Tools and instruments must be kept clean and
drilling, filing, or assembling. properly calibrated.
• A cold chisel is a narrow metal tool with a
beveled edge for cutting through various
materials. A punch is a cylindrical tool used to Review Questions
mark metal, punch holes in material, or drive
out pins. Files are hand tools used for cleaning Answer the following questions using the information in
and shaping metal parts. this chapter.
• Hacksaws are used for cutting tubing and other 1. What size wrench is used to loosen a 1/8"
metal parts. Blades vary by the number of teeth bolt?
per inch. In general, the softer the material A. 1/4"
being cut, the less teeth required per inch. B. 5/16''
• Levels are used in installation work to ensure C. 3/8"
that parts are level, plumb, and properly D. 7/16"
oriented. 2. Which of the following could not be used to
• Power tools, such as electric drills, impact describe a box wrench?
drivers, hammer drills, and reciprocating saws, A. Double-ended
are used for installation, service, and retrofit B. Offset
work in HVACR. C. Double offset
D. Open ended
• Thermometers are instruments for measuring
temperature. Different types of thermometers 3. Which type of wrench can be used to access a
are glass-stem, dial, and digital. bolt head or nut from the side?
• A manometer is a type of pressure gauge that A. Socket wrench
measures values around atmospheric pressure. B. Box end wrench
Often a manometer is used in determining air C. Open end wrench
velocity in ductwork. D. Nut driver
• Technicians often use stainless steel rulers and
flexible steel tapes in planning an installation.

132 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 133

4. When should you push and pull on a 12. Which file type has only single-cut teeth?
wrench? A Mill file
A. Push to loosen, pull to tighten B. X file
B. Pull to loosen, push to tighten C. Hand file

I
C. Always push D. Flat file
D. Always pull 13. A hacksaw with _ _ teeth per inch is used
5. Which tool is used to remove a screw with a to cut thin metal, tubing, and hard metal.
hexagonal indent in the head? A. 14
A. Screwdriver B. 18
B. Flare nut wrench C. 32
C. Hex key wrench D. 24
D. Six-point socket 14. When cutting a hole into masonry to install
6. Another name for a hex key wrench is a(n) an anchor for an outdoor condensing unit,
the best tool to use is a
A. allen wrench A. cold chisel
B. pipe wrench B. hammer drill
C. flare nut wrench C. multimeter
D. socket wrench D. reciprocating saw
7. A(n) _ _ wrench is used to open and close 15. To quickly remove or tighten fasteners for
service valves. unit assembly, the best tool to use is a(n)
A. boxend
B. pipe A. hacksaw
C. refrigeration service valve B. impact driver
D. adjustable C. level
8. A _ _ is used to drive parts together D. slip-joint pliers
without damaging them. 16. When cutting large holes through walls, floors,
A. hammer or ceilings for the installation of air registers
B. mallet on ductwork, the best tool to use is a _ _.
C. chisel A. center punch
D. file B. double-cut file
9. Mainly used for cutting wires, _ _ have C. reciprocating saw
angled jaws for making nearly flush cuts. D. twist drill on an electric drill
A. diagonal pliers 17. The most common way to check a
B. files thermometer for accuracy is to dip it in _ _
C. chisels to get a reading close to 32°F.
D. punches A. R-134
10. Drill bit sizes are specified by the _ _ of the B. saltwater
hole they create. C. a mixture of ice and water
A. diameter D. room temperature water
B. radius 18. Use a _ _ when installing so the end result
C. circumference will be level and plumb.
D. length A. chisel
11. Which of the following is not a common type B. level
of punch? C. multimeter
A. Drift punch D. punch
B. Pinpunch 19. A thermometer may be used to measure the
C. Prick punch temperature of _ _.
D. Mushroom punch A. an evaporator
B. return air and supply air
C. the liquid line and suction line
D. All of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

134 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

20. A multimeter is often used to measure the

_ _ in a refrigeration system.
A. current
B. volume
C. pressure
D. vapor saturation
21. The type of threaded fastener designed to
hold together a mechanism without using a
nut is a(n) _ _.
A. bolt
B. tap
C. abrasive
D. cap screw
22. Common metric screw thread types include
all of the following except _ _.
A. coarse
B. fine
C. extra fine
D. offset
23. A tight nut or bolt may be loosened safely by

A. soaking the threads with penetrating oil

B. gently heating it
C. tapping it lightly with a hammer
D. All of the above.
24. Which of the following is frequently used to
clean a metal surface?
A. Emery cloth
B. Manometer
C. Gasket
D. Gasoline
25. Which one of the following should not be
used as a cleaning solvent?
A. Caustic cleaning solution
B. Alcohol
C. Carbon tetrachloride
D. Steam

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 7 Tools and Supplies 135

Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.

There is often more than one way of completing a job. Ask senior technicians which tools they use and why. The knowledge of
experience and using one tool over another can make a hard job into a quick and easy task.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTERS Working vVith
Tubing and Piping

Chapter Outline
8.1 Types of Refrigerant Tubing and Pipe
8.1.1 ACR Copper Tubing
8.1.2 Stainless Steel Tubing
-
?
ii
8.1.3 Aluminum Tubing Learning Objectives
8.2 Non-Refrigerant Tubing and Pipe
8.2.1 Copper Water Tubing Information in this chapter will enable you to:
8.2.2 Plastic Pipe • Distinguish among the various types of tubing and
8.2.3 Steel Pipe piping used in refrigeration work.
8.3 Cutting Tubing • Explain the uses of the various types of tubing and
8.4 Bending Tubing piping in refrigeration work.
8.5 Connecting Tubing • Perform tube cutting and bending procedures using
8.5.1 Flared Connections and Fittings proper methods.
8.5.2 Soldered and Brazed Connections
• Complete various tubing and piping connecting
8.5.3 Swaged Connections
procedures using approved methods.
8.5.4 Specialized Tube Couplings
8.6 Connecting Pipe • Use safe and accepted soldering and brazing
8.6.1 Joining Steel Pipe techniques.
8.6.2 Cutting and Joining Plastic Pipe • Follow approved safety procedures.
 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 137

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

ABS (acrylonitrile- flashback arrestor Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
butadiene-styrene) flux you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
air conditioning and neutral flame • Liquid and suction lines are tubes usually made of
refrigeration (ACR) oxidizing flame copper. They serve as passageways for refrigerant 3
tubing oxyacetylene between system components. (Chapter 6)
annealing pipe schedule • Water-cooled condensers use non-refrigerant tubing
bending spring purging to carry water that is used to absorb the heat of high-
brazing PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pressure vapor refrigerant. (Chapter 6)
capillary action single flare
• Flare nut wrenches are used to tighten flare
carburizing flame soldering
connections, which are used to connect copper
CPVC (chlorinated solvent welding
tubing to flare fittings. (Chapter 7)
polyvinyl chloride) street fitting
double flare swaging • Refrigeration components must be cleaned with
flare work hardened abrasives, such as emery cloth, or cleaning solvents
before they are assembled or after repair. (Chapter 7)

Introduction
It is important for the technician to be familiar with
the types and uses of tubing and piping in the HVACR
field. Accurate modification of tubing and piping pro-
vides the basis for an effective service call. When servic-
ing a system, a technician must use proper cutting and
joining techniques to ensure both the technician's own
safety and the quality of work.
138 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

8.1 Types of Refrigerant Tubing

The most commonly used tubing in HVACR is
copper tubing. It is important that the technician be
familiar with how to join and repair copper tubing.
Aluminum and stainless steel tubing are sometimes
used for forming evaporator coils.

8.1.1 ACR Copper Tubing

Copper tubing is thin-walled material compared
to steel or plastic pipe. It is available in both soft and
hard types. Soft copper is hard-drawn copper that has
been annealed. Both types are available in different
Mueller Industries, Inc.
wall thicknesses-Kand L. Type K is a heavy wall.
Type L is a medium wall. The more commonly used Figure 8-1. ACR tubing and coil.
type is Type L.
Most copper tubing used in air conditioning and
refrigeration work is known as air conditioning and
refrigeration (ACR) tubing. It is manufactured spe-
cifically for use in air conditioning and refrigeration
systems. ACR tubing is usually charged and sealed
with gaseous nitrogen. This keeps the tubing clean
and dry until it is used. ACR tubing coil ends should
be plugged immediately after a length of tubing is cut
from the coil, Figure 8-1.
1/2" ACR Tubing 1/2" Copper Water Tubing
Most tubing and piping is specified by nominal
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
size, not actual size. For example, the nominal size for
Figure 8-2. Both of these copper tubes have a nominal
copper water tubing used in plumbing is equal to the
size of 1/2". For ACR tubing, the nominal size is equal to the
outside diameter (OD) minus 1/8". ACR tubing size, tubing's outside diameter. The nominal size of copper water
however, is designated by the actual outside diameter tubing is equal to the outside diameter minus 1/8".
of the tubing, Figure 8-2.

Soft ACR Tubing Soft ACR tubing is sold in 2s: 50', and 100' rolls.
Soft ACR tubing is used in domestic and some Sizes most commonly used in HVACR work range
commercial refrigeration and air conditioning work. from 3/16' to 3/4". Figure 8-3 is a table of common cop-
This tubing has been annealed. Annealing is a process per tubing diameters and thicknesses. Note that the
in which a substance is heated to a specific tempera- tubing size and the actual outside diameter are the
ture range and then allowed to cool slowly. Annealing same in ACR tubing.
makes tubing soft and flexible for easy bending and Soft ACR tubing can be hardened by oxidation or
flaring. by repeated bending and hammering. This is referred

m
II
Annealing Tubing
Wear thick gloves and eye protection
to as work hardened. Work hardened copper may crack
at stress points when flared. Work hardened ACR tub-
ing can be softened by annealing.
whenever using a torch. When unrolling soft copper coil, hold the coil
upright with one hand and hold the open end on a flat
1. Hold the tubing in a vise or with insulated
surface. Because it is difficult to recoil tubing, unroll
pliers.
only as much tubing as needed. After cutting the tub-
2. Light the flame of a torch (acetylene, propyl- ing, replace the cap or plug to prevent contamination
ene, or any oxyfuel combination) and add within the tubing.
oxygen to the fuel gas until the flame is blue.
3. Heat the area of the tubing to be annealed to Hard-Drawn ACR Tubing
a dull cherry red. Type L or K hard-drawn ACR tubing is used
4. Allow the tubing to air cool slowly. in commercial refrigeration and air condition-
ing applications. Sizes of hard-drawn ACR tubing

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 139

resistant to corrosion. It may be easily connected to fit-

ACR Copper Tubing Dimensions
tings by flaring or brazing.
Minimum Stainless steel tubing Type 304 is commonly used.
Nominal Outside Inside Wall It is often used in various systems, such as food pro-
Size Diameter Diameter Thickness
cessing, ice cream manufacturing, milk handling, and
(inches) Type (inches) (inches) (inches)
transportation of food items. It can also be used for
1/8 Soft 0.125 0.065 0.030 specialized cooling coils, Figure 8-4.
3
3/16 Soft 0.187 0.128 0.030
1/4 Soft 0.250 0.190 0.030 8.1.3 Aluminum Tubing
5/16 Soft 0.312 0.248 0.032
For certain applications, aluminum tubing may
Soft 0.375 0.311 0.032 be used in HVACR. A common use of aluminum tub-
3/8
Hard 0.375 0.315 0.030 ing is to form evaporators. Methods of bending and
Soft 0.500 0.436 0.032 connecting aluminum tubing are being researched
1/2 and developed to incorporate it more easily into sys-
Hard 0.500 0.430 0.035
tem installation. Motivations for doing so include the
Soft 0.625 0.555 0.035 supply of aluminum and its price compared to copper,
5/8
Hard 0.625 0.545 0.040 Figure 8-5.
Soft 0.750 0.680 0.035
3/4 Thinking Green
Hard 0.750 0.666 0.042
Soft 0.875 0.785 0.045
Working with Tubing
7/8 Tubing that is assembled or repaired using
Hard 0.875 0.785 0.045
improper brazing or handling techniques is more likely
Soft 1.125 1.025 0.050 to develop leaks than tubing that is properly handled.
1 1/8 Any weak areas in the tubing or joints may develop
Hard 1.125 1.025 0.050
a leak over time as the system is subjected to vibra-
Soft 1.375 1.265 0.055 tion and repeated heating and cooling cycles during
1 3/8
Hard 1.375 1.265 0.055 operation. Closely following proper tubing handling
Soft 1.625 1.505 0.060 and brazing procedures will minimize weak spots in the
1 5/8 refrigerant circuit and reduce the possibility that the tub-
Hard 1.625 1.505 0.060 ing will develop a refrigerant leak.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 8-3. For ACR tubing sizes, note that both soft and
hard-drawn types have the same outside diameters. The size
specification for ACR tubing is the actual outside diameter of
the tubing.

range from 3/8" to over 6". Hard-drawn ACR tub-

ing is typically supplied in 10' and 20' lengths. It is
available in the same diameters and thicknesses as
soft ACR tubing. Being hard and stiff, hard-drawn
tubing needs few clamps or supports, particularly
in larger diameters.
Hard-drawn tubing should not be bent; there-
fore, flared connections cannot be used. Use straight
lengths and fittings of different angles to form the nec-
essary tubing connections. Hard-drawn ACR tubing
joints should be brazed, not soldered. Solder should be
used only on water lines.

8.1.2 Stainless Steel Tubing Lordan A.C.S. Ltd

Stainless steel tubing comes in typical tubing Figure 8-4. Stainless steel tubing bent for use as a special
sizes for refrigeration. Stainless steel is strong and very application cooling coil.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

140 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

8.2.1 Copper Water Tubing

Copper water tubing is used on water lines, drains,
and in other non-refrigerant applications. It is available in
both soft and hard-drawn grades. Nominal size is equal
to 1/8" less than the outside diameter. Figure 8-6 shows a
table of commonly used sizes of copper water tubing.

Caution
Use the Right Copper Tubing
Copper water tubing is never used to circulate
refrigerants in a mechanical refrigeration system. When
purchasing from a supply house, be sure to specify the
application of your copper tubing to avoid any mix-up.
ACR tubing is for refrigerant applications. Copper water
tubing is for water applications.
A
Wall thickness (type) is indicated by the use of
a letter after the nominal size: K (heavy wall) and L
(medium wall). Type K is used where corrosion condi-
tions are severe. Type L is used where conditions may
be considered normal.

Copper Water Tubing Dimensions

Minimum
Nominal Outside Inside Wall
Size Diameter Diameter Thickness
(inches) Type (inches) (inches) (inches)
K 0.375 0.305 0.035
1/4
L 0.375 0.315 0.030
K 0.500 0.402 0.049
3/8
L 0.500 0.430 0.035
K 0.625 0.527 0.049
B 1/2
L 0.625 0.545 0.040
Lordan A.C.S. Ltd
Figure 8-5. A-Aluminum tubing. B-A large aluminum K 0.750 0.652 0.049
5/8
evaporator with copper leads. L 0.750 0.666 0.042
K 0.875 0.745 0.065
3/4
L 0.875 0.785 0.045
8.2 Non-Refrigerant Tubing and K 1.125 0.995 0.065
Pipe L 1.125 1.025 0.050
Non-refrigerant tubing and pipe are used in an K 1.375 1.245 0.065
HVACR system as water lines, drain lines for conden- 1 1/4
L 1.375 1.265 0.055
sation, vents for combustion gases, fresh air inlets, and
circulating pathways for brines or water that has been K 1.625 1.481 0.072
1 1/2
heated or chilled. Depending on usage, these tubes or L 1.625 1.505 0.060
pipes may be made of copper, plastic, or various met- Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
als. Iron and steel pipe are frequently used for hot Figure 8-6. For copper water tubing, both type K (heavy
water pipes and gas lines. Neither copper water tubing wall) and type L (medium wall) are available in hard and soft
nor plastic pipe is suitable to circulate refrigerants in a temper. Note that the outside diameters listed are 1/8" (0.125")
mechanical refrigeration system. larger than the nominal tubing size.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 141

175°F (-73°C to 79°C). Solvent cementing, threading,

or flanging can be used to join PVC. Grades for PVC
include Schedule 40 and Schedule 80. Schedule 80 has
a thicker wall than Schedule 40, making it more appro-
- priate for higher pressure applications. Sizes for PVC
. 3 pipe are shown in Figure 8-8. 3
CPVC Pipe
CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride) plastic
pipe is usually a light beige or tan color. It may be
used for hot and cold water lines and drains as local
building codes permit. It can also be used for some
Mueller Industries, Inc. furnace venting applications. CPVC has physical
Figure 8-7. ABS pipe. properties similar to or better than PVC. Its maxi-
mum service temperature is 210°F (99°C). It is an
excellent material for hot, corrosive liquids. CPVC
may be joined by solvent cementing, threading, or
Pro Tip flanging. Similar to PVC, grades for CPVC include
Fitting Size Schedule 40 and Schedule 80. CPVC is rated to han-
When purchasing fittings for copper water tubing, dle water pressure of 100 psi (700 kPa) at a tempera-
it is important that the fitting is the same size as the ture of 180°F (82°C). Both PVC and CPVC come in 10'
tubing. To avoid problems, all non-refrigeration tubing, and 20' lengths.
valves, and fittings should be ordered by nominal size.

8.2.2 Plastic Pipe PVC Pipe Dimensions

Plastic pipe is widely used in plumbing and other Minimum
applications. Plastic pipe cannot be used to circulate Nominal Outside Inside Wall
Size Diameter Diameter Thickness
refrigerant. However, it has become a replacement for
(inches) Schedule (inches) (inches) (inches)
steel pipe in many applications as it is less expensive
and easier to join and install than metal piping. 40 0.540 0.344 0.088
1/4
Plastic pipe does not corrode, scale, rust, or pit 80 0.540 0.282 0.119
on inside or outside surfaces. It is resistant to bacteria, 40 0.675 0.473 0.091
algae, and fungi. Three types of plastic pipe are used 3/8
80 0.675 0.403 0.126
in refrigeration-related work: ABS, PVC, and CPVC.
40 0.840 0.622 0.109
1/2
ABS Pipe 80 0.840 0.526 0.147
ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) is a black 40 1.050 0.804 0.113
pipe used for drainage, waste, and vent piping, as it 3/4
80 1.050 0.722 0.154
is resistant to deposit formation. See Figure 8-7. ABS
is appropriate for non-pressure applications where the 40 1.315 1.029 0.133
1
operating temperature will not exceed 180°F (82°C). It 80 1.315 0.936 0.179
can be exposed to a wide temperature span, from -40°F 40 1.660 1.360 0.140
to 180°F (-40°C to 82°C). A variety of lengths of ABS 1 1/4
80 1.660 1.255 0.191
pipe are available. Either solvent cementing or thread-
ing can be used to join ABS pipe. ABS can also be con- 40 1.900 1.590 0.145
1 1/2
nected to steel or copper using transition fittings. 80 1.900 1.476 0.200
40 2.375 2.047 0.154
PVC Pipe 2
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) plastic pipe is white. It 80 2.375 1.913 0.218
is commonly used for cold water supply, drain lines, Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
fresh air inlet, and some furnace exhaust applications. Figure 8-8. In this table of PVC pipe specifications, note
PVC is resistant to corrosion and chemical attack. A the difference in wall thickness between Schedule 40 and
safe temperature range for PVC pipe is from -100°F to Schedule 80.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

142 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

8.2.3 Steel Pipe

In most HVACR systems, steel pipe is not used to
circulate refrigerant. The major exception is in ammo-
nia refrigeration systems. Ammonia may chemically
react with copper tubing. Steel pipe is primarily used
for gas lines or water pipes.
Two common types of steel pipe are galvanized
pipe and black pipe , Figure 8-9. Galvanized pipe is
treated with a zinc anticorrosion material. Galvanized
pipe is a gray-colored steel pipe. It is used primarily
in water systems to prevent rust. Black pipe is usually
less expensive than galvanized pipe and is used for
gas lines and applications that do not carry water.
Steel pipe is also called "rigid pipe." Unlike cop-
per tubing, steel pipe cannot be bent, flared, or easily
cut. Steel pipe may be joined using welding, but more
often it is joined by cutting threads onto the pipe and
Mueller Industries, Inc. using threaded fittings. Threaded unions, elbows, and
Figure 8-9. Threaded galvanized and black steel pipe. tees join most steel pipe, Figure 8-10.

.,S ~--·:tu; \ ,-1;-i('f

1,_ ', , ~ ,·) ·-· .

',\,

Mueller Industries, Inc.

Figure 8-10. Commonly used threaded fittings for galvanized and black steel pipe.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 143

Steel pipe is measured by inside diameter (ID). wheel-type and a mini wheel-type tubing cutter. Note
The wall thickness of steel pipe varies, so pipe sizes the attached reamer on the full-size cutter, which is
are specified by nominal diameter. used to remove burrs from inside the tubing after cut-
ting. Grooves in the roller wheels allow the cutter to be
used to remove a flare from tubing with little waste.
8.3 Cutting Tubing 3
Two tools are essential in cutting tubing: a hack- Caution
saw and a tubing cutter. A hacksaw is preferred for Square Cutting
cutting larger hard-drawn copper tubing. A tubing Tubing should always be cut straight and square
cutter is usually used on smaller soft copper tubing (90°) to eliminate an off-center flare or other tubing con-
and some aluminum tubing. Figure 8-11 shows both a nection troubles.

Fold-away
[ti Cutting Tubing with a Tubing Cutter
reamer blade 111 Before beginning the cutting process, make
sure the cutting wheel is tightly secured in the
tubing cutter. It should not be dull. Turn the
Tightening knob
tightening knob counterclockwise until there is
plenty of room to slide the tubing between the
cutting wheel and rollers without scoring it. Refer
to Figure 8-12 as you read through the following
procedure:
1. Use a measuring tape and pencil to measure
and mark the exact amount of tubing you need.
2. Firmly place and hold the tubing against the
rollers of the tubing cutter.
3. Carefully align the cutting wheel with the
A measured mark on the tubing.
Roller 4. Screw the tightening knob clockwise until the
wheels cutting wheel is pressing against the mark on
the tube.
5. Rotate the tubing cutter around the tube in
complete revolutions, gradually turning the
tightening knob clockwise to increase cut-
ting pressure with each revolution. If the
pressure is too low, the cutter will rotate with
little resistance. If the cutting pressure is too
great, there will be a lot of resistance on the
cutter, making it difficult to rotate smoothly.
Be careful not to apply too much pressure, as
this could flatten the tubing.

[ti Cutting Tubing with a Hacksaw

111 When cutting tubing with a hacksaw, use
a blade with a wave set pattern and 32 teeth per
inch to achieve the best results. A scrap piece
of wood may be used to raise the tubing to an
B effective cutting height.
Bacharach, Inc. 1. Use a miter box to hold the tubing and ensure
Figure 8-11. A-A wheel-type tubing cutter for cutting copper a square cut.
tubing. B-A mini-tubing cutter for use in cramped areas.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

144 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

2. Move the saw slowly in a back and fortH

motion, applying very little pressure. Do not
push hard or the tubing will bend to an oval
shape.
3. Clean the edge of the cut using a small file or
pipe reamer to remove any burrs on the inside
or outside. Do not allow the chips to fall into
the section of tubing that is to be used.
4. Go over the cut end with an emery cloth to
ensure a good connection with fittings and to
remove grease, dirt, and oxidation.

A saw with a higher number of teeth per inch

will make a cleaner cut. If soft tubing is being cut, cap
the end of the tube on the unused side of the cut. This
eliminates the danger of chips entering the tubing. It
also seals the tubing against moisture and protects it
until used. When using hard copper tubing, cap or
Aligning the Cutting Wheel plug the ends of the unused section.

Caution
Filings and Chips in Tubing
It is important that no filings or chips of any kind
enter the tubing. Any foreign object entering the tubing
may cause restrictions or cause damage to valves.

Cutting usually leaves some sharp burrs on the

cut ends. Burrs must be removed by reaming (scraping
with a pointed tool). Most tubing cutters have a reamer.

m
II
Squaring and Reaming Tubing End
Remember to wear gloves and eye protection
I
when using files and deburring tools.
1. File the end of the tubing with a 10" smooth
mill file to make the end square. This will
provide the end with the full wall's thickness,
Figure 8-13.
2. Lightly file the outside edge of the tubing to
remove any burrs.
3. Use a reamer or deburring tool to remove
Tightening the Tubing Cutter inside burrs, Figure 8-14.
Uniweld Products, Inc.
Figure 8-12. As you tighten the knob, be sure the wheel is
lined up with the mark on the tubing. Remember to tighten the
cutting wheel as you rotate the cutter around the tube. 8.4 Bending Tubing
It takes practice to become good at bending tub-
ing. Special bending tools are not needed for smaller
size tubing used in domestic appliances. However, a
much neater and more satisfactory job is possible with
such tools.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 145

Tubing should be bent so that it does not place

any strain on the fittings after installation. Be very
careful when bending the tubing to keep it round. Do
not allow the tubing to kink, flatten, or buckle. This
could interfere with refrigerant flow and pressure. The
minimum radius for a 90° tubing bend is five times the
Tubing after Being Cut diameter of the tubing, as shown in Figure 8-15.
3
Tubing should be bent slowly and carefully. Use
as large a radius as possible. This reduces the amount
of flattening. It is also easier to bend a large radius.
Do not try to make the complete bend in one opera-
tion. Instead, bend the tubing gradually. There is less
danger that the sudden stress will break or buckle the
Tubing after Being Filed tubing.
Using a bending spring makes bending tubing
easier and reduces the danger of flattening the tubing
while bending it. Bending springs are available in a
variety of sizes, and they can be used both inside and
outside the tubing, Figure 8-16. Bending springs are
used internally for making bends near the end of the
tubing. To bend long lengths of tubing in the middle,
Tubing after Being Filed and Reamed use the bending spring externally. The same bending
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher spring can be used both internally and externally on
Figure 8-13. The cut end of copper tubing must be properly different diameter tubing. For example, an internal
squared and reamed to ensure a leakproof connection. bending spring for 1/2" tubing may be used as an
external bending spring for 1/4" tubing.

goo I
_____ __d

Diameter of tubing= 1/2"

Deburring Tools

Minimum Radius for a go 0 Bend = 5 x Tubing Diameter

1/2" tubing

5" minimum

Using a Deburring Tool - = ----

Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 8-14. Deburring tools consist of a handle used to hold Figure 8-15. The minimum safe radius for a 90° bend in
a blade, which is used to remove an inside burr. copper tubing is five times the diameter of the tubing.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

146 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Bending Springs Using a Bending Spring

Mastercaal Inc.; Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
Figure 8-16. These bending springs are used to bend 1/4" through 3/4" tubing. A bending spring can be fitted either outside or
inside the copper tubing before it is bent.

Bending springs tend to bind on the tubing after

the bend. The recommended removal method is twist-
[ti Bending with a Lever-Type
ing the spring. This may be done easily. This changes
rA1 Tubing Bender
the spring diameter slightly so the grip on the tubing 1. Place the tubing in the lever-type bender,
is released. Figure 8-18A.
2. Line up the mark on the tubing with both the
Pro Tip zero mark on the degree of bend and the zero
Bending and Flaring Tubing mark on the lever, Figure 8-18B.
When using a bending spring externally, always 3. In one continuous motion, pull the tubing
remember to make any necessary bends before flaring the lever until the zero on the lever aligns with the
tubing or attaching any connectors. An internal spring can desired bending angle, Figure 8-18C. If the
be used either before or after flaring the tubing. tubing pulls back after pressure is released,
check that the bend is still the proper angle. If
Many lever-type benders are designed to bend it is less, bend the tubing just slightly past the
more than just one size of tubing, see Figure 8-17. desired angle number. This should account
Common size compatibilities are 3/16", 1/4': 5/16", and for any tubing pullback.
3/8" tubing. The calibrated markings allow the techni-
cian to make accurate left-hand, right-hand, and offset
bends.
8.5 Connecting Tubing
Tubing walls are too thin for threading. Therefore,
Groove for
other methods of joining tubing to tubing and tubing
3/8" tubing to fittings must be used. The four common methods
are:
• Flared connections.
• Soldered connections.
Groove for • Brazed connections.
5/16" tubing
• Swaged connections.

Marks indicate 8.5.1 Flared Connections and Fittings

the degree of bend
Groove for A flare is an enlargement at the end of a piece of tub-
1/4" tubing ing by which the tubing is connected to a threaded fitting
Mastercaal Inc. using a flare nut. When a flare is used to connect a piece
Figure 8-17. This lever-type bender can safely bend 1/4", of tubing to a fitting, the threaded flare nut on the tubing
5/16", and 3/8" tubing. forces the flare to seal against the lip of the fitting.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 147

To connect tubing to a flare fitting, the end of the tub-

ing must be flared. A correctly formed flare is squeezed
tightly between the flare nut and the fitting. When created
correctly, a flare produces a vapor-tight seal. Special tools
are used for making flares, Figure 8-19.

Pro Tip
3
Working with Brittle Tubing
If tubing splits while being flared, it may be due to
applying too much pressure or simply the age of the tub-
ing. Old tubing becomes brittle after a period of use and is
not easily flared to a satisfactory standard. To remedy this
brittle condition, try annealing the tubing before flaring it.

Step 1-lnsert Tubing Single Flares

Single flares are flares that are made of one layer
or a single thickness of tubing. Most flares are made at
a 45° angle to the tubing. These fittings are referred to
as SAE-type fittings. Flares on steel tubing, however,
are usually made at a 37° angle. These are referred to
as JIC or AN fittings. These types of fittings are flared
to a shallower angle because steel tubing is harder to
flare than copper tubing.

[fj Single Flaring Procedure

II Before flaring, make the end of the tubing
straight and square, as explained earlier in this
chapter. Refer to Figure 8-20 as you read through
the following procedure:
1. Place the flare nut on the tubing with the
open threaded end facing toward the end of
the tubing where the flare will be made.

Step 2-Align Zero Marks

Clamp
handle
Uniweld Products, Inc.
Figure 8-19. This flaring tool is used for making single flares
Step 3-Bend to Degree Mark
on copper tubing. When the yoke is removed and the handle is
Uniweld Products, Inc. loosened, the split flaring block opens, making it easy to insert
Figure 8-18. Using a lever-type bender. and clamp the tubing in place for flaring.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

148 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

4. Put a drop of refrigerant oil on the flaring

cone where it will contact the tubing.
5. Mount the yoke onto the flaring block.
6. Turn the flare handle clockwise to tighten the
flaring cone against the tubing end one-half
turn and back it off one-quarter turn.
7. Advance the flaring cone by turning the flare
handle clockwise three-quarters of a turn
and again backing it off one-quarter turn.
8. Repeat the forward and backward pattern
until the flare is fully formed. Do not tighten
the flare handle too much. This would
thin the wall of the tubing at the flare and
weaken it.
9. Back off the flaring cone by turning the flare
handle counterclockwise.
Inserting the Tubing in the Flaring Block
10. Remove the yoke from the block.
11. Open the block by unscrewing the clamp
handle.
12. Remove the tubing from the flaring tool.

Double Flares
Double flares are made with a double thickness
of tubing metal in the flare surface. These flares are
stronger than single flares and rarely cause problems
if properly made. Double flares are recommended only
for larger size tubing, 5/16" and over. Such flares are
not easily formed on smaller tubing.
Double flares are formed with special tools. Some
flaring tools have double flare adapters. These make it
possible to form either a single or a double flare.

Double Flaring Procedure Using

Inserting the Flaring Cone
Adapters
Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division Before flaring, make the end of the tubing
Figure 8-20. Forming a single flare on copper tubing. straight and square, as explained earlier in this
chapter. Refer to Figure 8-21 as you read through
the following procedure:
2. Insert the tubing in the flaring block so thaf 1. Place the flare nut on the tubing with the
the flaring end extends above the surface of open threaded end toward the end of the tub-
the block approximately 1/16" or to manu- ing where the flare will be made.
facturer specifications. This provides enough 2. Insert the tubing in the flaring block so that
metal to form a full flare. If the tubing extends the end to be flared extends above the sur-
above the block too much, the flare will be too face of the block. The flaring adapter should
large in diameter and the flare nut will not fit be set on the block so it can be used to gauge
over it. If the tubing does not extend above how far the tubing should extend. The tubing
the block, the flare will be too small. should extend beyond the block so it is even
3. Tighten the flaring block's clamp so the tub- with the wide part of the adapter. This pro-
ing cannot move. vides enough metal to form a full flare.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 149

7. Turn the flare handle clockwise to tighten the

flaring cone against the flaring adapter until
Flaring cone the flaring adapter is tightly pressed against
the flaring block.
Adapter
8. Turn the flare handle counterclockwise to
Tubing extends
_[Adapter
back up the flaring cone an inch or two away 3
above block equal __l width
from the flaring adapter.
to adapter width
9. Remove the flaring adapter from the tubing.
10. Advance the flaring cone by turning the flare
hand clockwise three-quarters of a turn and
backing it off one-quarter turn.
11. Repeat the forward and backward pattern until
t
Flaring block
the flare is fully formed. Do not tighten the flar-
ing handle too much. This would thin the wall
of the tubing at the flare and weaken it.
12. Back off the flaring cone by turning the flar-
ing handle counterclockwise.
13. Remove the yoke from the block.
14. Open the block by unscrewing the clamp
handle.
15. Remove the tubing from the flaring block.

Not all double flares are made using adapters.

Punch tools can also be used to form a double flare.

Double Flaring Procedure Using

Punches
Before flaring, make the end of the tubing
straight and square, as explained earlier in this
chapter. Refer to Figure 8-22 as you read the
following procedure:
1. Place the flare nut on the tubing with the
open threaded end toward the end of the tub-
ing where the flare will be made.
2. Insert the tubing in the flaring block so that
the end being flared is even with or slightly
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher above the block.
Figure 8-21. Forming a double flare using a flaring tool and 3. Tighten the flaring block's clamp so the tube
adapter.
cannot move.
4. Select the proper punch with a long central
shaft and concave outer punch.
3. Tighten the flaring block's clamp so the tube 5. Put a drop of refrigerant oil on the parts of the
cannot move. punch that will contact the tubing.
4. Put a drop of refrigerant oil on the male end 6. Insert the central shaft into the tubing.
of the flaring adapter. 7. Gently tap the punch with a ball peen hammer.
5. Place the male end of the flaring adapter 8. Remove the punch from the tubing.
inside the tubing. 9. Select a punch with a long central shaft and
6. Mount the yoke onto the flaring block. beveled shoulders.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

150 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

10. Insert the central shaft into the tubing.

11. Position the bottom of the beveled shoulders
at the top of the partially flared tubing.
Tubing level 12. Gently tap the punch with a ball peen ham-
-+--- First punch
with block inserted
mer to compress the two walls of the flare
together into a double flare.
13. Remove the punch.
14. Open the flaring block by unscrewing the
clamp handle.
15. Remove the tubing from the flaring block.
Flaring block

Flare Fittings
As mentioned earlier, flared connections are gen-
erally used to connect soft copper tubing to fittings.
First punch The accepted standard for refrigeration is a forged fit-
bends end of ting. Some of these have National Pipe Threads (NPT).
Others have Unified National Fine (UNF) threads.
There are many different types of flare fittings. See
Figure 8-23.
Fittings are usually made of drop-forged brass.
They are accurately machined to form the threads, the
hexagonal shapes for wrench attachment, and the 45°
edge that fits against the tubing flare. Threaded fittings
can be easily damaged and must be handled carefully.
All fitting sizes are based on the tubing size. For
Second punch ~
example, a 1/4" flare nut attaches 1/4" tubing to a flared
is inserted
fitting even though it has 7/16" UNF internal threads
and uses a 3/4" wrench to turn it.
Reducing fittings are used to connect a larger
diameter tube to a smaller diameter tube. Reducing fit-
tings are always called by the larger tubing they will
accept followed by the word "to" and then the smaller
tubing diameter. For example, when attaching 1/4"
tubing to 5/16" tubing, a 5/16" to 1/4" reducing flare
fitting is used.

Pro Tip
Metric Tubing Fittings
Metric tubing requires metric fittings. These are
very similar to US Customary fittings and are used in
the same way. The technician must be careful not to mix
US Customary fittings with metric fittings.

8.5.2 Soldered and Brazed Connections

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Many tubing and fitting connections are made by
Figure 8-22. Using simple block and punch tools, a either soldering or brazing. In HVACR work, soldered
technician can form double flares on copper tubing.
joints are used only for water pipes and drains. Brazed
joints are used for tubing that circulates refrigerant.
The difference between soldering and brazing pro-
cesses is the temperature at which the filler material

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 151

Three-Way Tee Half Union 90° Elbow

Half Union Coupling Flared Union Coupling

BernzOmatic
Figure 8-24. Propane and MAP gas kits are commonly used
Flare Nut
for soldering. Including pressurized oxygen can increase
Mueller Refrigeration Campany, Inc. flame temperature and joining speed.
Figure 8-23. These are some of the more common flare
fittings used in refrigeration and air conditioning work.

flows. If the temperature required to melt the filler

alloy is below 840°F (450°C), it is considered soldering.
If the temperature required to melt the filler alloy is
above 840°F (450°C) but below the melting point of the
fitting and tubing metal, it is referred to as brazing.

Soldering and Brazing Equipment

An HVACR technician uses soldering and brazing
for many jobs. Soldering does not require as much heat
as brazing. Common fuel for soldering includes pro-
pane and MAP gas, Figure 8-24.
For brazing, air-acetylene torches furnish a clean
flame at a temperature of 2500°F (1400°C). With com-
pressed air, the torch flame temperature is about
2500°F to 2800°F (1400°C to 1500°C). Acetylene is sup-
plied in cylinders of 10 ft3 or 40 ft 3 capacity for por-
table welding and brazing outfits. Air-fuel and oxyfuel Worthington Since 1955
torches burn at high temperatures sufficient for braz- Figure 8-25. An air-acetylene kit has only one gas cylinder.
ing, Figure 8-25. Some torch handles use a switch and button ignition function.

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152 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Additional methods for controlling the transfer of

Safety Note
heat during brazing include using specialty tips, heat
Phosgene Gas guards, and wet rags. A brazing hook allows a tech-
Phosgene gas is a by-product of some refrigerants nician to apply heat over a single area from multiple
when they are exposed to an open flame or extreme directions, helping to heat all sides of the joint simul-
heat. This by-product is extremely dangerous, even in taneously. Brazing hooks bring a joint up to brazing
trace amounts. Follow refrigerant recovery procedures temperature more quickly, which reduces the amount
and practices to reduce contact with phosgene gas.
of heat transferred to surrounding objects, Figure 8-27.
A heat guard can also be used to protect other areas
Oxyacetylene brazing equipment is the most effec- from the flame and heat. See Figure 8-28. Wrapping
tive type of equipment to use for brazing joints. It is tubing in a damp rag is another common practice
capable of brazing joints more quickly than any other used to prevent heat from traveling through the tub-
type of torch. If the brazing is done properly, the joints ing to other objects. The wet rag absorbs heat that the
will be strong and leak free. A small, portable system tubing conducts, keeping the temperature down and
is shown in Figure 8-26.
Oxyacetylene describes a torch configuration that
mixes pure oxygen and acetylene. The mixture burns
with a maximum temperature of 6000°F (3300°C). The
hotter flame will bring the joint to brazing tempera-
ture quickly. Since materials transfer heat at a fixed
maximum rate, the hotter flame actually reduces the
amount of heat transferred down the copper tubing
because the flame does not need to be held to the joint
as long. This trait is especially useful when connecting
a valve, compressor, filter-drier, or other refrigeration
equipment. The technician is able to braze replacement
items in place without damaging them through heat
transfer.

Cany7 handle
Uniweld Products, Inc.
Figure 8-27. Brazing hooks distribute flames over multiple
sides of a joint simultaneously.
Oxygen
regulator

Filter lens
goggles /
Cutting torch /
\
FlinVspark
striker
Hook torch Attaching Heat Guard Heat Guard
tip Brazing tip to Brazing Tip Shields Flame
Uniweld Products, Inc. Uniweld Products, Inc.
Figure 8-26. This portable oxyacetylene outfit has two tanks Figure 8-28. A heat guard can be used to protect areas from
with regulators and gauges, as well as different torch tips. flame and heat.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 153

preventing excessive heat from flowing to other system Safety Note

components. Gel, foam, paste, and spray products can
be applied to each side of a joint before brazing. These
Flashback Arrestors and Check Valves
products absorb heat and limit heat transfer to protect If you are using an oxyfuel torch, be sure to use
check valves or flashback arrestors to prevent the flame
devices connected nearby, Figure 8-29.
from traveling inside the hose to the supply tank. These
Pro Tip
devices are installed between the torch and the sup- 3
ply hoses or between the hoses and the regulators.
Preventing Heat Damage Check valves prevent gas flow from changing direction,
Use sheet metal or boards to protect surfaces dur- which could cause a flashback. A flashback arrestor
ing brazing and soldering operations, such as when is a check valve with a built-in flame arrestor for an
assembling piping along a wall. This will help prevent added layer of protection if a flashback does occur,
the materials from burning, discoloring, or scorching. Figure 8-30.

LA-CO Industries Inc.

Figure 8-29. Various types of heat blocking products can be used to protect sensitive parts of a system.

Check valve built

into regulator outlet
A B
Uniweld Products, Inc.; Harris Group
Figure 8-30. Torch safety devices. A-Check valves are often built into a regulator's outlet to prevent a flashback from traveling
through the supply hose back to the tank. B-Flashback arrestors may be installed between the torch tip and the supply hoses.

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154 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Types of Flames A carburizing flame has too much acetylene. In

Correct use of oxyacetylene requires metering of a carburizing flame, the outer flame ends in a ragged
the flow of oxygen and acetylene. The oxygen tank and orange-red flame. There will appear to be two separate
the acetylene tank each have a pressure regulator and inner cones in the flame: a small white cone and a lon-
a set of gauges. One gauge in each set registers tank ger light blue cone. A carburizing flame also generates
pressure, and the other displays the pressure at the a lot of smoke.
torch. For brazing, a torch tip several sizes larger than An oxidizing flame has more oxygen than a neu-
the one used for soldering should be used. Follow the tral flame. The inner cone of an oxidizing flame is
torch manufacturer's recommendations for pressure small, sharply pointed, and white. An oxidizing flame
settings and tip sizes. also hisses as it burns. The louder the flame hisses, the
more oxidizing it is.
Safety Note A neutral flame is most efficient flame in brazing.
Proper Torch Lighting It has just the right mixture of oxygen and acetylene. A
neutral flame is recognized by its single, bullet-shaped,
Always light a torch with a flint lighter. Using matches
or a cigarette lighter places your hand too close to the
bluish-white inner cone and an outer flame with a bit
flame. Never point the torch (lit or unlit) toward an open of reddish-purple at the tip. A neutral flame burns rela-
flame or source of sparks. tively quietly and does not generate smoke.

The acetylene valve adjusts the flame size. After Safety Note
opening the acetylene valve, slowly turn the oxygen Avoiding Flammable Materials
valve to obtain the type of flame required. The proper Keep the flame away from any combustible sub-
balance of oxygen and acetylene is critical to creating stance. Such substances include oil, wood, paper,
brazed joints correctly. A technician can tell when the paint, and cleaning fluids. Also, keep the flame away
flame is properly adjusted by the appearance of the from containers, such as barrels, tubing, or cylinders,
torch flame, Figure 8-31. that may have contained flammable material at one
time.

Soldering
Soldering (often called soft soldering) is a process
of joining metal objects by heating the objects to a tem-
perature below 840°F (450°C) and then applying a filler
metal with a melting point below 840°F (450°C). The
Ragged
flame metal objects remain solid, but the filler metal melts
and fills the gaps between the two objects. Soldered
joints are weaker than brazed joints, so the process is
used only on water supply lines and drain lines, not
refrigerant-circulating lines.
Soldering is an adhesion process. In adhesion pro-
cesses, one part is bonded to a second part by a third
material. The molten solder is drawn into the gaps
between the tube and fitting by capillary action.
Capillary action is the movement of a liquid sub-
Two separate
inner cones
stance between two solid substances due to the molec-
ular adhesive forces between the solids overcoming
the liquid's cohesive forces. The solder flows into the
pores of the surface of the metals being joined. As the
Carburizing Neutral Oxidizing solder solidifies, a strong bond forms.
Flame Flame Flame The filler metal, which is called solder, is usually
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher used in wire form, Figure 8-32. Because the melting
Figure 8-31. This figure illustrates the different types of point of the filler metal needs to be so low, it is typically
oxyacetylene flames. A neutral flame is the most efficient for made of soft metals like tin, lead, and silver. Surfaces in
brazing and soldering joints. inconvenient locations can be easily reached with sol-
der by bending the wire to the needed shape.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 155

Safety Note
Soldering Eye Protection
When soldering, be sure to wear eye protection
with a No. 2 filter lens or darker.

Do not solder with 100% tin. Pure tin may slowly disin- 3
tegrate when exposed to cold.
Creating a good solder joint consists of cleaning
the parts to be joined, applying flux, and assembling
the parts. Flux is a paste, powder, or liquid that pre-
vents oxide from forming on the surfaces to be sol-
dered and aids solder flow, Figure 8-34. As soon as
the heated joint reaches the flowing temperature of the
solder, the solder is applied and flows into the joint.
When the solder cools, it solidifies, sealing and con-
necting the surfaces. The process of soldering a joint is
often referred to as "sweating" a joint.

Harris Group
Figure 8-32. Solder is commonly available as wire coiled onto
spools.

The selection of a solder is based on several factors,

including the pressure and the temperature of the line.
A tin-lead solder is appropriate for moderate pressures
and temperatures. It melts at 360°F (182°C) and flows
between 420°F (213°C) and 460°F (238°C). For higher
pressures or greater joint strength, a 95/5 tin-antimony
solder is used. This mixture contains 95% tin and 5%
antimony. A 95/5 tin-antimony solder melts at 450°F
(232°C) and is fully liquid at 465°F (241°C), Figure 8-33.
A tin-antimony alloy is usually satisfactory for soft Harris Group
soldering. A 95/5 tin-antimony solder is recommended Figure 8-34. Flux is available in a variety of forms and
for soldered joints subjected to very low temperatures. amounts.

Solder Alloys
Composition Percent Temperature °F

Tin (Sn) Lead (Pb) Antimony (Sb) Silver (Ag) Melts Flows

50 50 360 420
40 60 360 460
60 40 360 375
95 5 452 464
96 4 430 430
94 6 430 535
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 8-33. This chart shows the melting and flowing temperatures for various solder compositions.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

156 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Applying Flux Paste Assembling the Joint and Wiping

Away Excess Flux

Heating the Joint Applying Solder to the Joint Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

Figure 8-35. Soldering a joint requires careful preparation and precision. Applying the correct amount of flux and heating the
tubing properly are essential to creating a leakproof joint.

m
111
Soldering Procedure
After measuring, cutting, and setting up
be. The coating of flux should be thin buf
thorough.
everything to exact specifications, you are ready 5. Assemble the tubing and fitting together.
to begin soldering. Refer to Figure 8-35 as you
read the following procedure: 6. Remove excess flux on the tubing and fitting
by wiping them with a clean dry cloth.
1. Make sure the tubing and fittings being con-
nected are dry. 7. Heat the tubing and fitting by directing the
torch flame at the tubing, two or three inches
2. Ream or deburr the inside of the tubing with
back from the fitting. Position the torch so
a reamer or deburring tool, making sure that
that the inner cone of the flame is touching
no pieces of metal enter the tubing.
the tubing. Slowly move the torch around the
3. Clean the exterior of the tubing that will be circumference of the tubing or use a hook
soldered with emery cloth, an abrasive pad, torch tip to heat all sides evenly. Gradually
or a wire brush. move the torch toward the fitting. The joint
4. Apply flux to completely cover the outside of between the fitting and the tubing should be
the tubing where the parts will be in contact. heated last. The point of this step is to heat the
The flux coating on the tubing should extend joint and surrounding area to a temperature
slightly past where the edge of the fitting will above the melting point of the solder.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 157

Most filler metals used for brazing copper tubing

8. After the tubing and fitting are sufficiently fall into two categories: alloys containing 5% to 60%
heated (flux has melted and boiled away, and silver and copper alloys that contain some phosphorus.
the copper has a slightly dull appearance), redi- See Figure 8-36. These two classes vary in melting,
rect the flame to the center of the fitting, away flowing, and fluxing characteristics. Strong joints can
from the joint. Touch the solder to the bottom be made with either class of filler metal. The strength
of the joint. If the solder does not quickly melt, of a brazed copper joint depends more on the clearance
3
withdraw the solder and continue heating the between the tubing and the socket of the fitting than on
joint. Do not direct the flame onto the solder to the type of filler metal used. Most brazing alloys used
melt the solder! Proper temperature for solder- in refrigeration work have 15% to 45% silver content. A
ing has been achieved only when solder melts brazing alloy with 45% silver content starts melting at
upon contact with the heated fitting. Feed the 1120°F (604°C) and flows at 1145°F (6l8°C).
solder around the circumference of the joint to
completely fill the joint. Capillary action should
draw solder into the joint. The solder joint is
completely filled when a ring of solder is visible
all around the tubing where it enters the fitting.
9. Shut off the torch and immediately wipe the
joint with a damp rag to remove excess solder
and flux.

Pro Tip
Joining Different Tubing Sizes
Sometimes a small tube is inserted into a larger
tube and soldered directly together. The smaller tube
should extend into the larger tube the same distance
as the diameter of the larger tubing. For example, if 1/4"
tubing is placed into 5/16" tubing, the smaller tubing
should extend into the larger tubing by 5/16". Measure Silver Brazing Alloys
carefully when connecting tubing in this way.

Brazing
Brazing (sometimes called silver brazing) is a pro-
cess of joining metal objects by heating the objects to
a temperature above 840°F (450°C) and then applying
a filler metal with a melting point that is above 840°F
(450°C), but below the melting point of the objects
being joined. Like soldering, brazing is an adhesion
process. Brazing is one of the best methods of making
leakproof connections.
During the brazing process, capillary action
draws molten filler metal into the small gaps between
the tubing and fitting. When the filler metal cools, it
adheres strongly to the tubing and fitting. Brazing
filler metals are typically stronger than solder because
the filler metals used in brazing have a higher melting
point than solder.
There are various brazing alloys on the market.
Brazing filler metals can join similar and dissimilar
metals at brazing temperature. The brazing filler met- Phosphorus Brazing Alloys
als used in refrigeration work typically melt at temper- Harris Group
atures in the range of 1000°F to 1500°F (538°C to 8l6°C). Figure 8-36. Various brazing alloys.

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158 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Caution Brazing Procedure

Cadmium Fumes After measuring, cutting, and setting up
Carefully check the specifications of the braz- everything to exact specifications, you are ready
ing alloy used. If it contains any amount of cadmium to begin brazing.
(Cd), be sure that the work space is well ventilated. 1. Ream or deburr the inside of the tubing with
Do not breathe any of the fumes. Cadmium fumes
a reamer or deburring tool.
must be kept away from the eyes and skin. They are
very poisonous. 2. The parts to be brazed must be carefully
cleaned and accurately fitted. Use a stainless
steel wire brush or fine-grade sand cloth to
Safety Note clean the exterior of the tubing from the end
to just beyond the point where the edge of the
Brazing Eye Protection fitting will be. Do not use emery cloth, as any
It is advisable to use eye protection with a No. 4 or of its grit that accidentally enters the system
darker filter lens during brazing procedures. can cause damage.
3. Clean the internal surfaces of the tubing and
All air must be removed from the tubing being the fitting with an abrasive, such as a stainless
brazed. This can be best done by purging the tub- steel wire brush or stainless steel wool rolled
ing with either nitrogen or carbon dioxide. Purging ona rod.
is the process of removing unwanted air, vapors,
4. Degrease the parts and clean the joints
dirt, and moisture from a system by flushing them
thoroughly.
into the atmosphere with a compressed gas. Any
oxygen inside tubing may promote the formation 5. Apply the flux recommended for the brazing
of oxide on the interior surface. Also, any oil inside alloy. Follow the manufacturer's instructions.
the tubing or part may be vaporized by the heat of Generally, it is best to apply a thin but thor-
the torch. Oil vapor mixed with air will explode if ough coating of flux. This should cover from
ignited. Purging with a nonflammable gas, such the end of the tubing to just beyond where
as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, will minimize this the edge of the fitting will be (the same area
hazard. It is recommended to set nitrogen to flow cleaned with an abrasive).
through the inside of any brazing joint at low pres- 6. Fit the joints closely and support all parts.
sure, such as 1 to 2 psi. The parts must have sufficient surface area
contact, such as a tube sliding into a fitting
Caution (not a press fit), Figure 8-37. The contacting
surfaces need not be very large. A joint clear-
Purging Gases ance of 0.001" to 0.005" offers the maximum
Never use a refrigerant, oxygen, or compressed air joint strength and soundness. Excessive joint
for purging. clearance can lead to cracking under stress or
vibration. If the parts are dented or are out of
Be sure to heat both pieces that will have the alloy round, these faults must be corrected before
adhered to them. When heating a copper-to-steel joint, brazing. It is important to support all the
heat the copper first. Copper takes more heat because parts securely so they will not move during
it carries the heat away faster. When brazing tempera- brazing.
ture is reached, apply the brazing rod to the joint. You 7. Heat the tubing first. Keep the torch moving
may need to put some flux on the brazing rod to help constantly in a figure-eight motion. Never
the rod flow quicker. hold the flame in one spot. It should be moved
around the entire brazing area. Using a torch
Pro Tip tip that is larger than the tip used for solder-
Brazing a Capillary Tube ing allows a soft flame and a large quantity
When brazing a capillary tube, do not let too much of heat without excess pressure or "blow." A
brazing material run into the end of the tube. It might slight feather on the inner cone of the flame is
partially or completely close the passageway of the cap- good. Keep the joint surrounded by the flame
illary tube. during the entire operation, with the tip of the
flame's inner cone just touching the surface o

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 159

Tube to Plate Joints

Poor Design Good Design Good Design Good Design I

Tube to Tube Joints

Good Design Good Design Good Design

(Allows direction
for face feeding wire)

Poor Design
(Press fit prevents filler metal penetration)

Joints between Light and Heavy Parts

Good Design Poor Design

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 8-37. Follow these suggestions for making brazed joints. The actual thickness of the brazing material is exaggerated to
show its application.

the metal. This heats the metal efficiently and it will turn into a clear liquid at about 1100°F
prevents air from getting to the joint. (593°C). This point is just short of the brazing
8. The flux behav ior is a good indication of the temperature. During the brazing of a copper
temperature of the joint as the heating pro- base metal, the flame starts to show a green
gresses. At 212°F (100°C), the flux will turn shade as the brazing temperature is reached.
somewhat puffy and white. Next, it will bub- 9. Apply a brazing filler rod to the seam between
ble and turn white at about 600°F (316°C). At the tubing and fitting at approximately a
800°F (427°C), the flux lies flatly on the surface 30° to 45° angle, as shown in Figure 8-38.
and has a milky appearance. Following this, Pushing the rod at this angle helps draw

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

160 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

the brazing material into the seam. Keep the 8.5.3 Swaged Connections
flame away from the brazing material. If the Two pieces of soft copper, aluminum, or brass
filler rod does not melt quickly, withdraw the tubing of the same diameter can be joined together
rod and continue heating the joint. If the filler without using fittings. This is done through swag-
rod melts, gradually move both the flame and ing. Swaging is the mechanical enlarging of one end
brazing rod around the entire joint, with the of tubing to allow another piece of tubing of the same
rod following the flame. Do not directly melt diameter to be inserted into the enlarged tubing for a
the brazing alloy with the torch. soldered or brazed connection, Figure 8-39.
10. Stop feeding brazing material and remove the Swaging is a common practice to reduce the use
flame from the joint when there is an unbroken of costly fittings. It is also more convenient to solder or
circle of brazing material around the joint. braze one joint than to make two flared connections.
11. Allow the finished joint to cool naturally. The length of the overlap of the two pieces of tubing
Shock cooling with water may stress or crack should equal the outside diameter of the tubing.
the joint. There are several types of swaging tools, allow-
ing technicians several options in how to swage a tube.
12. Clean the joint thoroughly using warm
Swaging punch tools include a set of punches and a
water and a brush. Be sure all flux has been
block, Figure 8-40. A swage is made by securing one
removed. This is always necessary. Flux left
on the metals may corrode them or temporar-
ily stop a leak that will only show up later.
1/2" tubing
13. Visually inspect the brazed joint to see if
there are any places where the alloy did not
adhere. It is best to watch for poor adhesion
(dark cup-shaped areas) as you braze the
joint. Then, any corrections can be made dur-
ing the brazing operation, while the parts are
still hot.
,:. r~~~~~~~-~-J~0~~~~~-2
T-
-I
---=-,,__-.,,._·--.::-
1/2" f- Overlap
-

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 8-39. These two pieces of soft copper tubing are
assembled and ready for soldering or brazing to make a joint.
Filler rod Note that both tubes have the same diameter.

Copper
tubing

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 8-38. While holding the brazing rod at a 35°-45° Anvil block
angle to the fitting, use a slight amount of pressure to help
the brazing material enter the space between the tubing and Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
fitting. Figure 8-40. This swaging punch tool set includes a
block with different tubing sizes and swaging punches of
corresponding sizes.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 161

end of the tubing in the proper size block opening,

inserting the proper size swaging punch, and gently
tapping the other end of the swaging punch with a
hammer.
A hydraulic swaging tool set includes different
size expansion attachments and a hydraulic device.
The proper size expansion attachment is secured to the
hydraulic device. After inserting the expansion attach-
ment into a tube, operate the lever on the hydraulic
device to operate the expansion attachment, which
swages the tube, Figure 8-41.
A lever swaging tool set includes different size
expansion attachments and a lever device, Figure 8-42. ~ Swaging
Secure the expansion attachment for the correspond- attachment set
ing tubing size to the lever device. Insert the expansion Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
device end into the tubing and operate the levers to Figure 8-42. Lever swaging tools come with multiple swaging
swage the tubing. attachments and are easy to operate.
Some flaring tools have swaging adapters that
enable them to serve as both flaring and swaging tools.
They consist of a block and a yoke that is tightened to
press the swaging adapter into the tubing, swaging the
tube end. See Figure 8-43. This type of combination
flaring and swaging tool is easy to work with in tight
areas.

Lever

Expansion
attachment
Inserting the Swaging Adapter After Swaging
i Uniweld Products, Inc.
Figure 8-43. Using a flaring tool with a swaging adapter.

Hydraulic device

Operating a Hydraulic Swaging Tool Swaging Tubing with a Swaging Adapter

One tool with different adapters can be used
for both flaring and swaging. The steps required
to swage tubing with a swaging adapter are
similar to the steps involved in flaring tubing.
1. Insert the tubing in the flaring block so that the
end being swaged is slightly above the block,
approximately one-third the total height of the
swage.
2. Tighten the flaring block's clamp so the tub-
ing cannot move.
3. Select the proper swaging adapter.
4. Put a drop of refrigerant oil on the parts of the
Hydraulic Swaging Tool Set swaging adapter that will contact the tubing.
Mastercool Inc. 5. Insert the correct size swaging adapter into
Figure 8-41. The compact design of many hydraulic swaging the yoke with the bit facing downward.
tools allows them to be used in tight spaces.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

162 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Taper-seal ring Taper-seal ring

Aluminum Body Copper

tube tube
Hex nut 0-ring 0-ring Hex nut
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 8-44. Note the hex nut, tapered seal ring, and 0-ring on this threaded mechanical fitting.

The higher the pipe schedule number is, the thicker the
6. Holding the flaring block and tubing in one wall and the stronger the pipe.
hand, use the other hand to slowly tighten
down the yoke into the tubing until the
desired swage is achieved. 8.6.1 Joining Steel Pipe
7. Slowly loosen the yoke. Air conditioning and refrigeration installations
8. Open the flaring block by unscrewing the make wide use of pipe fittings with National Pipe
clamp handle. Threads (NPT) to join both Schedule 40 and Schedule
9. Remove the tubing from the flaring block. 80 steel pipe. NPT threads are specially formed
V-threads made on a tapered conical spiral. This taper
10. Clean any material on the swage with a causes the threads to seal as the fitting is tightened.
deburring tool. The taper rate for pipe threads is 1 unit of diameter
per every 16 units of length. For example, pipe threads
taper 1/16" in diameter for every inch of length, 1/32"
8.5.4 Specialized Tube Couplings
in diameter for every 1/2" length, or 1/64" in diameter
Specialized tube couplings are special fittings for every 1/4" length. NPT sizes are based on the nomi-
used to join aluminum tubing to copper tubing. This nal pipe size rather than the measured inside or out-
requires a process different from joining copper to side dimensions of the pipe. Figure 8-45 shows a male
copper. There are a variety of methods available for thread on a 1/2" pipe.
joining aluminum to copper. These include threaded Pipe fittings are typically made of black or galva-
mechanical fittings and compression fittings. Such fit- nized iron to connect either black or galvanized steel
tings can be used to join aluminum evaporators to cop- pipe. The most common types of fittings are the cou-
per line or capillary tubes, aluminum evaporators to pling, reducing coupling, union, nipple, 90° elbow,
copper tube manifolds, or stainless steel evaporators to reducing elbow, 45° elbow, and street ell, Figure 8-46.
copper inlet and outlet tubing. A street fitting is an angled fitting that is male
Mechanical fittings are used when dissimilar on one end and female on the other. Street fittings are
metal joints are required. This often happens in ret- used in threaded steel pipe fittings, brazed/soldered
rofit applications where an aluminum evaporator is fittings for copper tubing, and different plastic fittings,
connected to copper tubing. Mechanical fittings may too. In the case of steel pipes, a street fitting has male
also be used when the technician is not familiar with thread on one end and female thread on the other end.
aluminum brazing techniques. Mechanical joints and The purpose of street fittings is to reduce the number
tube couplings are generally weaker joints than similar of fittings used for offsets and other configurations.
soldered or brazed joints and should be used sparingly.
Figure 8-44 shows a threaded mechanical fitting.
1/2" pipe has approx. 3/4" OD

~ =====""""'"""
8.6 Connecting Pipe
Unlike tubing, which is too thin for threading, both 1/2" pipe has
approx. 1/2" ID
steel pipe and plastic pipe can be joined with threaded fit-
tings. In addition, plastic pipe can also be joined with sol-
vent cement. Both steel and plastic pipe are available with
different wall thickness, called pipe schedules, which cor- 1/2" pipe thread
relate to the pipe's strength. Schedule 40 and Schedule 80 Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
are the most common schedules used in HVACR work. Figure 8-45. This 1/2" pipe has a 1/2" male pipe thread.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 163

90° Elbow Coupling Reducing

Coupling
I
45° Elbow Tee Street Ell
Mueller Refrigeration Campany, Inc.
Figure 8-46. Pipe fittings are usually made of either galvanized or black iron.

By using several street fittings connected together, an A male-threaded pipe should be turned into the
installer can make an offset without having to cut and female fitting for a distance of at least five threads for
thread smaller sections of pipe and use fewer fittings a good seal. The threads are made self-sealing by the
overall, Figure 8-47. pressing together of the sharp V-threads as they are
assembled. Various commercial compounds are avail-
able to help seal these threads. When brushed on pipe
threads before assembly, the compound will make a
strong, leakproof joint, Figure 8-48.

8.6.2 Cutting and Joining Plastic Pipe

A fine-tooth saw is best for cutting plastic pipe.
Street A miter box will ensure square end cuts. Pipe cutters
elbow
designed specifically for plastic pipe may also be used,
Figure 8-49. Pipe ends must be cut square with burrs
removed and ends beveled. Use a knife, coarse file, or
elbow deburring tool to remove burrs.
Wall Offset Although Schedule 40 and Schedule 80 plastic
pipe have the same outside diameter, Schedule 80 has
a thicker wall so it may be threaded like steel pipe
or solvent-welded. Schedule 40 plastic pipe walls are
too thin to be threaded and must be solvent-welded.
Solvent welding is the joining of two components of
the same material using a solvent that temporarily
dissolves the surface polymers at room temperature,
allowing the polymer chains to become entangled.
Although solvent welding (cementing) is a quick
and simple operation, care must be taken to provide
Offset around Pipes pressure-tight joints.
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher Solvent cement is usually sold in one-pint metal con-
Figure 8-47. Two examples where street fittings are used to tainers with an application dauber attached to the under-
save time and labor. side of the lid. Solvent cement containers must remain

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

164 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

and Schedule 80 CPVC pipe and fittings. Light-duty PVC

cement is used with Schedule 40 PVC pipe and fittings (!'
or less in diameter. Heavy-duty PVC cement is used with
Schedule 80 PVC pipe and fittings (!' or less in diameter.
Extra heavy-duty PVC cement is used with all PVC pipe
and fittings (!' or greater in diameter. When joining two
types of plastic pipe, check local codes. Such unions are
usually not allowed unless a mechanical joint or special
adapter is used.

Caution
Flammability of Cements and Primers
Solvent cements and primers are flammable and
may emit dangerous vapors. Fumes may cause eye
and skin irritation. Keep these products away from
heat, sparks, and open flames. Use in a well-ventilated
area. Avoid contact with eyes and skin. Avoid prolonged
exposure to vapors.

W Solvent Welding Plastic Pipe

1. Use a clean cloth to wipe loose dirt or mois-
ture from both the inside and outside surfaces
of the pipe end.
2. Using a dauber or a natural bristle brush, apply
LA-CO Industries Inc. primer to the pipe end for a length slightly more
Figure 8-48. Two types of pipe thread sealant. than the depth of the fitting's socket. Also apply
primer to the inside socket of the fitting where
the plastic pipe will be placed.
closed when not in use to avoid evaporation. Thinner
3. Apply a generous coat of cement to the out-
should not be used with solvents. Specific solvent cement
side end surface of the plastic pipe for a
is required for each type of plastic pipe. The solvent used
distance slightly more than the depth of
must match the type of pipe used. A primer must be used
the fitting's socket. Apply a layer of cement
prior to solvent welding in order to clean and soften the
around the inside socket of the fitting. Do not
bonding surfaces of the pipe and fittings.
apply an excess of cement, as it may restrict
ABS cement is used with all sizes of ABS pipe and
flow through the system.
fittings. CPVC cement is used with all sizes of Schedule 40
4. Insert the pipe into the socket to the full
socket depth of the fitting. While inserting,
rotate the pipe or fitting one-quarter turn to
distribute the cement.
5. Hold the joint firmly for 20 to 30 seconds.
Allow at least two minutes for drying time.

Pro Tip
Solvent-Welding Dos and Don'ts
Do not solvent-weld in the rain, in temperatures
below 40°F (4°C), or in direct sunlight at temperatures
above 90°F (32°C). Fittings for plastic pipe must match
Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
the pipe-ABS fittings with ABS pipe, PVC fittings with
Figure 8-49. Cutters for smaller diameter plastic pipe often
PVC pipe.
resemble shears.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Plastic pipe and pipe fittings are often joined by
solvent welding. Each of the different types of
• Most tubing used in HVACR is made of plastic pipe require its own type of solvent and
copper and is known as air conditioning and primer.

•
refrigeration (ACR) tubing. Copper ACR tubing
is specified by its actual outside diameter.
Stainless steel tubing is often used in food
processing, manufacturing, and specialized
cooling coils. Aluminum tubing is commonly
used to form evaporators in HVACR systems.
Review Questions
Answer the following questions using information in this
chapter.
I
• Copper water tubing and plastic pipe are 1. Copper tubing manufactured specifically
used for water lines, drains, and other non- for circulating refrigerant in refrigeration
refrigerant applications. Three types of plastic systems is called _ _ tubing.
pipe used in HVACR work are ABS, PVC, and A ABS
CPVC. B. CPVC
C. OD
• Steel pipe is used to circulate refrigerant in
D. ACR
ammonia refrigeration systems; however it is
more commonly used for gas line and water 2. What is the outside diameter of 1/4" ACR
lines. Steel pipe is black or galvanized. Black tubing?
steel pipe is primarily used for gas applications. A 1/4"
• Tubing is usually cut with a tubing cutter or a
B. 5/8"
hacksaw. Cutting should always be done at a C. 7/16"
D. 1/2"
90° angle. Tubing should be filed and reamed
after cutting to square the ends and remove 3. Soft copper tubing that has been hardened by
any burrs. repeated bending or hammering is referred
• Bending tubing to have a large radius helps to to as
avoid problems that could lead to reduced flow A Type L
and pressure. Bending springs of various sizes B. hard-drawn
can be placed either inside or outside lengths of C. work hardened
tubing to make bending easier. D. annealed
• Flared connections involve flaring (enlarging) 4. Steel pipe is not generally used to circulate
the end of a piece of tubing to allow it to form a refrigerant, except in systems that use _ _ as
strong seal with a fitting. The flared tubing and the refrigerant.
fitting are held together by the compression of a A ammonia
tightened flare nut. B. carbon dioxide
C. nitrogen
• Soldering is used on water pipes and drains.
D. propane
Brazing is used on refrigerant tubing. The
difference between soldering and brazing is 5. A proper connection of an ACR tube to
the temperature required to melt the filler alloy another ACR tube of the same size that has
and the type of filler metal and flux used. been swaged involves _ _ .
A brazing
• Swaging is a method of preparing two pieces of
B. flaring
soft copper tubing for joining by soldering or
C. soldering
brazing. Swaging does not use fittings for the
D. a threaded street fitting
joint.
• When two dissimilar metals must be joined, a 6. Which of the following is not a type of plastic
special tube coupling is usually used. This is pipe?
done using a mechanical or compression fitting. A ABS
B. PVC
• For HVACR applications, steel pipe is usually C. JIC
joined using pipe threads and threaded fittings. D. CPVC
The threads on the pipe are tapered to seal the
pipe and fitting as they are tightened.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 165

166 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

7. When cutting copper tubing with a hacksaw, 15. An important phenomenon in soldering and
what practice should be followed? brazing is the movement of a liquid substance
A. Cut squarely at 90° between two solid substances due to the
B. Do not let filings get into the tubing adhesive forces of the solids, which is called
C. Close off ends of unused tubing
D. All of the above. A. annealing
8. Which is the recommended method of B. capillary action
removing an external bending spring from C. fluxing
tubing after the tubing has been bent? D. purging
A. Anneal the tubing 16. Metal that is being soldered must be _ _
B. Grease the spring when soldering.
C. Twist the spring A. about 1150°F
D. None of the above. B. hot enough to become annealed
9. Most flares on ACR tubing are made at an C. hot enough to fully melt the solder
angle of _ _. D. hot enough to melt the metals being joined
A. 30° 17. Before soldering tubing, it is important to
B. 45° _ _ the metal parts.
C. 60° A. add primer to
D. 75° B. clean with soapy water
10. Which of the following is the first step when C. first clean and then add flux to
flaring tubing? D. use a damp rag to moisten
A. Insert the tubing into the flaring block 18. The major temperature that separates
B. Place the flare nut on the tubing soldering and brazing is _ _.
C. Mount the yoke on the flaring block A. 250°F
D. Turn the flaring cone into the tube end B. 840°F
11. The difference between double flares and C. 2500°F
single flares is that double flares _ _. D. 6000°F
A. are used on steel 19. Never use _ _ when purging tubing to
B. are made at 37° remove unwanted dirt and moisture from a
C. have a double thickness of metal refrigeration system.
D. are weaker than single flares A. oxygen
12. Flared 1/4" ACR tubing uses a(n) _ _ flare nut. B. carbon dioxide
A. 1/4" C. nitrogen
B. 1/8" D. None of the above.
C. 7/16" 20. With the flame kept on the metal but away
D. 3/16" from the brazing filler material, what
13. An important reason to prevent exposing ultimately indicates that the correct brazing
some refrigerants to extreme heat is that they temperature has been reached?
produce an extremely dangerous by-product A. The flux begins to bubble.
called B. The flux turns puffy and white.
A. oxyacetylene C. When the filler metal is applied to the
B. solder seam, it does not melt.
C. acetylene gas D. When the filler metal is applied to the
D. phosgene gas seam, it melts and is drawn into the seam.
14. Which type of torch flame is recommended 21. Why does a joint need to be cleaned after
for brazing, produces relatively little noise, brazing?
and does not generate smoke? A. It does not need to be cleaned
A. Carburizing B. To shock cool the joint
B. Neutral C. To remove brazing alloy
C. Oxidizing D. To remove flux, which may corrode tubing
D. All of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 8 Working with Tubing and Piping 167

22. The length of the overlap of two pieces of

tubing joined by swaging should equal the
_ _ of the tubing.
A. outside diameter

I
B. inside diameter
C. nominal size
D. None of the above.
23. Pipe schedule refers to a pipe's _ _.
A. length
B. inside diameter
C. outside diameter
D. wall thickness
24. A street fitting is an angled pipe or tubing
fitting that has _ _.
A. one male end and one female end
B. two female ends
C. two male ends
D. four connections of the same type
25. What type of solvent cement can be used
with Schedule 40 PVC pipe and fittings under
6"?
A. ABS cement
B. Light-duty CPVC cement
C. Light-duty PVC cement
D. All of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER9 Introduction to
Refrigerants

Chapter Outline
9.1 Refrigerants and the Ozone Layer
9.1.1 The Clean Air Act and EPA Regulations
9.1.2 Environmental Impact of Refrigerants
9.2 Classifying Refrigerants
9.2.1 CFC Refrigerants
9.2.2 HCFC Refrigerants
9.2.3 HFC Refrigerants
9.2.4 Refrigerant Blends
9.2.5 HFO Refrigerants
9.2.6 HC Refrigerants
9.3 Identifying Refrigerants
9.3.1 Chemical Classifications
9.3.2 Refrigerant Numbering System
9.3.3 Refrigerant Cylinder Color Code
9.4 Refrigerant Properties
9.4.1 Refrigerant Toxicity and Flammability ~
Properties 5
9.4.2 Pressure-Temperature Curves ~ Learning Objectives
9.4.3 Pressure-Temperature (P/T) Charts
9.4.4 Pressure-Enthalpy Tables
ii Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Recognize the effect of halogenated refrigerants on
9.4.5 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagrams
the ozone layer.
9.5 Refrigerant Applications
9.5.1 Phaseout of Refrigerants • Summarize Environmental Protection Agency
9.5.2 Criteria for New Refrigerants regulations governing refrigerants.
9.5.3 Commonly Used New Refrigerants • Differentiate between CFC, HCFC, HFC, and
9.6 Inorganic Refrigerants blended refrigerants.
9.6.1 R-717 Ammonia • Identify refrigerants according to their series number
9.6.2 Cryogenic Fluids and cylinder color code.
9.6.3 Expendable Refrigerants
• Interpret pressure-temperature curves, pressure-
9.7 Refrigeration Lubricants
enthalpy tables, and pressure-enthalpy diagrams.
9.7.1 Properties of Refrigeration Lubricants
9.7.2 Types of Refrigeration Lubricant • Summarize the properties and common applications
9.7.3 Handling Refrigeration Lubricants of different refrigerants.
9.7.4 Adding Lubricant to a System • Identify which types of refrigerants are compatible
9.7.5 Contaminated Lubricant with which lubricants.
 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 169

Technical Terms • The higher the pressure applied on a liquid, the

higher the temperature needed to bring about a state
alkylbenzene (AB) hydrofluorocarbons (H FCs) change, and vice versa. Higher pressure requires a
lubricant hydrofluoro-olefins (H FOs) higher temperature to begin boiling, and vice versa.
azeotropes mineral oil (MO) (Chapter 5)
bubble point Montreal Protocol • In a saturated vapor condition, all of a substance's
chlorofluorocarbons near-azeotropes molecules have been vaporized that can be
(CFCs) ozone depletion potential vaporized under the existing conditions of pressure

I
Class A refrigerant (ODP) and temperature. Any drop of temperature or rise of
Class B refrigerant polyalkylene glycol (PAG) pressure will cause some of the vapor to condense.
Clean Air Act lubricant (Chapter 5)
coefficient of performance polyol ester (POE)
• Most refrigeration systems use oil to lubricate the
(COP) lubricant compressor and other moving parts. (Chapter 6)
dew point pour point
dielectric strength pressure-enthalpy diagram
Environmental Protection
Agency(EPA)
pressure-enthalpy table
pressure-temperature (P/T)
Introduction
expendable refrigerant chart There have been many attempts to find a refriger-
expendable refrigeration pressure-tern peratu re ant that is effective, safe, cost efficient, and environmen-
system curve tally harmless. In the late 1800s, inventors used water
flammability refrigerant blends and ammonia as refrigerants in absorption systems. In
flash point refrigeration lubricant the early 1900s, the first electrically powered mechanical
floe point SNAP (Significant New refrigeration systems were developed. These used refrig-
fractionation Alternatives Policy) erants that were toxic, such as sulfur dioxide and ammo-
freezant temperature glide nia. Servicing leaks from these systems was extremely
fully halogenated thermal stability dangerous for a service technician.
global warming potential toxicity The search for a safe, nontoxic refrigerant pro-
(GWP) viscosity duced chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). In 1930, the DuPont
hydrocarbons (HCs) wax separation Company produced Refrigerant Twelve. They called it
hydrochlorofluorocarbons zeotropes R-12 and sold it under the trade name "Freon-12." Freon-
(HCFCs) 12 was an excellent refrigerant. It was nontoxic and had
very good pressure and temperature attributes. Once it
became mass produced, it was also relatively inexpen-
Review of Key Concepts sive. From the 1930s to the 1990s, variations of CFC
refrigerants were developed, and the service technician
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
worked with three basic refrigerants: R-12, R-22, and
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
R-502, Figure 9-1. The discovery of a hole in the ozone
• A refrigerant changes phase from liquid to vapor to
layer, however, has dramatically increased the number of
absorb heat inside a conditioned space and changes
refrigerants used and the complexity of the service tech-
from vapor to liquid to release heat outside of a
nician's job.
conditioned space. (Chapter 6)
• For most substances, heat energy added or removed
while a substance is at its boiling point is used to
change its state. This heat energy does not change
the substance's temperature. (Chapter 4)
170 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

of the ozone layer by the release of CFCs into the atmo-

sphere is of great concern. In addition, hydrochloroflu-
orocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
which are also used as refrigerants, have been shown
R~
--~....
FORANE to contribute to climate change as well.
In an attempt to stop ozone depletion, a document
was signed that banned the production of CFCs in
12 all large, developed countries. This document, which
went into effect on January 1, 1989, was known as the
Montreal Protocol. The Montreal Protocol required
Arkema, Inc. the United States and other developed countries to
Figure 9-1. Three important refrigerants in the history of stop producing CFC refrigerants by January 1, 1996.
HVACR: R-12, R-22, and R-502. The banning of CFCs resulted in the largest develop-
ment program to invent new refrigerants since the
early days of refrigeration.
9.1 Refrigerants and the
Ozone Layer 9.1.1 The Clean Air Act and EPA
In the 1970s, satellites were placed in orbit to Regulations
examine the climate of the earth. One thing scientists The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
studied with these satellites was earth's atmospheric is a US governmental agency charged with enforc-
protective layer (composed primarily of ozone, OJ. ing the regulations for working with refrigerants. The
One surprising discovery was that the protective layer Clean Air Act is a federal law that includes guidelines,
of ozone had a hole in it. restrictions, and penalties for releasing refrigerants
The ozone layer acts as a filter for the sun's ultra- into the atmosphere. Fines are assessed, up to $37,500
violet rays. This protects human, plant, and animal life per day, for failure to comply with the Clean Air Act.
from the damaging effects of these rays, Figure 9-2. The following is a partial list of violations subject to
The ozone layer also assists in maintaining stable tem- legal action:
peratures. Scientists believe that depletion of the ozone
• Venting of CFC, HCFC, and HFC refrigerants into
layer can have harmful effects, such as climate change
the atmosphere.
and an increase in skin cancer and eye damage.
Scientists have determined that ozone layer deple- • Failure to recover refrigerant to required
tion is a result of numerous man-made gases that evacuation levels before opening equipment for
escape and rise up into the atmosphere. One group of maintenance.
these gases is chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Destruction • Falsifying records or failure to keep records.

Increased UV radiation
reaches earth

Ozone depletion
leads to thinner
ozone layer
and holes
j

Normal Ozone Layer Depleted Ozone Layer

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 9-2. The depletion of the ozone layer allows increased ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth. This increased radiation
has negative effects on human health and the earth's climate.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 171

• Performing refrigeration work without having Environmental Properties of Refrigerants

technician certification according to Section 608 of
ASHRAE Type ODP GWP
the Clean Air Act. Refrigerant # (Ozone (Global
• Disposing of refrigeration and air conditioning Depletion Warming
equipment or cylinders without fully recovering Potential) Potential)
or reclaiming the refrigerant. R-11 CFC 1 4,750
• Using recovery equipment that is not EPA approved. R-12 CFC 1 10,900
The implementation of these laws has resulted in

I
R-22 HCFC 0.05 1,810
a significant change in refrigerant handling by HVACR
technicians. It is necessary to be certified and trained
R-123 HCFC 0.02 77

in how to perform refrigerant recovery, recycling, and R-134a HFC 0 1,430

reclamation. These regulations are intended to prevent R-290 HC 0 3.3
significant purposeful releases of refrigerants into the R-404A HFC 0 3,922
atmosphere. However, there are exceptions that allow R-407C HFC 0 1,774
service technicians to reasonably do their job. R-410A HFC 0 2,088
R-507 HFC 0 3,985
9.1.2 Environmental Impact of R-600a HC 0 3
Refrigerants R-717 Inorganic 0 1

The impact of a refrigerant on the environ- R-744 Inorganic 0 0

ment is measured in two ways by the Environmental R-1234yf HFO 0 4
Protection Agency: R-1234ze HFO 0 3
• Ozone depletion potential (ODP). Ozone depletion Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
potential is the measurement of the ability of a Figure 9-3. Table showing the global warming potential and
refrigerant to destroy the ozone layer. The base unit ozone depletion potential for different types of refrigerants.
of measurement is the refrigerant R-11, which has
an ODP of 1.0. The more harmful the refrigerant is
to the ozone layer, the higher its ODP. refrigerants receive a high ODP rating. HCFC refrig-
• Global warming potential (GWP). Global warming erants possess a low ODP. HFCs, HCs, and inorganic
potential is a measure of the ability of a gas to refrigerants have no ODP.
contribute to global warming over time. The
baseline gas is carbon dioxide (COz), which has a Global Warming Potential (GWP)
GWP of 1.0. GWP is commonly measured over a As mentioned previously, the ozone layer helps to
100-year time period. maintain stable temperatures on the earth. Scientists
Figure 9-3 shows the ODP and GWP of different have concluded that some refrigerants contribute to
types of refrigerants. The refrigerant R-12, which is a global warming. Global warming is caused by long-
CFC, has an ODP of 1.0 and a GWP of 10,900! wave radiation from the sun that becomes trapped
within the earth's atmosphere. This trapped radiation
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) slowly heats the earth's surface.
To provide a clearer perspective on the amount Each refrigerant is assigned a number that
of ozone depletion caused by certain substances, a expresses its global warming potential (GWP). The
numeric value has been assigned to each refrigerant GWP rating is based on the ratio of a substance's warm-
and is referred to as its ozone depletion potential ing effect compared to the warming effect of carbon
(ODP). The ODP scale has a minimum value of zero dioxide. The higher the GWP is, the greater the risk of
and compares the destructive potential of different environmental damage.
chemicals to the destructive potential of R-11, which is
1 on the ODP scale. A refrigerant that is half as destruc-
tive as R-11 would have an ODP value of 0.5. A chemi- 9.2 Classifying Refrigerants
cal that is five times as destructive as R-11 would have
Refrigerants used today are divided into several
an ODP value of 5. The higher a refrigerant's ODP is,
different chemical categories:
the greater the risk for ozone layer depletion.
As illustrated by the chart in Figure 9-3, the dif- • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
ferent types of refrigerants vary in ODP levels. CFC • Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

172 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
• Refrigerant blends (azeotropic and zeotropic).
• Hydrofluoro-olefin (HFOs).
• Hydrocarbons (HCs).

FORANE
9.2.1 CFC Refrigerants REFRIGERANTS
..-AAk.,aMA

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were the first hal-

ogen-based refrigerants developed over eighty years
ago. Besides being used as refrigerants, CFCs have also
been used as blowing agents for the manufacture of
insulation and packaging. CFCs are composed of chlo-
rine, fluorine, and carbon. Two popular CFC refriger-
ants include R-11 and R-12. Arkema, Inc.
When CFCs are vented into the atmosphere, their Figure 9-4. R-22 and R-123 are two common HCFCs.
chlorine atoms attach to the oxygen atoms in ozone
molecules and break the ozone molecules apart. Acting
as a catalyst, the chlorine makes three normal oxygen 9.2.3 HFC Refrigerants
molecules from two ozone molecules. Each chlorine Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are refrigerants that
atom can break apart as many as 100,000 ozone mol- contain hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon. They differ
ecules before it is neutralized through other chemical from CFCs and HCFCs in that they contain no chlorine
reactions. This results in the reduction of ozone and an atoms. HFCs are considered to have zero ODP. Like
increase in ultraviolet radiation reaching Earth. HCFCs, HFCs are partially halogenated, but they have
CFCs have high ODPs and are one of the major a lower ODP than HCFCs because they do not contain
causes of ozone depletion. By international agreement, chlorine atoms. Refer to Figure 9-5. This makes HFC
they have not been manufactured in developed coun- refrigerants well suited to replace ozone depleting
tries since the end of 1995. However, CFCs may still refrigerants. Examples of HFC refrigerants are R-134a,
be found in some air conditioning and refrigeration R-152a, and R-404A, Figure 9-6.
equipment produced before 1995. Although HFCs have an ODP of zero, some HFCs
still have a high GWP and are beginning to be replaced
9.2.2 HCFC Refrigerants by a variety of lower GWP alternatives, such as car-
bon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and hydrofluoro-olefins
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are refriger- (HFOs). HFOs are similar to HFCs because they con-
ants whose molecules are composed of hydrogen, chlo- tain hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon, but they have a
rine, fluorine, and carbon. HCFC molecules include slightly different chemical structure.
halogens combined with either methane (CHJ or eth-
ane (C 2HJ Examples of HCFC refrigerants are R-22
and R-123, Figure 9-4. 9.2.4 Refrigerant Blends
Studies have indicated that HCFCs and certain Refrigerant blends are mixtures of two or more
refrigerant blends have less impact on the ozone layer established refrigerants. Based on their thermody-
than fully halogenated CFCs. CFCs are considered to namic properties, they are split into the following
be fully halogenated because all the hydrogen atoms groups: azeotropes, zeotropes, and near-azeotropes.
in the original methane or ethane molecule have been Because they are made of other refrigerants, refrig-
replaced by halogens, such as chlorine and fluorine. erant blends fall into the same chemical classifications
In contrast, HCFCs are considered to be partially as the individual refrigerants of which they are com-
halogenated because not all the hydrogen atoms have posed. If a blend has a CFC, it is classified as a CFC. If a
been replaced by chlorine and fluorine, Figure 9-5. blend contains an HFC and an HCFC but no CFC, then
As a result, HCFCs tend to break down in the lower it is an HCFC. If a blend contains only HFCs, then it is
atmosphere and cause less ozone depletion than CFCs. an HFC. For example, R-500 is composed of R-12 and
Although they have lower ODP levels than CFCs, R-152a. R-152a is an HFC, but because R-12 is a CFC,
HCFCs still linger in the atmosphere for a long time R-500 is considered a CFC.
and have a high GWP. The EPA requires the complete Some refrigerants commonly mixed into these
phaseout of HCFCs by the year 2030. blends include R-12, R-22, and R-134a. As equipment is

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 173

Hydrogen atom HFCs contain no

means HCFC is only chlorine
Halogens partially halogenated
replace
hydrogen
i

CFC (R-11)
Methane-based
molecule
(one carbon atom)
HCFC (R-22)
Ethane-based
molecule
(two carbon atoms)
HFC (R-134a)
HFCs are partially
halogenated
I
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 9-5. CFCs are fully halogenated refrigerants, whereas HCFCs and HFCs are not because they contain hydrogen.

designed for newer, more ecologically friendly refrig-

erants, refrigerant blends that contain mixtures of
phased-out refrigerants, such as R-12 and R-22, are con-
sidered to be interim refrigerants. This is due to either
their high GWP or high ODP.

Azeotropic Mixtures FORANE

REFRIGER~
Azeotropes are refrigerant blends that respond . : . A Ak.,.~ MA

to changes in pressure and temperature like a single

refrigerant, having fixed boiling and condensing
points. An azeotrope maintains consistent properties 500
during all operational conditions. At atmospheric pres-
sure, the individual refrigerants will not separate as
the blend evaporates or condenses. Arkema, Inc.
Azeotropes can be identified by their ASHRAE Figure 9-7. R-500 and R-507A are two examples of
classification number series of 500, Figure 9-7. R-500 azeotropes.
and R-502 are examples of azeotropes. R-500 consists of
R-12 and R-152a, and R-502 consists of R-22 and R-115.
Because most azeotropic blends contain a phased-out
refrigerant, their use may decrease with time, unless
new azeotropic mixtures are developed.

Zeotropic Blends
Zeotropes are refrigerant blends in which each
individual refrigerant that makes up the blend responds
differently to conditions based on its individual char-
acteristics. Therefore, a zeotropic blend operates under
a range of boiling and condensing points that corre-
spond to the range of its individual refrigerants and
the percentage of the blend that each refrigerant makes
up. Other refrigerants, like R-12 and R-22, boil and con-
dense at the same pressure-temperature point. But zeo-
tropes boil and condense at different temperatures (for
a given pressure). The boiling (bubble) and condensing
Worthington Industries (dew) points of zeotropes are different temperatures
Figure 9-6. R-134a and R-404A are two common HFCs. due to the phenomenon called fractionation.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

174 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

During a refrigeration cycle, a single zeotropic As shown by the refrigerants in the examples
refrigerant can separate into its individual component presented, a zeotrope can be identified by its num-
refrigerants. This separating of a zeotropic blend's ber. Zeotropes are grouped by ASHRAE classification
individual refrigerants during phase change is known series 400, Figure 9-8.
as fractionation. Fractionation can be thought of as
the refrigerant splitting up or "fracturing" into its Caution
base components. This occurs because the different Mixing Refrigerant Blends
refrigerants in a zeotropic blend have different boiling
Zeotropic and azeotropic refrigerants are patented
points. The refrigerant with the lowest boiling point refrigerants. The manufacturing process is complicated.
boils first. The temperature at which a liquid zeotrope Service technicians should never attempt to make their
first begins to boil is called its bubble point. own mixtures.
For example, R-401A is a zeotropic refrigerant
blend composed of R-22, R-152a, and R-124. At atmo-
spheric pressure, R-22 has a boiling point of -41°F Pro Tip
(-40.5°C), R-152a has a boiling point of -13°F (-25°C), Near-Azeotropes
and R-124 has a boiling point of 10.5°F (-l2°C). As the
Near-azeotropes react similarly to zeotropes but
refrigerant blend enters the evaporator, R-22 vaporizes
respond over a smaller range of boiling and condensing
first, followed by R-152a. As a result, the refrigerant
points. Near-azeotropes are technically zeotropes, but
vapor early in the evaporation process is composed allowing them their own category helps to differentiate
mainly of R-22 and R-152a, while the liquid refrigerant them more precisely.
is composed primarily of R-124 and some R-152a. As
the evaporation process continues, the ratio of refrig-
erants in the vapor gradually returns to what it was
when the liquid refrigerant entered the evaporator. The 9.2.5 HFO Refrigerants
component refrigerants undergo a similar separation A newer refrigerant category is hydrofluoro-olefins
when the refrigerant blend condenses. The tempera- (HFOs). These are composed of hydrogen, fluorine,
ture at which a vapor zeotrope first begins to condense and carbon, but they have at least one double bond
is called its dew point. between the carbon atoms. While HFOs are technically
The impact of fractionation is that a zeotropic a group of HFCs, they are made from olefins, rather
refrigerant blend can have different temperatures at than alkanes (paraffins). HFOs have zero ODP and
any given pressure, depending on whether it is a liquid very low GWP values. Some are beginning to be used
or vapor. This temperature difference is called tem- in automotive air conditioning systems. HFOs are mis-
perature glide. Temperature glide is the temperature cible in POE lubricants and not soluble in mineral oils
difference between the vapor and liquid state during (MOs) or alkylbenzene (AB) lubricants. The two most
evaporation or condensation at a constant pressure. popular HFOs are HFO-1234yf and HFO-1234ze. They
Temperature glide is a unique characteristic of
zeotropic blends. Normally a substance evaporates or
condenses while maintaining a constant temperature.
When water reaches 212°F (l00°C), it does not imme-
diately become vapor. Additional heat, called latent
heat, must be absorbed to provide the energy for a
phase change from liquid to vapor, but the additional
heat does not raise the temperature of the water as it
changes. Zeotropes can change phase and temperature
at the same time, and each zeotropic refrigerant blend
has its own temperature glide. The common range for
temperature glide is 0.3°F to 10°F (0.2°C to 6°C).
FORANE
-~·
REFRIGERANTS

Remember that temperature glide is a result of

the different boiling and condensing temperatures of
a zeotrope's individual components for a given pres-
sure. The temperature at which a liquid zeotrope first
begins to boil is its bubble point. The temperature at Arkema, Inc.
which a vapor zeotrope first begins to condense is its Figure 9-8. R-407C and R-409A are two examples of
dew point. zeotropes.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 175

have low toxicity but are slightly flammable with an of this equipment includes stand-alone retail refrigera-
ASHRAE safety classification of A2L. The "L" means tors, freezer equipment, domestic refrigerators, domes-
lower flammability. tic freezers, and refrigerator-freezers. The following
HCs have been approved by SNAP:
Safety Note • R-600a (isobutane).
Mildly Flammable • R-290 (propane).

I
HFOs are mildly flammable. However, extensive • R-441A (HC blend).
studies are helping to develop standards for their safe
usage.

HFO-1234yf is being used as a low-GWP replace-

9.3 Identifying Refrigerants
ment for R-134a in mobile air conditioning (MAC) Refrigerants are identified by a standardized
systems in automotive applications in Europe and the numbering system developed by the American Society
United States. It has a much lower GWP than R-134a, of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
but still has a higher initial cost than R-134a. Engineers (ASHRAE). Refrigerants are assigned a
HFO-1234ze is designed to replace R-410A in resi- unique number that follows the letter R, which stands
dential and light commercial air conditioning and heat for refrigerant. Become familiar with both refrigerant
pump applications. It can also be used in air-cooled numbers and names. Refrigerant numbers are not just
and water-cooled chillers in supermarkets and com- randomly assigned. The first digit indicates the refrig-
mercial buildings. Other applications include vend- erant series to which a particular refrigerant belongs.
ing machines, refrigerators, beverage dispensers, and The numbers that follow have a different significance
CO2 cascade systems in commercial refrigeration. It depending on the refrigerant's classification.
is energy efficient, cost-effective, and requires mini-
mal retrofit work for existing systems. A retrofit may 9.3.1 Chemical Classifications
require a lubricant change for R-32 systems. High dis-
charge temperatures may affect system performance Refrigerants are first categorized by their molecu-
in hot climates. lar structure. Figure 9-9 shows the various classifica-
tions of refrigerants. Methane-, ethane-, and propane-based
refrigerants contain carbon as their main component,
9.2.6 HC Refrigerants making them organic compounds. Cyclic organic refrig-
Hydrocarbons (HCs) are organic substances that erants are organic refrigerants that have double bonds
contain carbon and hydrogen. These substances are between atoms. Miscellaneous organic refrigerants are
the components in petroleum and natural gas. They carbon-based refrigerants that do not fall under any of
are often known for their use as fuel and in the pro- the previous categories. Refrigerants in this category
duction of plastics, solvents, and industrial chemicals. include butane and pentane. Inorganic refrigerants are
Hydrocarbons can also be used as refrigerants. Pure refrigerants that typically do not contain carbon, such
hydrocarbons have O ODP and a low GWP compared
to CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs. HCs also have better
energy efficiency than HFCs. Chemical Classifications of Refrigerants
Series Refrigerant Classification
Safety Note
000 Methane based
Hydrocarbon Flammability 100 Ethane based
HCs have an ASHRAE safety classification of A3,
200 Propane based
meaning they have low toxicity but high flammability.
Because of this, only some HCs have been approved 300 Cyclic organic
by SNAP (Significant New Alternatives Policy). This 400 Refrigerant blends-zeotropes
is the EPA's program that evaluates and regulates sub- 500 Refrigerants blends-azeotropes
stitutes for high ODP refrigerants. It helps to progress
600 Miscellaneous organic
the phase out of older refrigerants and meet the ozone
protection provisions of the Clean Air Act (CAA). 700 Inorganic
1000 Unsaturated organic
SNAP only allows HCs in new equipment, not in Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
retrofits yet. HC use in new equipment is under lim- Figure 9-9. Refrigerants are categorized in the ASHRAE
ited conditions, such as small refrigerant charges. Most numbering system according to their chemical classification.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

176 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

as hydrogen, oxygen, water, and ammonia. Unsaturated Refrigerants with lowercase letters at the end of the
organic compounds are used in the manufacture of title are used to differentiate between isomers. Isomers
plastics, such as vinyl chloride. are molecules that have an identical number of atoms,
but the atoms are arranged differently in different iso-
Pro Tip mers. As a result, isomers can have the same number
Carbon Dioxide (R-744) of atoms but different properties and characteristics.
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is a simple oxide of carbon
Some fluorocarbon refrigerant numbers have only
and is not classified as an organic compound. For this two digits, such as R-22 (CHClF 2). Since the refrigerant
reason, it is categorized as an inorganic refrigerant. has only one carbon atom, the third number from the
right is zero. When the third digit is zero, it is dropped.
The second number from the right is two, because the
refrigerant has one hydrogen atom. Because the refrig-
9.3.2 Refrigerant Numbering System erant has two fluorine atoms, the first number from the
The refrigerant numbering system includes three right is also two.
numbers in a refrigerant designation. The numbers are For refrigerants in series 400,500,600, and 1000,
identified from right to left. The third number from the the third number from the right identifies the series
right indicates the series or classification of the refrig- of the refrigerant, and the two numbers that follow
erant, refer to Figure 9-9. it are assigned sequentially. These numbers do not
For refrigerants included in the 000, 100, 200, and denote the specific chemical structure. The num-
300 series, the third number from the right denotes the bers assigned to zeotropic (400s) and azeotropic
series of the refrigerant and also the number of carbon (500s) blends may be followed by an uppercase let-
atoms in one molecule of the refrigerant minus one. ter. These letters denote blends that have the same
The second number from the right equals the number component refrigerants, but at different ratios. For
of hydrogen atoms in the refrigerant plus one. The first example, R-421A and R-421B are both composed of
number on the right represents how many fluorine R-125 and R-134a. However, R-421A is made up of
atoms are in the refrigerant. 58% R-125 and 42% R-134a, while R-421B is made up
R-134a is an HFC refrigerant. The chemical name of 85% R-125 and 15% R-134a.
for R-134a is 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane, and its chemical For series 700 refrigerants, the third number from
formula is CH2FCF3 . The third number from the right the right denotes the series. The next two numbers
in R-134a is one. Therefore, it is classified as an ethane- indicate the molecular weight of the refrigerant. For
based refrigerant. R-134a has two carbon atoms, since example, R-717 is composed of one nitrogen atom
the third number from the right also represents the (molecular weight of 14) and three hydrogen atoms
number of carbon atoms minus one. The second num- (molecular weight of 3).
ber from the right is the number of hydrogen atoms Instead of the prefix R, refrigerants can also be
in the refrigerant plus one. Therefore, R-134a has two labeled with the prefix CFC, HCFC, HFC, or HFO,
hydrogen atoms. The first number on the right is the depending on which type of refrigerant they are. Thus,
number of fluorine atoms. R-134a has four fluorine R-12 is the same as CFC-12.
atoms. Figure 9-10 illustrates the common numbering
system approved by ASHRAE. 9.3.3 Refrigerant Cylinder Color Code
Refrigerant cylinders are often color coded for
easy identification. This practice helps to prevent
1, 1, 1,2-tetrafluoroethane (CH 2 FCF 3 ) accidental mixing of refrigerants within a system. A
R-134a color code is not a requirement for all manufactur-
ers. In addition, there are several colors that appear
similar, so it is important to always read the label
Refrigemn/ / \ ~d;cates unbalanced ;somer
and identify the refrigerant by its ASHRAE number
Carbon atoms -1 Fluorine atoms before using a cylinder. Popular refrigerants, with
their R-numbers and cylinder color codes, are listed
Hydrogen atoms+ 1 in Figure 9-11. Cylinders for recovered refrigerants
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher are gray with yellow ends. These cylinders must be
Figure 9-10. By understanding the numbering system, you rated and approved for use by the Department of
can determine the chemical components of each refrigerant. Transportation (DOT).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 177

Refrigerant Cylinder Color Code 9.4 Refrigerant Properties

Refrigerant Refrigerants are designed for specific types of equip-
Number Cylinder Color Type ment based on the amount of heat they are required to
R-11 Orangec=] CFC transfer. There are refrigerants for low-temperature
R-12 White~ CFC applications (freezer), medium-temperature applications
R-13 Light blue (sky) ~ CFC (refrigeration), and high-temperature applications (air
R-13B1 Pinkish-red (coral) CFC conditioning or comfort-cooling).
c=J There is a great deal of information about refriger-
R-22 Light green~ HCFC ants that HVACR technicians need to know. Much of
this information is useful in understanding the refrig- 4

-
R-23 Light blue-gray~ HFC
eration cycle in different systems. It is important to
R-113 Dark purple (violet) CFC become familiar with pressure-enthalpy tables, pres-
sure-enthalpy diagrams, and refrigerant characteris-
R-114 Dark blue (navy) - CFC tics and classification.
R-123 Light blue-gray c=J HCFC
R-124 Deep green (DOT HCFC
green) -
9.4.1 Refrigerant Toxicity and
R-125 Medium brown (tan) HFC Flammability Properties
~ Various organizations have cataloged refrigerants
R-134a Light blue (sky) c=J HFC based on levels of toxicity and flammability. Of par-
R-401A Pinkish-red (coral) HCFC ticular importance to HVACR technicians, ASHRAE
c=J Standard 34 groups refrigerants by toxicity and flam-
R-401B Yellow-brown HCFC mability, Figure 9-12.

-
(mustard)~ Toxicity is the ability of a refrigerant to be
R-401C Blue-green (aqua) HCFC harmful or lethal with acute or chronic exposure.
This exposure may be by contact, inhalation, or
R-402A Light brown (sand) HCFC ingestion. Class A refrigerants are those not known

-
~ to be toxic at concentrations equal to or below 400
R-402B Green-brown (olive) HCFC parts per million (ppm). Class B refrigerants are
those that are known to be toxic at concentrations
R-404A Orangec=] HFC equal to or below 400 ppm.
Flammability is a substance's capacity to ignite
R-407A Lime greenc=J HFC
and burn. Certain refrigerants may form a flam-
R-407B Cream c=J HFC
mable mixture when blended with air. Refrigerant
R-407C Medium brown - HFC flammability classification is indicated by the fol-
R-410A Rosec=] HFC lowing numbers: 1 (no flammability), 2 or 2L (low
R-500 Yellow~ CFC flammability), or 3 (high flammability). The 2L des-
R-502 Light purple (lavender) CFC ignation for low flammability indicates substances
that meet the requirements for low flammability

-
~
R-503 Blue-green (aqua) CFC (2) and, in addition, have a slow burn velocity. This

R-507A Blue-green (teal) - HFC

R-508B Dark blue - HFC Toxicity and Flammability Ratings
R-717 Silverc=] Inorganic Low Toxicity High Toxicity
compound No flammability
A1 B1
identified
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 9-11. Table listing some of the more commonly used A2L B2L
Low flammability
refrigerants and their corresponding color codes. A2 B2
High flammability A3 B3
Adapted from ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2010
Figure 9-12. Table showing the ASH RAE Standard 34 toxicity
and flammability classifications.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

178 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

ASHRAE Refrigerant Safety Classifications 9.4.3 Pressure-Temperature (P/T) Charts

Refrigerant Number Toxicity Flammability Pressure-temperature curves may be used during
R-11 A 1 system service to determine if a unit is operating at the
R-12 A 1 correct temperature or pressure. However, a pressure-
R-22 A 1
temperature (PIT) chart may be used more frequently,
Figure 9-15. A technician can use a pressure gauge
R-123 B 1
to measure the pressure in an evaporator and then
R-134a A 1 use a pressure-temperature chart to find the boiling
R-290 A 3 temperature of the refrigerant inside the component.
R-401A A 1 For example, the vapor pressure inside an evaporator
R-404A A 1 of a system using R-134a is measured to be 30.4 psig.
R-406A A 2 Using the pressure-temperature chart in Figure 9-15,
a technician can determine that the temperature of the
R-407C A 1
refrigerant in the evaporator is 35°F.
R-410A A 1
The temperature listed in a pressure-temperature
R-500 A 1 chart is always the temperature at which the refriger-
R-502 A 1 ant is boiling. It is not the temperature of the tubing
R-507A A 1 or even the actual temperature of the refrigerant. After
R-508B A 1 a refrigerant has vaporized in the evaporator, it will
absorb additional heat to change temperature. A pres-
R-600 A 3
sure-temperature chart only shows the temperature
R-717 B 2L
at which the refrigerant boils when under a certain
R-744 A 1 pressure.
R-1234yf A 2L
R-1234ze A 2L Pro Tip
Adapted from ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2010 Refrigerant Temperature Guidelines
Figure 9-13. Safety classifications for some popular The temperature of the tubing is known as skin
refrigerants. Note that most refrigerants have the lowest temperature. In most HVACR service operations, it is
toxicity and flammability ratings to help ensure technician impractical to actually measure the refrigerant tem-
safety when working with these refrigerants. perature. This would require placing a probe inside the
refrigerant tubing to accurately measure the refrigerant
temperature at various locations throughout the sys-
means that substances categorized as 2L are hard to tem. By measuring the tubing temperature, the service
ignite and form flames that are easy to extinguish. technician can use the following general guidelines to
approximate the refrigerant temperature:
Figure 9-13 shows the safety classifications of some
common refrigerants. • The temperature of the refrigerant in an evaporator
is about 8°F to 12°F (4°C to 7°C) colder than the
evaporator when the compressor is running.
9.4.2 Pressure-Temperature Curves • The temperature of the refrigerant in the evapo-
A pressure-temperature curve shows how a rator is the same as the evaporator temperature
refrigerant's temperature and pressure both rise when the compressor is not running.
and fall in relation to each other, Figure 9-14. These • The temperature of the refrigerant in an air-cooled
curves illustrate the combined gas law principle that condenser is approximately 30°F to 35°F (17°C to
temperature and pressure are directly related. This 19°C) warmer than the ambient temperature.
means that as one rises or falls, the other does the • The temperature of the refrigerant in a water-
same. Note that a pressure-temperature curve shows cooled condenser is approximately 20°F (11 °C)
the traits of a refrigerant under saturated conditions, warmer than the water temperature at the con-
denser's water outlet.
meaning the refrigerant's temperature is at its boiling
point for the given pressure. As a result, a technician • The temperature of the refrigerant in the con-
can use a pressure-temperature curve to determine at denser will be about the same as that of the cool-
ing medium (air- or water-cooled) after the unit has
what temperature a refrigerant evaporates under any
been shut off for 15 to 30 minutes.
given pressure.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 179

Refrigerant Pressure-Temperature Curves

R-12 R-134a R-500
110 \ ,,.. \.
\ l.---::::
_...
~ ./
/
100
~~ V
--
/ ~
90
80
/.~ /
V -,,.-./
,,.-./
_; k'""~R-22
I/
l:V"
,,, / ./
V / \
70 R-502
V V
V V v-

I
60
/ /
,_/ V ,,,/ / V
E 50 V /
e:::, A~/ / V /
40
e
G)
Q,
30
/f'/ /
/
/
//V
V ,,,V

E 20
~, /
{!!.
10
/J V / /
0
1VI / 1/
-10
/~V I v/
-20
I/ 1/ /'
-30
I IIV
-40
Iii II
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180
Pressure (psig)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 9-14. This curve demonstrates the principle of the combined gas law that states pressure and temperature both rise and
fall in relation to each other within a fixed volume. It also shows the varying pressure characteristics of different refrigerants. Given
the same temperature, R-134a and R-12 operate at a lower pressure than R-22 or R-502.

R-134a Pressure-Temperature Chart P/T charts are a necessary tool for every techni-
Temperature (°F) Pressure (psig) cian. They are commonly available as small portable
-40 14.8* cards or foldout papers from distributors and supply
-35 12.5* houses. In the last several years, refrigerant suppliers
-30 9.8* have begun supplying this electronically. Refrigerant
-25 6.9* information can be found as pdfs on company websites
-20 3.7* and also on apps, Figure 9-16.
-15 0.1*
-10 1.9
-5 4.1
9.4.4 Pressure-Enthalpy Tables
0 6.5 Pressure-enthalpy tables are useful resources that
5 9.1 help the service technician diagnose problems prior
10 11.9 to replacing components. By listing actual operat-
15 15.0 ing temperatures and pressures, a pressure-enthalpy
20 18.4 table, like a pressure-temperature chart, helps a tech-
25 22.1 nician determine if a unit is operating correctly. Most
30 26.1 manufacturers include a typical operating pressure-
35 30.4 enthalpy table for a unit. By taking a few temperature
40 35.0 and pressure measurements, a technician can compare
*Pressures below atmospheric pressure are specified using in. Hg vacuum these measurements to the recommended cycle. This
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
will help narrow the troubleshooting of the unit to a
Figure 9-15. Like pressure-temperature curves, pressure-
specific component of the system.
temperature charts can be used to find the temperature of
a refrigerant if the pressure is known. Typically, pressure- The thermodynamic properties of a refrigerant
temperature charts from manufacturers include data for more under saturated conditions can be shown numerically
than just one refrigerant. in a pressure-enthalpy table. In addition to showing

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

180 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

in the left-hand column and move across the columns

horizontally to find the pressure, volume, density, and
enthalpy at the given temperature.

9.4.5 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagrams

The thermodynamic properties of a refrigerant
that are numerically shown in a pressure-enthalpy
table can be visually graphed in a pressure-enthalpy
diagram. Although a pressure-enthalpy diagram
includes the same information contained in a pressure-
enthalpy table, it can be very confusing when you first
try to interpret the different types of lines and data
presented. Figure 9-18 identifies each type of line in a
pressure-enthalpy diagram.
Bounded by the saturated liquid line on one side
and the saturated vapor line on the other, the saturation
curve indicates where the refrigerant changes state. The
Refrigerant Selection Refrigeration Data
vertical axis shows pressure measured in psia, and the
horizontal axis is heat (enthalpy) in Btu/lb. Temperature
levels are shown as horizontal lines inside the saturation
curve and as two slightly diagonal lines outside the sat-
uration curve area. The temperature line does not rise or
fall inside the saturation curve because only latent heat
is added or removed during state change. Quality lines
are shown in the saturation curve area to indicate what
percentage of the refrigerant is vapor as it changes from
liquid to vapor.
Whereas pressure-temperature charts and pres-
sure-enthalpy tables are useful for finding exact val-
ues, pressure-enthalpy diagrams can be used to help
understand how each component of a system functions
in the refrigeration cycle. For example, consider a typi-
·--·--· cal R-134a cycle for a commercial, medium-temperature
supermarket case, Figure 9-19. Line C-D represents
a 35°F evaporator at 45.1 psia (30.1 psig). Line A-B is a
PIT Chart Calculations condenser at 130°F and 213.6 psia (198.6 psig). Line B-C
Arkema, Inc. represents the compressor, and Line A-D represents the
Figure 9-16. Refrigerant apps have various options for expansion of refrigerant across a metering device.
multiple refrigerants, such as basic information, PIT charts, After passing through the metering device between
and calculations. Points A and D, the refrigerant entering the evapora-
tor at Point D has a quality of 0.35. This means 35%
of the refrigerant is flashed off (becomes flash gas) to
the pressure and temperature of a refrigerant, a pres- keep the refrigerant enthalpy constant as temperature
sure-enthalpy table shows the volume of one pound of and pressure change. By following the line down from
vapor and the density of the liquid refrigerant for any Point D, you can see that the refrigerant has an enthalpy
given temperature. The enthalpy, or heat content, of the of 116 Btu/lb. As the refrigerant travels through the
refrigerant is also shown. An example of a pressure- evaporator, it absorbs heat. By following the line down
enthalpy table is given in Figure 9-17. By subtracting from Point C, you can see that the refrigerant leaving
the liquid heat content value from the vapor heat con- the evaporator at Point C has an enthalpy of 179 Btu/lb.
tent value, you can calculate latent heat. This is the Not counting the flash gas, this difference of 63 Btu/lb
amount of heat that is required to change a substance is the heat absorbed by the refrigerant as it changes from
from one phase into the other. To use a pressure- liquid into vapor before it enters the compressor. The
enthalpy table, find the temperature being investigated temperature of the refrigerant in the evaporator remains

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 181

R-134a Saturation Properties

Vapor Volume Liquid Density Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
Temperature (°F) Pressure (psia)
(ft3/lb) (lb/ft 3) Liquid Vapor
-50 5.50 7.67 89.40 -3.00 95.70
-40 7.42 5.78 88.40 0.00 97.17
-30 9.85 4.43 87.40 3.01 98.68
-20 12.89 3.45 86.35 6.05 100.18
-10
0
10
20
30
16.62
21 .17
26.63
33.13
40.80
2.71
2.16
1.74
1.41
1.15
85.35
84.30
83.25
82.15
81 .05
9.12
12.21
15.33
18.48
21 .67
101 .68
103.16
104.62
106.06
107.47
I
40 49.75 0.95 79.85 24.90 108.86
50 60.15 0.79 78.70 28.15 110.21
60 72.15 0.66 77.50 31.45 111 .52
70 85.85 0.56 76.25 34.80 112.80
80 101 .50 0.47 74.95 38.20 114.02
90 119.10 0.40 73.60 41 .65 115.20
100 138.95 0.34 72.20 45.15 116.30
110 161 .30 0.29 70.70 48.73 117.32
120 186.00 0.25 69.15 52.38 118.26
130 213.55 0.21 67.50 56.12 119.09
140 243.95 0.18 65.70 59.95 119.81
150 277.65 0.16 63.85 63.91 120.37
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 9-17. An R-134a pressure-enthalpy table shows the thermodynamic properties of the refrigerant as a liquid and vapor
under saturated conditions.

Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

Saturation
Temperature
(OF) Enthalpy
-(Btu/lb)

Pressure
(psia)

Temperature (°F)

,-r---1--1--~:::::::,,,_ Quality lines indicate

what percentage is vapor

Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 9-18. This simplified pressure-enthalpy diagram identifies the values represented by each type of line in the diagram.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

182 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

I
I
1000. II; re re g
0 0 0

Temperature (°F) _ _
Volume (ft3 / lbm) _ _
Entropy (Btu / lbm 0 R) _ _
Quality _ _
0.4

0.5

'ii
"iii 0.7

.s 100.
e:::, 1.0

Ill
Ill 1.5
e
ll.
45.1

10. 10

15

20

50. 100. 116. 150. 179. 198. 250.

Enthalpy (Btu/lbm)

ARk_EMA This plot was generated using the NIST REFPROP Database (Lemmon, E.W., Huber, M.L., Mclinden, M.O.NIST Standard Reference Database 23:Reference Fluid
FORANE
r•-r Er
Thermodynamic and Transport Properties-REFPROP, Version 9.0, National Institute of Standards and Technlogy, Standard Reference Data Program, Gaithersburg, 2010)
Reference State-U R ..UAR~EMA
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 9-19. Pressure-enthalpy diagram indicating a typical R-134a cycle for a medium-temperature supermarket case. Note the
pressure range from 45.4 psia to 213.7 psia and the enthalpy change from 116 Btu/lb to 198 Btu/lb.

steady at 35°F as it changes phase. Once the refrigerant metering device at Point A, the refrigerant has dropped
has completely vaporized, which is indicated by the in temperature to 120°F and is completely liquid since it
intersection of Line C-D and the saturated vapor line, it has crossed the saturated liquid line. Upon entering the
continues to absorb heat until it reaches the compressor metering device, the refrigerant's pressure drops from
at a temperature of 68°F. This additional heat added to 213.6 psia (198.6 psig) to 45.1 psia (30.1 psig), and the cycle
raise the vapor's temperature is referred to as superheat. begins once more.
In the compressor, between Points C and B, the
temperature increases from 68°F to 183°F, the pressure Coefficient of Performance
increases from 45.1 psia (30.1 psig) to 213.6 psia (198.6 psig), Pressure-enthalpy tables and diagrams can be
and the enthalpy increases from 179 Btu/lb to 198 Btu/lb. used to calculate a refrigerant's coefficient of per-
This is an example of adiabatic compression. Because the formance. Coefficient of performance (COP) is the
vapor's volume is decreased so rapidly in the compres- ratio of refrigeration effect to the heat of compression.
sor, the heat of compression is not lost to surrounding Refrigerants with higher coefficients of performance
materials, causing the refrigerant's pressure, temperature, are more efficient than refrigerants with lower coeffi-
and heat content to increase. The refrigerant vapor then cients of performance. By calculating the coefficient of
leaves the compressor and enters the condenser at Point B. performance of different refrigerants that can be used
Between Points B and A, the refrigerant loses heat to the in a system, a technician can determine which refrig-
air or water surrounding the condenser and changes erant would be most effective, assuming other factors,
from a vapor back into a liquid. By the time it reaches the such as the size of the compressor, are equal.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 183

Formula for Coefficient of Performance Finally, since coefficient of performance is a ratio,

COP = Refrigeration effect divide the refrigeration effect by the heat of compression.
Heat of compression In the case of R-134a, the refrigeration effect of 63 Btu/lb
divided by the heat of compression of 19 Btu/lb yields
To calculate coefficient of performance, start by a coefficient of performance of 3.32:1. This means that
calculating the refrigeration effect. Using the pressure- for every 1 Btu added to the system by the compressor,
enthalpy diagram of R-134a in Figure 9-19 as an exam- 3.32 Btu are removed from the conditioned space.
ple, subtract the heat of the refrigerant entering the
evaporator (116 Btu/lb) from the heat of the refrigerant

I
Solution
entering the compressor (179 Btu/lb) to get a refrigera-
63 Btu/lb
tion effect of 63 Btu/lb. Coefficient of performance = - - - -
19 Btu/lb
Solution Coefficient of performance = 3.32:1
Refrigeration effect = Compressor heat - evaporator heat
Refrigeration effect = 179 Btu/lb - 116 Btu/lb Plotting Refrigerant Blends
Refrigeration effect = 63 Btu/lb As discussed earlier in this chapter, refrigerant
Next, calculate the heat of compression of R-134a blends are made of two or more existing refrigerants.
using the pressure-enthalpy diagram. Heat of compres- Of the two types of blends, azeotropic blends, which
sion is the amount of energy added to the refrigerant when are in the 500 series, act like a single refrigerant with
it is compressed. In the example in Figure 9-19, R-134a evaporating and condensing temperatures that are
has an enthalpy of 198 Btu/lb as it leaves the compressor fixed at any given pressure. This means that the pres-
and an enthalpy of 179 Btu/lb as it enters the compressor. sure-enthalpy diagrams for azeotropic blends appear
Thus, the heat of compression is 19 Btu/lb. similar to those for single refrigerants.
Zeotropic blends, however, have a range of tem-
Solution peratures over which the blend may evaporate or
Heat of compression = Condenser heat - compressor condense. As a result, temperature glide can be seen
heat in the pressure-enthalpy diagrams for zeotropic
Heat of compression = 198 Btu/lb - 179 Btu/lb blends, Figure 9-20. Unlike azeotropic blends and
Heat of compression = 19 Btu/lb single refrigerants, zeotropic blends have lines of

Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for a Zeotropic Blend

Saturated vapor line

Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 9-20. This pressure-enthalpy diagram illustrates how temperature glide causes the lines of constant temperature to be
angled inside the saturation curve for a zeotropic blend.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

184 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

constant temperature that are slightly angled inside Although it is illegal to manufacture HVACR
the saturation curve. The lines of constant tempera- systems with phased-out refrigerants, it is not illegal
ture are angled to reflect the range of temperatures to service existing units that have these refrigerants.
over which a zeotropic blend changes phase. Using Remaining stockpiles of CFC refrigerants, such as
Figure 9-20 as an example, you can see that the R-12, are still available today. However, the purchase of
100 psia line of pressure crosses the saturated liquid these refrigerants is restricted to EPA-certified techni-
line just above the 40°F temperature line. However, cians, who may still acquire large cans (over 20 lb) of
by the time the 100 psia pressure line cross the satu- R-12 and other CFC refrigerants. Technicians who have
rated vapor line, the zeotropic blend has a tempera- completed the EPA Motor Vehicle Certification may
ture closer to the 60°F temperature line. purchase small cans (under 20 lb) of R-12.
As the stock of available CFC refrigerants is
exhausted, the cost will continue to increase. Phased-
9.5 Refrigerant Applications out CFC refrigerants typically cost much more than
Refrigerant applications are devised based on the the price prior to phaseout. For economic reasons, it is
pressure, temperature, and heat properties of a refrig- often more practical (and better for the environment)
erant. The type of refrigerant to be used in a given sys- to replace a phased-out refrigerant in a system with an
tem is determined by the manufacturer. One type of approved refrigerant. Refer to Figure 9-21.
refrigerant may be used in a number of applications.
Several items are considered in the selection of the 9.5.2 Criteria for New Refrigerants
refrigerant:
As scientists learn more about global warming
• Boiling point of the refrigerant.
and the ozone layer, they have shifted their focus to
• Latent heat of the refrigerant. reducing a refrigerant's length of decay and global
• Operating temperatures required. warming potential. Although there is not a mandatory
• Operating pressures based on required temperatures. phaseout, even R-134a is beginning to be replaced in
automotive air conditioning applications by R-1234yf,
• Size of the equipment.
which has an ODP of zero and a GWP of four. Besides
The chart in Figure 9-21 shows some popular
having an ODP of zero and a low GWP, a new refriger-
refrigerants and their applications. The pressure-
ant should have the following properties:
enthalpy tables and diagrams for many of the refriger-
ants listed in the chart can be found in the Appendix. As • It must follow the standards set forth by the EPA
you read through the following sections, use this chart for recyclability and reclamation.
as a convenient reference for identifying replacement • It should be nonexplosive.
refrigerants, refrigerant boiling points, and refrigerant • It should be noncorrosive.
operating pressures.
• It should make leaks easy to detect and locate.
• It should have a low boiling point.
9.5.1 Phaseout of Refrigerants • It should be a stable gas.
The first refrigerants targeted for phaseout by • It should permit machine or compressor parts
the Montreal Protocol were CFCs, such as R-12, due to moving in the fluid to be easily lubricated.
their large impact on the environment. The phaseout
• It should have a high latent heat per pound (be
of R-12 was completed in 1996 in developed countries
able to absorb or expel a lot of heat during phase
and in 2010 in all others. R-12 has been replaced with
change) to produce a good cooling effect per
R-134a, which is safer for the environment because
pound of vapor pumped.
it has an ODP of zero. R-12 is no longer manufac-
tured and is not permitted to be used in new HVACR • It should have as little pressure difference as possible
equipment. between evaporating pressure and condensing
The next refrigerants targeted for phaseout are pressure. This increases pumping efficiency.
HCFCs, such as R-22. In the United States, the phase- • It should be compatible with common materials
out of R-22 will be completed in 2020, and it has been used in HVACR systems, such as copper ACR
illegal since 2010 to manufacture new equipment con- tubing.
taining R-22. R-22 is being replaced by R-404A, R-407C, While the environmental impact of refrigerants is
and R-410A. The complete phaseout of all HCFC refrig- of great concern, newer refrigerants still must be safe
erants will be implemented by 2030. for technicians to work with (stable and nonexplosive).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 185

New refrigerants must also be effective at removing Safety Note

heat from a conditioned space (high latent heat and
low boiling point). Refer to Figure 9-21. Working with Ammonia
Wear a tight-fitting respirator when working with
R-717 and related equipment. Always stand to one side
9.5.3 Commonly Used New Refrigerants when operating an ammonia valve because a small
The following refrigerants are the ones most stem leak can burn and damage the eyes. An excessive
leak can cause an almost instant loss of consciousness.
commonly used in the manufacture of new HVACR
Use a sulfur candle or sulfur spray vapor to detect R-717
equipment: leaks, which form smoky white fumes in the presence
• R-134a-automotive air conditioning and transport of sulfur. 4
refrigeration.
• R-404A-medium-and low-temperature refrigeration. The use of ammonia presents no special problems
• R-407C-retrofit for R-22 equipment. related to lubrication unless extreme temperatures
are encountered. R-717 is lighter than oil, and there
• R-410A-air conditioning. is no separation of the two. Excess oil in the evapora-
• R-508B-low-temperature equipment. tor may be removed by opening a valve in the bottom
• R-1234yf-automotive air conditioning. of the evaporator. R-717 is used in large compression
systems with reciprocating compressors and also in
many absorption-type systems. Condensers for R-717
9.6 Inorganic Refrigerants are usually water-cooled. Proper training and safety
protocols should be followed when working with
There is a diversity of refrigerant applications
ammonia.
beyond just comfort cooling and refrigeration. A num-
The International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration
ber of industrial processes use refrigerants that do not
(IIAR) publishes numerous guidelines that technicians
fall under the category of halogenated, organic refrig-
can reference when working with R-717. These publica-
erants as CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs do. Instead, many
tions provide guidance for the safe installation, repair, and
industrial processes use inorganic refrigerants, which
operation of ammonia-based mechanical refrigeration
are classified in the 700 series. The most common of
systems. They also detail the safety precautions that must
these inorganic refrigerants are explained in the sec-
be followed when handling or working with ammonia.
tions that follow.
Caution
9.6.1 R-717 Ammonia Ammonia and Copper
R-717 is commonly used in industrial systems. R-717 attacks copper and bronze in the presence
It is a chemical compound of nitrogen and hydrogen of moisture. However, it does not corrode aluminum,
(NHJ. Under standard conditions, it is a colorless gas iron, or steel. Ammonia systems often use steel piping
with a boiling point of -28°F (-33°C). The low boiling to transport the refrigerant.
point makes it possible to have refrigeration at tem-
peratures below zero without using pressures below
atmospheric in the evaporator. Ammonia's latent heat
9.6.2 Cryogenic Fluids
is 565 Btu/lb (1310 kJ/kg) at 5°F (-15°C). Thus, large Many large food processing plants use cryogenic
refrigerating effects are possible with relatively small- fluids, such as liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide, to
sized machinery. See Figure 9-22. rapidly freeze foods. These liquid refrigerants are
R-717 is flammable at 150,000 to 270,000 ppm. often called freezants, and they range in temperature
Ammonia has a strong effect on the respiratory system, from -250°F (-157°C) to nearly absolute zero (-460°F or
and only very small quantities of it can be breathed -273°C). This is called the cryogenic range. Common
safely. Because of its pronounced and distinguishable cryogenic fluids are R-702 (hydrogen), R-704 (helium),
odor, R-717 is easily detected in the air. At 3 to 5 ppm, R-720 (neon), R-728 (nitrogen), R-729 (air), R-732 (oxy-
ammonia can be identified by smell. At 15 ppm, the gen), and R-740 (argon).
odor is quite irritating. At 30 ppm, a service technician Cryogenic fluids must be kept in insulated-vac-
will need a respirator. Exposure for five minutes to uum containers. The containers have to withstand
50 ppm is the maximum allowed by the Occupational extremely low temperatures without losing their
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Ammonia strength and be well insulated, since the tempera-
poses a fatal hazard at 5000 ppm. tures of the fluids inside the containers are very low.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Refrigerant Properties and Applications
...
0)
a,

C r d Boiling Operating Pressures** Replaces/

Refrigerant Type Name Formula Y '" er Point* Replaced Lubricant*** Application ~
0
0..
Color °F (°C) Evaporating Condensing By /l)

"'::s
R-11 I CFC I Trichlorofluoro- I CCl 3 F 175 (24) I 23.9 in. Hg 3.5 psig R-123 AB/MO I Large air conditioning ~
methane vacuum systems, low-pressure
....,
I CJ I I I (JQ.
"'
centrifugal chillers /l)

R-12 I CFC I Dichlorodifluoro-I CCl2F 2 -22 11.8 psig 93.3 psig R-134a, AB/MO Domestic refrigeration "'~
methane I (-30) R-401A, and air conditioning,
s·
::s
CJ I I I I p,
R-401B, automotive air ::s
R-409A conditioning 0..
;t>
R-22 I HCFC I Chlorodifluoro- I CHF 2CI -41 28.3 psig 158.2 psig R-404A, POE/AB/MO Residential and
methane I (-41) R-407C commercial air 0
n"'
R-410A conditioning, frozen- 5.
CJ food storage,
(")
0 supermarket display
""O
'!:;
~s·
tl5"
cases (JQ
;:?; R-123 HCFC 2,2-dichloro-1,1, CHCl 2CF 3 82 (28) 25.2 in. Hg 1.2 psig R-11 AB/MO Low-pressure
G)
0 1-trifluoroethane CJ vacuum centrifugal chillers
0
a.
:::, R-134a HFC 1,1,1, -15 9.1 psig 97.0 psig R-12 POE/PAG Medium- and
(1)
CH 2 FCF3
p,
;cl. 2-tetrafluoro- (-26) high-temperature
~ ethane refrigeration, chiller
Cl CJ equipment, domestic
0
X
(")
appliances, automotive
? air conditioning
3" R-401A HCFC 53% R-22 / 13% -30 10.1-16.1 96.9-112.4 R-12, POE/AB Walk-in coolers,
ri CHF 2CI +
I\)
zeotropic R-152a / 34% CH 3 CHF 2 + (-34) psig psig R-500 beverage dispensers,
~ CJ
--J blend R-124 CHCIFCF 3 vending machines,
supermarket systems
R-404A I HFC 44% R-125 / CHF 2CF 3 + -51 37.7-38.8 190.5-192.5 R-22, POE Low- and medium-
zeotropic 52% R-143a / CH 3 CF 3 + (-46) psig psig R-502 temperature
blend 4% R-134a CH 2 FCF3 CJ commercial
refrigeration
R-407C I HFC 23% R-32 / 25% CH 2 F2 + -44 23.5-34.3 152.9-179.8 R-22 POE Residential and
zeotropic R-125 / 52% CHF 2CF 3 + (-42) psig psig commercial heat
blend R-134a CH 2 FCF3 pumps and air
conditioners,
medium temperature
applications
-
 R-410A HFC 50% R-32 / 50% CH 2 F2 + -61 54.9-55.1 257.7-258.6 R-22 POE Residential and
zeotropic R-125 CHF 2 CF 3 (-52) psig psig light commercial
blend CJ heat pumps and air
conditioners
R-500 CFC 73.8% R-12 / CCl 2 F2 + -28 16.4 psig 112.9 psig R-401A, AB/MO Residential and
azeotropic 26.2% R-152a CH 3 CHF 2 (-33) R-409A commercial air
blend CJ conditioning,
domestic refrigeration,
commercial chillers
R-502 CFC 48.8% R-22/ CHF 2 CI + -50 35.9 psig 176.6 psig R-402A, AB/MO Supermarket freezers,
azeotropic 51.2% R-115 CCIF 2 CF3 (-46) R-404A, refrigerated cases,
blend CJ R-408A, frozen food processing
R-507A plants
R-507A HFC 50% R-125 / CHF 2 CF 3 + -52 40.0 psig 198.3 psig R-22, POE Commercial
azeotropic 50% R-143a CH 3 CF 3 (-47) R-502 refrigeration systems,
(")
0 blend supermarket display
~ cases, ice machines
tl5"
;:?; R-508B HFC 46% R-23 / 54% CHF 3 + -126 256.1 psig N/A R-13, POE Low temperature
G)
0
0
a.
:::,
azeotropic
blend
R-116 CF 3 CF3
- (-88) R-503 medical freezers
and environmental
(1)
Ill chambers
;cl.

*The boiling points listed are for atmospheric pressure

~
8
X
(")
-
**Pressures are given for a 5° evaporator temperature and an 86° condenser temperature-these are referred to as Standard Ton Conditions
***POE = Polyol ester/ AB= Alkylbenzene /MO= Mineral oil/ PAG = Polyalkylene glycol
? Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
3"
ri Figure 9-21. This chart serves as a comprehensive reference for identifying and comparing the properties and applications of some commonly used refrigerants.
I\)

~
--J
n
lit
"'
\D

a
8
0..
~
g·
0
~
~
~-
8
a
<JJ

....
0)
....,.
188 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

R-717 Saturation Properties

Vapor Liquid Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
Temperature Density Latent Heat
Pressure (psia) Volume
(°F) (Btu/lb)
(ft3/lb) (lb/ft 3
) Liquid Vapor

-100 1.24 182.40 45.52 -63.3 572.5 635.8

-75 3.29 72.81 44.52 -37.0 583.3 620.3
-50 7.67 33.08 43.49 -10.6 593.7 604.3
-35 12.05 21 .68 42.86 5.3 599.5 594.2
-25 15.98 16.66 42.44 16.0 603.2 587.2
-20 18.30 14.68 42.22 21.4 605.0 583.6
-15 20.88 12.97 42.00 26.7 606.7 580.0
-10 23.74 11 .50 41 .78 32.1 608.5 576.4
-5 26.92 10.23 41 .56 37.5 610.1 572.6
0 30.42 9.12 41 .34 42.9 611 .8 568.9
5 34.27 8.15 41 .11 48.3 613.3 565.0
10 38.51 7.30 40.89 53.8 614.9 561 .1
15 43.14 6.56 40.66 59.2 616.3 557.1
20 48.21 5.91 40.43 64.7 617.8 553.1
25 53.73 5.33 40.20 70.2 619.1 548.9
35 66.26 4.37 39.72 81 .2 621 .7 540.5
50 89.19 3.29 39.00 97.9 625.2 527.3
75 140.50 2.13 37.74 126.2 629.9 503.7
100 211.90 1.42 36.40 155.2 633.0 477.8
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 9-22. Pressure-enthalpy table showing the temperature, pressure, volume, and heat content of R-717 (ammonia). Note
the high latent heat, which is calculated by subtracting the liquid heat content from the vapor heat content.

Inside the container, pressure is kept at a low level cor-

responding to the fluid's vapor pressure. Figure 9-23 Safety Note
lists the boiling temperatures of various refrigerants Avoiding Skin Contact
and cryogenic fluids. There are certain precautions that must be taken
Many commercial food companies freeze food by by anyone handling these fluids. Cryogenic fluids must
using large conveyors to move trays of food through a never be allowed to touch the skin. Such contact would
cooling chamber. The food is sprayed with the cryo- result in immediate freezing of the flesh. A person han-
genic fluid, which rapidly freezes the product. The dling cryogenic fluids must have his or her entire body
quick freeze action of cryogenics reduces the amount protected by suitable clothing, helmets, and gloves.
of ice crystals that form in the food. This process
results in less damage to vegetables and meats dur-
ing freezing than traditional refrigeration. In general, 9.6.3 Expendable Refrigerants
cryogenic fluids are expendable. This means that they
are only used once, and then the vapor is vented to the An expendable refrigeration system cools a
atmosphere. substance or absorbs heat from an evaporator and
then releases its refrigerant into the atmosphere. An
Caution expendable refrigeration system uses an expendable
refrigerant, which evaporates only once in the system
Cryogenic Fluid Containers and is then vented. It is not collected and recondensed
Do not attempt to use any of cryogenic fluids in any for additional refrigeration cycles, as is the case with
container or device that was not designed specifically to most compression and absorption systems. Expendable
hold that fluid.
refrigeration systems are sometimes referred to as

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 189

Boiling Temperature at Atmospheric Refrigeration lubricants must provide good lubri-

Pressure cating qualities under severe conditions. The viscosity
must be correct for the refrigerant and the machine
Fahrenheit Celsius
Fluid in which it is used. The lubricant must also be free of
(°F) c·c> moisture.
Water 212 100
R-134a -15 -26
R-717 (ammonia) -28 -33
9.7.1 Properties of Refrigeration
R-22 -41 -41 Lubricants
R-404A -51 -46 Refrigeration lubricants must have certain prop- 4
R-410A -61 -52 erties in order to circulate properly through a system
R-508B -126 -88 with refrigerant. They must be able to flow in low tem-
peratures. These lubricants also come in direct contact
R-744 (carbon dioxide) -109 -78
with hot motor windings in hermetic units. Therefore,
R-1150 (ethylene) -155 -104 the lubricant must also be able to withstand high tem-
Beginning of the Cryogenic -250 -157 peratures and remain harmless to refrigerants and
Range:
equipment.
R-50 (methane) -259 -161 Refrigeration lubricant must be able to travel
R-732 (oxygen) -297 -183 freely through all parts of the system. The lubricant's
R-729 (air) -313 -192 ability to do this is determined by several factors.
R-728 (nitrogen) -320 -196 These include the type of refrigerant used, the operat-
ing temperatures in the system, and the properties of
R-720 (neon) -411 -246
the lubricant. A good refrigeration lubricant has low
R-702 (hydrogen) -423 -253 wax content, high thermal and chemical stability, a low
R-704 (helium) -452 -269 pour point, and low viscosity.
Absolute Zero -460 -273
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Wax Content
Figure 9-23. Note the differences between the boiling points Many refrigeration lubricants contain paraffin
at atmospheric pressure of some halogenated refrigerants and wax. When wax precipitates out of a lubricant at low
the boiling points of fluids in the cryogenic range. temperatures, it is called wax separation. Wax that
separates from a refrigerant-lubricant mixture can
plug refrigerant control orifices and clog a refrigera-
tion system. Lubricants that have low wax content are
chemical refrigeration systems or open-cycle refrigeration desirable because they reduce the problems associated
systems. with wax separation.
The most common expendable refrigerants are: A floe test is a test that determines how easily wax
• Liquid helium (R-704)-boiling temperature at separates out of a mixture of refrigerant and lubricant.
atmospheric pressure: -452°F (-269°C). This test is used on mineral oils and the refrigerants
• Liquid nitrogen (R-728)-boiling temperature at that are miscible (mixable) with mineral oil. Examples
atmospheric pressure: -320°F (-196°C). of these refrigerants include R-11, R-12, and R-22. The
test is conducted by mixing 10% refrigerant with 90%
• Liquid carbon dioxide (R-744)-boiling temperature
oil. The mixture is sealed in a glass tube, and then it
at atmospheric pressure: -109°F (-78°C).
is cooled slowly until a flocculent (cloudy) precipitate
of wax appears. The highest temperature at which this
9.7 Refrigeration Lubricants occurs is recorded as the floe point. Using a refrigerant
with the proper floe point will help avoid wax separa-
In a mechanical refrigeration system, moving tion at the lowest temperature in the system.
parts must be lubricated for long life and efficient
performance. Refrigeration lubricant is lubricant Pro Tip
charged into a refrigeration system in order to lubri-
Floe Point
cate the contact between moving parts. It circulates
Synthetic lubricants do not contain wax and there-
through the same tubes and components as the refrig-
fore have no floe point.
erant, providing lubrication.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

190 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Thermal Stability and Flash Point Compressor parts are sometimes given a phosphating
Thermal stability is a lubricant's ability to remain treatment to improve lubrication.
stable in high heat areas. Lubricants with lower ther-
mal stability tend to form hard carbon deposits at hot 9.7.2 Types of Refrigeration Lubricant
spots in the compressor, such as discharge ports. A
lubricant's chemical stability is its ability to not react There are a variety of refrigeration lubricants avail-
on a chemical level with refrigerants or other sub- able, including mineral oils (MO), polyol ester (POE)
stances found in a refrigeration system. If a lubricant lubricants, alkylbenzene (AB) lubricants, and polyal-
is not chemically stable, it can break down easily and kylene glycol (PAG) lubricants. The type of lubricant
form corrosive solutions that can damage the refrigera- used must match the type of refrigerant used. Most
tion system. new azeotropic mixtures and single HFC refrigerants
The temperature at which the vapors from a use polyol ester lubricants. Traditional CFC refriger-
lubricant surface ignite is the lubricant's flash point. ants require mineral oil. Typically, different types of
In many hermetic units, refrigeration lubricants come lubricant should not be used within the same system.
in direct contact with the hot motor windings in the Mineral oils (MOs) are a type of refrigeration
compressor, which makes having a high flash point lubricant made from refined crude oil. Since min-
important. The lower the flash point of a lubricant, the eral oils are not miscible with most HFC refrigerants,
more likely it is that the lubricant will ignite when it is MOs are generally used only with CFCs and HCFCs.
exposed to high temperatures. Polyol ester (POE) lubricants are a group of synthetic
refrigeration lubricants that are compatible with CFCs,
Viscosity HCFCs, and HFCs. POEs are miscible with mineral
Viscosity is a measure of a liquid's resistance to oil and alkylbenzene lubricants. There are numerous
flow. A fluid with high viscosity resists flowing, while grades of polyol ester lubricants. POEs may not be
a fluid with low viscosity flows more easily. The vis- approved for use in certain compressors.
cosity of a lubricant changes with the temperature. Alkylbenzene (AB) lubricants are refrigeration
Lubricants at very low temperatures may not pour and lubricants manufactured from propylene and ben-
can become a plastic solid. The lowest temperature at zene. They are used with CFCs, HCFCs, and blends
which a lubricant will flow is called the pour point. that include CFCs and HCFCs. Polyalkylene glycol
Use lubricants that have a pour point appropriate for (PAC) lubricants are refrigeration lubricants designed
the operating temperatures inside the refrigeration for use with HFCs. They tend to attract moisture and
system. poorly lubricate aluminum on steel. Therefore, PAGs
Domestic freezers with refrigerant temperatures should not be used in compressors with aluminum
as low as 0°F to 5°F (-l8°C to -15°C) require a lubri- pistons in steel cylinders. They are also not compatible
cant with a pour point of-20°F (-29°C). For commercial with chlorine, so any R-12 retrofits must be thoroughly
food freezers with refrigerant temperatures as low as flushed before adding PAGs.
-50°F (-46°C), a pour point of-60°F (-51°C) is desirable. POE, AB, and PAG lubricants were designed specif-
ically for the new, alternative refrigerants. Figure 9-24
Dielectric Properties lists the appropriate lubricant for various refrigerants.
The amount of moisture in a refrigeration lubricant
can be measured by its resistance to the flow of a cur-
rent of electricity through it without breaking down. 9.7.3 Handling Refrigeration Lubricants
This is known as its dielectric strength. A refrigera- Refrigeration lubricant must be kept in sealed con-
tion lubricant with acceptable moisture content should tainers, transferred in chemically cleaned containers
have a minimum dielectric value of 25,000 volts. and lines, and not exposed to air where it will absorb
moisture. Refrigeration lubricant comes in one- or five-
Refrigeration Lubricant Additives gallon cans and in barrels. It is advisable to purchase
To improve the performance of a lubricant, many lubricant in small sealed containers, holding only
manufacturers add certain chemicals. These are enough for each separate service operation. Unused
designed to inhibit foaming or the formation of sludge. lubricant that is allowed to remain in the container or
Lubricants that contain moisture or air can form sludge lubricant transferred from one container to another
or varnish. This may cause damage to the unit. may pick up some moisture and dirt. Always seal a
Refrigeration lubricants sometimes include a very lubricant container after drawing lubricant from it,
small amount of antifoam inhibitor to reduce foaming. Figure 9-25.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 191

Compatible Refrigerants and Lubricants 9.7.4 Adding Lubricant to a System

Refrigerant Appropriate Lubricant* Having the correct amount of lubricant in a sys-
R-11 AB MO tem is very important. Lack of lubricant will shorten
R-12 AB MO the life of compressors, increase friction, and cause
R-13 AB MO noise. However, an overcharge of lubricant will cause
R-22 AB MO the compressor to pump excessive amounts of lubri-
R-23 POE cant, reducing its refrigerant-pumping capacity. It will
R-123 AB MO also subject the compressor valves to severe strain.
When considering which lubricant to add to a
R-124 AB MO 4
system, follow the equipment manufacturer's recom-
R-125 POE
mendations. Make sure the lubricant is compatible
R-134a POE PAG**
with the refrigerant being used. Also, be sure to follow
R-290 POE AB MO the manufacturer's viscosity, pour point, and floe point
R-401A POE AB recommendations. On a service call, add lubricant only
R-401B POE AB if there is a sign of lubricant leakage.
R-401C POE AB Most hermetic compressors do not have a method
R-402A POE AB MO of measuring the amount of oil in a system, but it is
R-402B POE AB MO rarely necessary to add lubricant to a hermetic sys-
tem. However, leaking refrigerant always carries some
R-403B POE AB MO
lubricant with it. This lost lubricant should be replaced.
R-404A POE
If the hermetic unit is equipped with service valves,
R-407A POE lubricant can be siphoned or poured in.
R-407B POE If a system has a low-side leak, moisture and air
R-407C POE may have entered. In this case, it is best to replace the
R-410A POE refrigeration lubricant. Measure the amount of lubri-
R-500 AB MO cant removed and replace it with the same amount
R-502 AB MO of clean, dry lubricant. Some compressors have an oil
R-503 AB MO reservoir and sight glass that allows a technician to
R-507A POE add new refrigerant oil by sight. The unit should be
R-508B POE charged in much the same way as when adding refrig-
R-600a POE AB MO erant to the system.
R-717 MO Lubricant may also be added to a system
using specially sized injectors or a hand pump,
R-1234yf POE PAG
Figure 9-26. Charging lines must be purged to
R-1234ze POE PAG
remove air, moisture, and dirt. A hand pump can
*POE = Polyolester / AB = Alkylbenzene / MO = Mineral oil/ PAG =
Polyalkylene glycol build up pressures as high as 300 psig (2200 kPa),
**PAG is used primarily for automotive applications as a lubricant which allows lubricant to be forced into the system
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher even when the system is under pressure. Adding
Figure 9-24. This table shows which lubricants are lubricant using a hand pump is covered in Chapter 55,
appropriate for specific types of refrigerants. Servicing Commercial Systems.

Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 9-25. Certain refrigeration lubricants must be stored in plastic, while others must be stored in metal.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

192 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

9.7.5 Contaminated Lubricant

Lubricant that is removed from a system should
be translucent. Discoloration means that it is impure.
When this has happened, new driers and filters should
be placed in the system. These will keep the new lubri-
cant clean. Another indicator of contaminated lubri-
cant is odor. Dark-black, pungent oil is an indicator
of compressor failure. Metal shavings and chips are
another sure sign that the compressor is in need of
replacement.

Safety Note
Acidic Refrigeration Lubricant
Contaminated lubricant from a hermetic system is
very dirty and smells bad. It may also be acidic and can
burn skin. Avoid any contact.

Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division

Figure 9-26. Injector canisters and a manual hand pump are
two effective methods of adding refrigeration lubricant to a
system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • The type of refrigerant to be used in a given
system is determined by the manufacturer.
• In order to protect the environment, the However, one type of refrigerant may be used in
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) a number of applications. Several items that are
enforces regulations outlined in the Clean Air considered when selecting a refrigerant include
Act for working with refrigerants. All HVACR the refrigerant's boiling point, latent heat, and
technicians must be certified by the EPA to operating temperatures and pressures.
work with refrigerants. • A popular inorganic refrigerant is R-717,
• A refrigerant's ozone depletion potential also called ammonia (NH3). Its low boiling
(ODP) and global warming potential (GWP) point makes it ideal for low-temperature 4
are number ratings used to determine the refrigeration. R~717 refrigeration systems are
refrigerant's effect on the ozone layer and constructed of uon or steel, as ammonia attacks
climate change. copper in the presence of moisture.
• CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs are carbon-based, • An expendable refrigerant cools a substance
halogenated refrigerants. They are the most or absorbs heat from an evaporator and then
commonly used refrigerants in mechanical is released into the atmosphere, being used
refrigeration systems. HFCs have the lowest only once. Cryogenic fluids are often used as
ODP and are being used to replace CFCs or expendable refrigerants.
HCFCs that have been phased out. HFOs and • Refrigeration lubricant is charged into a
HCs are two of the newer types of refrigerants. refrigerant circuit with the system's refrigerant
• Azeotropes respond to pressure and heat in order to lubricate the contact between
changes like a single refrigerant, having fixed moving parts. Refrigeration lubricants must
boiling (bubble) and condensing (dew) points. be compatible with the refrigerant and
The component refrigerants in a zeotropic components in the system.
blend respond individually to pressure
and heat, each having different boiling and
condensing points. Since refrigerants that make Review Questions
up a zeotrope have different bubble points
and dew points, the result is temperature glide Answer the following questions using information in this
during phase change. chapter.
• Refrigerants are identified by a standardized 1. Ozone depletion potential is a numeric value
numbering system. Each refrigerant is assigned assigned to refrigerants to show how harmful
a number that follows the letter R. The third they can be to the ozone compared to which
number from the right indicates the series of refrigerant?
the refrigerant. A. R-11
• ASHRAE Standard 34 categorizes refrigerants B. R-134a
according to their toxicity and flammability. C. R-600a
D. R-1234ze
• Pressure-temperature curves and charts show
how a refrigerant's temperature and pressure 2. A refrigerant's global warming potential
both rise and fall in relation to each other. They (GWP) is based on a ratio of the refrigerant's
can be used to determine the proper operating warming effect compared to the warming
temperature and pressure of a system. effect of _ _.
A. argon
• A pressure-enthalpy table numerically shows
B. carbon dioxide
the thermodynamic properties of a refrigerant
C. nitrogen
under saturated conditions. It can be used to
D. oxygen
calculate the latent heat of a refrigerant.
• A pressure-enthalpy diagram is a graph 3. Refrigerants that are composed of carbon,
version of a pressure-enthalpy table. chlorine, and fluorine are called
Pressure-enthalpy diagrams can be used to A. CFCs
calculate a refrigeration system's coefficient of B. HCFCs
performance. C. HFCs
D. inorganic compounds

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 193

194 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

4. Refrigerants that are composed of carbon, 11. Refrigerants that are represented by 500s in
chlorine, fluorine, and hydrogen are the numbering system are called _ _.
called A. azeotropes
A. CFCs B. expendable refrigerants
B. HCFCs C. freezants
C. HFCs D. zeotropes
D. inorganic compounds 12. Which widely used CFC refrigerant that is
5. Which halogenated refrigerants have no no longer manufactured is stored in white
ozone depletion potential? cylinders?
A. CFCs A. R-12
B. HCFCs B. R-22
C. HFCs C. R-134a
D. Inorganic compounds D. R-500
6. Refrigerant blends that act like a single 13. The ability of a refrigerant to be harmful or
refrigerant with fixed boiling and condensing lethal with acute or chronic exposure is its
points are called _ _.
A. azeotropes A. coefficient of performance
B. expendable refrigerants B. flammability
C. freezants C. fractionation
D. zeotropes D. toxicity
7. Refrigerant blends with refrigerants 14. A substance's capacity to ignite and burn is
that respond individually to changes in its
temperature and pressure are called _ _. A. coefficient of performance
A. azeotropes B. flammability
B. expendable refrigerants C. fractionation
C. freezants D. toxicity
D. zeotropes 15. A _ _ visually represents how a refrigerant's
8. The separating of a zeotropic blend's temperature and pressure both rise and fall
individual refrigerants during phase change in direct relation to each other.
is known as A. pressure-temperature chart
A. bubble point B. pressure-enthalpy table
B. dewpoint C. pressure-temperature curve
C. fractionation D. material safety data sheet
D. temperature glide 16. A refrigerant's thermodynamic properties
9. The range of temperatures at which in a saturated condition are shown only
individual refrigerants in a zeotropic blend numerically in a _ _.
change phase is called _ _. A. pressure-enthalpy diagram
A. bubble point B. pressure-enthalpy table
B. dewpoint C. pressure-temperature curve
C. fractionation D. material safety data sheet
D. temperature glide 17. The EPA established the SNAP program for
10. Refrigerants that are represented by 400s in which purpose?
the numbering system are called _ _. A. To evaluate and regulate substitutes for
A. azeotropes high ODP refrigerants.
B. expendable refrigerants B. To progress the phase out of older
C. freezants refrigerants.
D. zeotropes C. Work toward meeting the ozone
protection provisions of the Clean Air Act.
D. All of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 9 Introduction to Refrigerants 195

18. How can the refrigerant temperature in an 25. Which type of lubricant is not miscible with
air-cooled condenser be estimated? HFC refrigerants, so it cannot be used with
A. By adding 30°F to 35°F to the ambient them?
temperature of air around the condenser A Alkylbenzene
B. By subtracting 25°F from the present B. Polyol ester
condenser temperature C. Mineral oil
C. By placing a temperature probe inside the D. Polyalkylene
suction line

I
D. None of the above.
19. In 2010, the United States stopped
manufacturing new units that contain ___J

a widely used HCFC refrigerant.

A. R-12
B. R-22
C. R-134a
D. R-410A
20. Which of the following is not a desirable
property for new refrigerants?
A. Noncorrosive
B. Nonexplosive
C. High boiling point
D. Stable in gas form
21. Which of the following refrigerants has a low
GWP and can be used as a replacement for
R-134a in automotive air conditioning?
A. R-125
B. R-717
C. R-410A
D. R-1234yf
22. The colorless refrigerant often used in large
absorption systems that has a distinct odor is

A. R-704 (helium)
B. R-717 (ammonia)
C. R-728 (nitrogen)
D. R-744 (carbon dioxide)
23. A floe test determines the temperature at
which _ _ separates out of a mixture of
refrigerant and lubricant.
A. water
B. mineral oil
C. wax
D. polyol ester
24. Which term is a measure of a liquid's
resistance to flow?
A. Viscosity
B. Floe point
C. Flash point
D. Chemical stability

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 10 Equiptnent and Instrutnents
for Refrigerant Handling
and Service

Chapter Outline
10.1 Refrigerant Cylinders
10.1.1 Storage Cylinders
10.1.2 Disposable Cylinders
10.1.3 Recovery Cylinders
10.2 Pressure Gauges
10.2.1 Vacuum Gauges
10.2.2 Compound Gauges
10.2.3 High-Pressure Gauges
10.2.4 Wireless Pressure Gauges
10.2.5 Care and Calibration of Gauges
10.3 Service Valves
10.3.1 Service Valve Positions
10.3.2 Low-Side Service Valves
10.3.3 High-Side Service Valves
10.3.4 Service Valve Maintenance and Operation
10.3.5 Access Ports
10.3.6 Piercing Valves
10.4 Gauge Manifolds
10.4.1 Gauge Manifold Construction
10.4.2 Purging Gauges and Hoses
10.4.3 Gauge Manifold Operation Learning Objectives
10.4.4 Connecting a Gauge Manifold
10.4.5 Refrigeration System Analyzers Information in this chapter will enable you to:
10.5 Leak Detection Devices
• Distinguish between the different types of refrigerant
10.5.1 Bubble Solutions cylinders and identify the proper use of each type.
10.5.2 Refrigerant Dye and Fluorescent Dye • Identify the different kinds of pressure gauges and
10.5.3 Halide Torch Leak Detectors how they are used.
10.5.4 Electronic Leak Detectors • Recognize the various types of service valves used
10.5.5 Ultrasonic Leak Detectors on refrigeration systems.
10.6 Vacuum Pumps • Understand the purpose, construction, and
10.6.1 Types of Vacuum Pumps operation of a gauge manifold.
10.6.2 Oil in Vacuum Pumps
• List the types of leak detection methods and their
10.7 Recovery, Recycling, and Reclaiming Equipment
advantages and disadvantages.
10.7.1 Refrigerant Recovery Equipment
10.7.2 Refrigerant Recycling Equipment • Explain the purpose for using a vacuum pump.
10.7.3 Refrigerant Reclaiming Equipment • Describe the types of equipment used for refrigerant
10.7.4 Digital Charging Scales recovery and recycling.
 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 197

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

access port pressure gauge Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
back seated queen valve you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
Bourdon tube reclaiming • Pressure gauges are used by technicians to measure
bubble solution recovering pressure conditions inside a refrigeration system.
compound gauge recovery cylinder (Chapter 7)
cracked open recovery/recycling • A service valve stem is opened and closed using a

I
digital charging scale machine refrigeration service valve wrench. (Chapter 7)
discharge service valve recycling
• Purging is the process of removing unwanted air,
(DSV) refrigerant dye leak
vapors, dirt, and moisture from tubing or hoses
electronic leak detection detection
by flushing them into the atmosphere with a
fluorescent dye leak refrigeration system
compressed gas. (Chapter 8)
detection analyzer
free air displacement retarder • The Clean Air Act requires technicians to recover
front seated Schrader valve refrigerant from a system and pull an adequate
fusible plug service valve vacuum when opening equipment for maintenance.
gauge manifold storage cylinder (Chapter 9)
halide torch leak detection suction line service valve
high-pressure gauge suction service valve (SSV)
king valve ultimate vacuum Introduction
liquid line service valve ultrasonic leak detector
HVACR technicians must be certified by the EPA
liquid receiver service vacuum gauge
to handle refrigerants in cylinders and charge them into
valve (LRSV) vacuum pump
refrigeration systems. Refrigerants must be kept dry and
micron valve core
clean. This means the refrigerant must be free from all
mid-position valve core remover
contaminants, including air, dirt, and moisture. If a sys-
piercing valve
tem's refrigerant circuit has been opened to the atmo-
sphere to perform service procedures, a deep vacuum
must be pulled on the system to remove moisture, air,
and anything else that may have entered. This must be
done after the system is reassembled, but before it is
recharged with refrigerant. This chapter covers the spe-
cialized equipment used to handle refrigerants, perform
refrigeration system service, and pull a vacuum. Methods
for detecting refrigeration system leaks will also be cov-
ered later in the chapter.
198 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

10.1 Refrigerant Cylinders open under excessive pressure, but they do not close
again. Once a rupture disc opens, it allows a cylinder's
Refrigerant cylinders are made of steel or alumi- entire refrigerant charge to escape. A fusible plug is a
num. Cylinders that have a diameter of 4 1/2" (114 mm) plug made of a metal with a low melting point, which
or greater and a length of 12" (305 mm) or more must melts and releases a cylinder's entire refrigerant charge
have a pressure release protective device. This device if the cylinder begins to overheat. Refrigerant cylinders
can be a rupture disc (burst disc), a fusible plug, or a also have at least one valve at the top that provides a
spring-operated relief valve, Figure 10-1. connection to access the refrigerant.
A spring-operated relief valve opens under exces- Regulations for cylinders are prescribed by the
sive pressure and then closes when enough refrigerant Department of Transportation (DOT). If properly fol-
has been released from the cylinder to lower the pres- lowed, these regulations ensure the safety of technicians
sure. Like relief valves, rupture discs are designed to working with cylinders containing refrigerants. The DOT
regulations require that cylinders that have contained
a corrosive refrigerant must be inspected and recerti-
fied every five years. Cylinders containing noncorrosive
refrigerants must be inspected every ten years.
There are three main types of refrigerant cylin-
Valve opens ders that an HVACR technician uses:
to allow
refrigerant • Storage cylinders.
to escape • Disposable cylinders.
• Recovery cylinders.

Plunger pushes spring

out at high pressure
10.1.1 Storage Cylinders
Spring-Operated Relief Valve It is more cost effective to purchase refrigerants in
100-lb and 150-lb cylinders than to buy smaller cylin-
ders. These large storage cylinders are used to charge
refillable service cylinders at the shop. Often, the stor-
age cylinders are positioned upside-down with the
valve at the bottom to make filling a service cylinder
~ -- easier and faster.

ti-- Safety Note

Moving Heavy Cylinders
Disc bursts Use a hand truck with the refrigerant cylinder
under pressure secured with a chain to move cylinders weighing over
Rupture Disc 35 lb (16 kg).

Storage cylinders are fitted with a valve and a pro-

tective cap. Packing installed around the valve stem
ensures that the valve is leak-proof where the valve
stem enters the valve. The packing can be made of lead,
graphite, or other materials. An adjustable packing nut
holds the packing in place between the valve stem and
valve body. The valve opening should be sealed with a
Plug melts under plug when the cylinder is not in use. Whenever mov-
high temperature ing or shipping a cylinder, the protective cap must be
Fusible Plug screwed over the valve, Figure 10-2.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 10-1. Pressure release devices are designed to 10.1.2 Disposable Cylinders
allow refrigerant to escape from a cylinder when the cylinder
pressure or temperature is too high. Only spring-operated Disposable service cylinders are one of the
relief valves can close again. most commonly used types of refrigerant container.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 199

Protective cylinder is dropped. For disposable cylinders with

- cap prevents only one valve, a technician will charge a system with
damage to valve vapor with the cylinder right-side up (valve on top) or
with liquid with the cylinder upside-down (valve on
the bottom). Since service calls often require techni-
cians to carry a refrigerant cylinder and a tool bag, a
carrying strap can free up your hands, Figure 10-4.
Prior to disposing of a disposable cylinder, all
refrigerant must be recovered into an approved recov-
ery cylinder. The disposable cylinder must be evacu-
ated down to atmospheric pressure (15 psia or 100 kPa). 4
The cylinder may then be disposed of or recycled.
Many refrigerant supply stores offer recycling of used
disposable cylinders.

Code Alert
Worthington Cylinders
Disposable Cylinder Usage
Figure 10-2. Refrigerant storage cylinder fitted with a
Disposable cylinders are not designed for recov-
protective cap.
ery use and should never be used for this purpose. It is
illegal to transport recovered refrigerant in a disposable
Disposable cylinders are designed for one usage only. A cylinder. Do not use disposable cylinders to store refrig-
service technician uses a disposable cylinder to charge erant removed from a system.
refrigerant into a system. Many popular refrigerants
are available in disposable cylinders, which contain 10.1.3 Recovery Cylinders
smaller quantities of refrigerant than storage cylinders,
from a few ounces up to 50 lb. Disposable cylinders Recovery cylinders are refrigerant cylinders
should be stored at temperatures below 125°F (51°C) to specifically dedicated to storing refrigerant recov-
prevent refrigerant pressure buildup, Figure 10-3. ered from refrigeration systems. While other refriger-
Disposable service cylinders are easy to handle ant cylinders are usually color coded by their type of
and eliminate the need to refill from a storage cylin- refrigerant, recovery cylinders all look the same. Like
der. The handle is designed to protect the valve if the other refrigerant cylinders, however, each recovery

Carrying
handles

/~

151b
cylinder

Worthington Cylinders Juglugger

Figure 10-3. Disposable refrigerant cylinders holding R-134a Figure 10-4. Refrigerant cylinder carrying straps provide
and R-404A. Disposable cylinders come in varying weights. convenience for service calls.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

200 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Vapor valve the top of the cylinder. The liquid valve opens a pas-
sage between the liquid inlet and a tube that reaches
Burst disc or to the bottom of the cylinder. This allows a technician
Liquid valve fusible plug
j
~ /
to remove liquid refrigerant without having to turn
the cylinder upside-down, Figure 10-6. Guidelines for
recovering and recharging refrigerant using recov-
ery cylinders are covered in Chapter 11, Working with
Refrigerants.

Caution
Recovery Cylinder Valve Colors
Although most recovery cylinder valves are color
coded, do not assume that blue always indicates a
vapor valve and red a liquid valve. Always read the valve
handles to identify the correct valve, Figure 10-7.

Vapor handle

Manchester Tank
Figure 10-5. All recovery cylinders are painted gray and
yellow to distinguish them from disposable cylinders. A
Pressure relief I/ Vapor valve

recovery cylinder should be labeled to indicate the type

of refrigerant inside and prevent the mixing of different
refrigerants.

cylinder is dedicated to the use of only one type of

refrigerant. These cylinders are easily recognized by
their gray paint on the lower portion and yellow paint
on the upper portion, Figure 10-5.
Recovery cylinders should be examined for dents Manchester Tank
and other damage prior to each use. Cylinders that are Figure 10-6. Recovery cylinders generally use blue for gas
pressurized under 300 psig should be tested every ten valves and red for liquid valves.
years. Cylinders that are pressurized to over 300 psig
should be serviced every five years. A test date is
stamped on the cylinder.

Caution
Overfilled Cylinders
Never fill a recovery cylinder beyond its recom-
mended capacity, which is stamped on the cylinder. The
combined gas law states that in a fixed volume, such
as a cylinder, a rise in temperature will cause a rise in
pressure. Therefore, when ambient temperature around
an overfilled cylinder rises, the pressure inside the cyl-
inder also rises, which could burst an overfilled cylinder.
Some tanks have a float valve that prevents overfilling
the tank. Be careful not to assume that every cylinder
has this feature.

Recovery cylinders have two valves: one marked

liquid and one marked gas (or vapor). Gas (vapor) valves Dynatemp International, Inc.
are usually blue. Liquid valves are usually red. The Figure 10-7. Check cylinder handle color and labeling before
gas valve opens a passage between the gas inlet and use.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 201

10.2 Pressure Gauges

Pressure gauges are instruments that measure and
display the pressure of a fluid in a container. These are
some of the most important instruments an HVACR tech-
nician uses. Pressure gauges provide valuable information
about what is happening inside a refrigeration system.
There are several different types of pressure

I
gauges that function using different principles of oper-
ation. Gauges are also available in a variety of ranges,
as the pressures to be measured can vary from vacuum
up to 800 psi (5,500 kPa).
One widely used operating element that pressure
gauges use is the Bourdon tube. A Bourdon tube is a
thin-walled tube of elastic metal bent into a circular Change in
graduations
shape that straightens as pressure inside it increases.
One end of a Bourdon tube is sealed closed, while the Mastercaal Inc.

other end is connected to a fitting that connects into a Figure 10-9. Notice how the RETARD portion of the pressure
valve on a refrigeration system. With the sealed end scale is different than the rest of the scale. Between O psi and
110 psi the scale increases by 10, but after 110 psi the scale
connected to a linkage and a specially engineered gear
jumps to 348 psi.
with an indicator needle, a Bourdon tube's reaction to
pressure indicates pressure on a given scale. As pres-
sure rises, it begins to straighten the Bourdon tube, at higher pressures. After the pressure has crossed a
which moves the linkage, gear, and indicator needle certain pressure threshold, a retarder engages an extra
across the gauge's scale, Figure 10-8. spring that correlates with the gauge's higher gradua-
Operating pressures vary in different types of tion markings. These gauges are easily recognized by
refrigeration systems. Some pressure gauges use a built- the change in graduations at the higher readings of the
in retarder with the Bourdon tube to measure readings positive pressure scale, Figure 10-9.

Calibrating spring

Link

Pointer
shaft gear

Bourdon tube

Restrictor

A B
Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division; Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 10-8. A-A Bourdon tube inside the back of a pressure gauge with an electronic display. B-lnternal construction of a
pressure gauge. The red, dashed outline indicates how an increase in pressure causes a Bourdon tube to straighten and operate
the gauge.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

202 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Pro Tip
Protecting Threads on Gauges
Repeated installation and removal of a pressure
gauge can quickly wear the gauge's threads. Use a
pipe nipple on any heavily used gauges to protect the
threads on the gauge. A pipe nipple is a short length of
pipe that is threaded at each end. It allows a pressure
gauge to be fastened to one end, while the other end is
used to connect to service valves.
Press to select
The three main types of pressure gauges used in different units
HVACR service work are vacuum gauges, compound
gauges, and high-pressure gauges. Each of these types
of gauges has a different scale that varies depending
on the refrigerant being measured:
• Vacuum gauge: 30 in. Hg vacuum through 0 in. Hg
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
vacuum.
Figure 10-10. This digital vacuum gauge displays
• Compound gauge: 30 in. Hg vacuum through measurements on a digital screen in any one of six units:
240 psi. microns, in. Hg, millibars, pascals, torr, and millitorr.
• High-pressure gauge: 0 psi through 800 psi.

Caution 0 microns. Remember that in. Hg vacuum goes up

Pressure Gauge Limitations numerically with increasing vacuum (lower pressure),
A pressure gauge should not be exposed to pres- and micron measurements go down with increasing
sures that exceed its scale range. A gauge should also vacuum (lower pressure). Become familiar with these
not be exposed to a pressure greater than 75% of the scales and their relationships to vacuum and atmo-
full-scale range for more than a few minutes. spheric pressure.
A pressure drop lowers the boiling point (tem-
perature) of a refrigerant. To force moisture inside a
10.2.1 Vacuum Gauges system to evaporate at room temperature, HVACR
technicians use a vacuum pump to create a vacuum of
A vacuum gauge measures lower-than-atmo- about 250 microns inside the system. To measure such
spheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi, deep ("high") vacuum, a vacuum gauge must be used.
which can also be expressed as 29.92 in. Hg or A regular compound gauge cannot accurately measure
760 torr. Digital vacuum gauges, like the one shown deep vacuum.
in Figure 10-10, can include the following scales:
microns, psi, in. Hg, millibars, pascals, torr, and Pro Tip
millitorr.
A micron is the equivalent of 0.001 mm Hg. To con-
Moisture in a System
vert from SI vacuum measurements to US Customary, If a vacuum is drawn on a system and the vacuum
remember that one in. Hg is equal to 25.4 mm Hg or gauge reading levels off at 5000 microns, ice or water is
in the system. The location of the ice may be indicated
25,400 microns. However, most compound and vac-
by a cold spot, frost, or sweat on the outside of the sys-
uum gauges measure pressure using in. Hg vacuum, tem. Close the valves connecting the vacuum pump to
which is the inverse of in. Hg (not followed by the the system, stop the pump, and allow the ice to melt or
word vacuum). In other words, atmospheric pressure is use heat from heat lamps, thermal blankets, or a heat
29.92 in. Hg and 0 in. Hg vacuum, and a perfect vacuum gun to melt it.
is 0 in. Hg and 29.92 in. Hg vacuum (often rounded to 30
on compound pressure gauges).
In the micron scale, a perfect vacuum is Caution
0 microns, and increasing pressure is represented by High Pressure in Vacuum Gauges
an increase in the measurement. Therefore, a mea-
Never allow system pressure to enter a vacuum
surement of 25,400 microns (the equivalent of 1 in. Hg
gauge. Ice or water will damage the gauge.
or 28.92 in. Hg vacuum) is a higher pressure than

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 203

m
II
Cleaning a Thermistor Vacuum Gauge
A thermistor vacuum gauge has two
Temperature scales for
each refrigerant type

parts: a meter and a tube that connects to the

refrigeration system, Figure 10-11. The tube
sometimes collects vapors or oil. It can be cleaned
by putting a solvent in the opening with an
eyedropper. Clean as follows:

I
1. Fill the tube with cleaner.
2. Rock the tube gently.
3. Empty the tube.
4. Repeat Steps 1-3 two or three times.
5. Clean with an alcohol rinse.
6. Clean the instrument dial cover with soap,
water, and facial tissues.
Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
Figure 10-12. This compound gauge has a scale of Oto
30 in. Hg vacuum below atmospheric pressure and 0 psi to
10.2.2 Compound Gauges 350 psi above atmospheric pressure. The temperature scales
A compound gauge measures pressure above for R-417A, R-422A, and R-422D are calibrated to show each
atmospheric and also vacuum. It is also known as a refrigerant's evaporating temperature at any given pressure.
low-side gauge. It is compound because it measures both
above and below atmospheric pressure. Most com-
pound gauges are typically calibrated from 30 in. Hg Some compound gauges include evaporating
vacuum to O in. Hg vacuum for below atmospheric temperature scales that make it easy for the techni-
pressure and from O psi to around 350 psi for above cian to determine the evaporating temperatures of
atmospheric pressure. They are accurate to about 1 psi different refrigerants at the measured pressure. The
or 2 in. Hg, Figure 10-12. example in Figure 10-12 shows the pressure levels
and the corresponding evaporating temperatures
for R-417A, R-422A, and R-422D. With these extra
scales of corresponding temperature, it is unneces-
sary to refer to pressure-temperature (P/T) charts in
order to determine the evaporating temperature of
the refrigerant.

Pro Tip
Reading the Right Scale
Often, pressure gauges used in HVACR work are
calibrated with evaporating temperature scales for more
than one refrigerant. When reading a pressure gauge,
care must be taken to read the correct scale spacing and
values. Scales that are color coded, as in Figure 10-12,
make it easier to follow the right scale.

Caution
High Pressure in Compound Gauges
Never use a compound gauge continuously on the
high-pressure side of a system. Excessive pressure can
Robinair, SPX Corporation
damage the gauge or ruin its accuracy. In general, use
Figure 10-11. A typical thermistor vacuum gauge, which can the compound gauge on the low side of the system.
be used to measure the vacuum level of a system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

204 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

produce wireless pressure gauges. These devices have

the capability to send data to mobile devices for remote
pressure sensing and easier records keeping. Installing
one transducer on the high side and another on the low
side allows technicians to read system pressure with-
out using a gauge manifold. Some of these products
also include temperature transducers to use when
determining superheat and subcooling, Figure 10-15.

10.2.5 Care and Calibration of Gauges

A variety of things can damage gauges. A sud-
den release of high pressure (such as 300 psi) into a
gauge can damage it. Rapidly fluctuating pressures

Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division

Figure 10-13. The scale on this high-pressure gauge shows
the corresponding temperatures for R-12, R-22, and R-502.

10.2.3 High-Pressure Gauges

A high-pressure gauge is a pressure gauge that
can read high-pressure values on a single continu-
ous scale, Figure 10-13. This scale may go as high as
800 psi. High-pressure gauges are also known as high-
side gauges. A high-pressure gauge is usually connected
into the high-pressure side of a system into the dis-
charge service valve, liquid line service valve, or liquid
receiver service valve. Ammonia Gauges

Caution
Gauges for Specific Refrigerants
Some pressure gauges are specifically designed
for use on certain systems or with certain refrigerants.
While many gauges can be used for measuring most
types of refrigerants, others are intended for only one
refrigerant. Two special cases are ammonia systems
and hydrocarbon (HC) systems. Ammonia can corrode
copper if moisture is present, and hydrocarbons are
flammable. To prevent damage, be mindful of any spe-
cial gauges necessary for a job, Figure 10-14.

lsobutane Gauges
10.2.4 Wireless Pressure Gauges Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division

HVACR instrument manufacturers have com- Figure 10-14. Certain refrigerants require specially made
bined pressure transducers and wireless technology to gauges. Ammonia (R-717) and isobutane (R-600a) are two
examples.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 205

Permanent Transducers

Temporary Transducers
Transducers Direct, LLC.; Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
Figure 10-15. Some pressure gauges use transducers and wireless technology for remote sensing and electronic record
keeping.

can quickly ruin a gauge's accuracy. Sometimes it is equipment is made to show a Opsi reading at sea level.
necessary to connect a gauge into a rapidly fluctuating A gauge calibrated on equipment adjusted for pressure
pressure condition. If so, the gauge should be attached at sea level will not be accurate either above or below
through a connector having a very small bore. This sea level.
will help to dampen the pressure fluctuations entering Gauges need to be recalibrated to read O psi for
the gauge. Some gauges are filled with liquid, which the elevation of the area where they will be used. To
helps prevent rapid fluctuations in the instrument, make this adjustment, disconnect the gauge so that it
Figure 10-16. is open to the air. Then, set the indicator needle to 0.
Gauges that are used in refrigeration work must This is usually done by turning a calibration screw on
be accurate and require periodic recalibration. When the gauge. The table in Figure 10-17 lists atmospheric
checking gauge accuracy, remember that calibrating pressure at several elevations.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

206 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division

Figure 10-18. Gauge boots for different pressure gauges.

10.3 Service Valves

A variety of valves are installed in a system to pro-
vide easy access to the system and ensure its continued
smooth operation. These valves are used to monitor
system pressure, recover refrigerant, charge the sys-
TIF™ Instruments, Inc.
tem, pull a vacuum, and other procedures. Some valves
Figure 10-16. These gauges are filled with a liquid that provide only basic access to the system. Others provide
dampens any fluctuations.
more control because they have multiple valve seat posi-
tions to open and close parts of the system for isolation.
A service valve is a valve with a wrench-operated,
Atmospheric Pressure at Various movable valve stem that blocks or opens passage through
Elevations the valve. The service valve also blocks or opens a service
Elevation Pressure port, which provides a connection to the refrigeration sys-
tem for taking pressure readings and adding or removing
Sea level 14.7 psia
refrigerant or lubricant, Figure 10-19.
2000feet 13.7 psia Service valves enable technicians to seal off parts
4000 feet 12.9 psia of the system while installing gauges or recharging or
5000 feet 12.2 psia
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Valve stem cap
Figure 10-17. Table showing how atmospheric pressure Access port with
changes with altitude. \ Schrader valve

Caution
Absolute Pressure Gauges
Any gauge that reads absolute pressure (psia)
should not be adjusted for elevation.

Pro Tip
Gauge Boots
To protect pressure gauges from falls or rough Inlet and outlet
handling, equip them with protective boots. These cov-
Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
ers fit over the gauge and provide a cushion against
damage, Figure 10-18. Figure 10-19. This service valve would be mounted on the
condensing unit of a split system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 207

evacuating the system. Service valves require using a To service port

refrigeration service valve wrench to tum the valve stem.
This tool is discussed in Chapter 7, Tools and Supplies.
Service valve bodies are often made of drop-
forged brass. Service valves must be leak-proof where
the valve stem enters the valve. Similar to refrigerant
cylinder valves, service valves have packing installed
around their valve stems. The packing varies with dif-

I
ferent valve designs and can be made of lead, graphite,
and other materials. An adjustable packing nut keeps
the packing in place between the valve stem and valve Front Seated
body. Valve stems are made of steel or brass.
To service port
Pro Tip
Service Valve Packing Nut
Before changing a service valve's position, loosen
the service valve packing nut one turn. Skipping this step
could cause the valve to leak. Once you finish position-
ing a service valve for a procedure and before returning
the system to regular service, tighten the packing nut.

Service valves generally fasten to tubing or pipe

by flared or brazed connections. They may also be Back Seated
attached to system components, such as compressors
or liquid receivers, either by pipe threads or bolted
flanges. To service port

10.3.1 Service Valve Positions

Service valves have four different valve positions:
back seated, front seated, mid-position, and cracked
open, Figure 10-20. If the valve stem is turned coun-
terclockwise (outward) as far as possible, the valve is
back seated. When a service valve is back seated, it
closes off its service port from the rest of the system, so
no pressure readings or procedures can be performed. Mid-Position
The back-seated valve position is used for normal sys-
tem operation. To service port
If the valve stem is turned clockwise (inward) as
far as possible, the valve is front seated. When a service
valve is front seated, it blocks the flow of refrigerant
through the valve by closing off its regular passage-
way. Front seating a service valve provides a passage
between part of the refrigeration system and the ser-
vice port. However, the part of the refrigeration system
to which the service port connects may be different for
each type of service valve.
When the valve stem is turned so that the valve is Cracked Open
not against either seat but midway between the front Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

and back, the service valve is in mid-position. This is Figure 10-20. The four valve stem positions of a service
usually done by beginning with the valve in the back- valve: front seated, back seated, mid-position, and cracked
open.
seated position and turning the valve stem two com-
plete clockwise rotations. This position accomplishes
two objectives: it allows refrigerant to continue flowing,

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

208 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

and it provides a connection between the rest of the sys- Bolt Suction line
tem and the service port. This may be done for certain mounting
procedures. For a simple pressure reading, the service
valve is usually just cracked open.
The cracked-open position is similar to the mid-
position. It allows refrigerant to continue flowing
while providing a connection between the rest of the
system and the service port. A service valve is cracked
open when the valve stem has been turned just enough
to lift the valve off the back-seated position. Cracking
open a service valve begins by having the valve in a
back-seated position. Rotate the service valve stem 1/16
to 1/8 of a turn clockwise. Valve stem Compressor
cap connection
Caution {underside of valve)
Mueller Industries, Inc.
Opening Service Valves
Figure 10-21. This service valve would be mounted directly
It is good practice to crack open a valve (opening onto a compressor.
it 1/16 or 1/8 turn) before opening it fully. Cracking open
a valve prevents a shock pressure rush, which could
damage gauge mechanisms or injure the technician. small part of a larger procedure, a technician can pre-
pare to replace a compressor without having to recover
the entire refrigerant from the system.
10.3.2 Low-Side Service Valves When a low-side service valve is in a back-seated
position, a technician can turn the stem once or twice
Low-side service valves are service valves

Q
found on the low side of an HVACR system. Generally,
the various types of low-side service valves perform
the same function. There may be some variations in
procedures depending on the location of a low-side Valve sealing cap
service valve.
A suction line service valve is a low-side service
valve connected to a refrigeration system's suction line.
In many cases, a suction line service valve is located
much closer to the compressor's inlet than to the evap-
orator. These are often found on the condensing unit
of a split system. During normal system operation,
cool low-pressure vapor refrigerant flows through this
valve.
A suction service valve (SSV) is a low-side ser-
vice valve that connects to the suction line and directly Compressor
onto the compressor at its inlet. Valve caps protect the
service port and valve stem when the valve is not in
inlet union
Ed]
use. Be sure to keep the caps tightly fixed on both the
valve stem and service port when they are not in use. t
Sealing cap
A suction service valve is considered a compressor ser-
vice valve because it is one of the two service valves
Suction line
connected directly onto the compressor, Figure 10-21. connection
-----+- -
When a suction service valve is front seated, the
suction line's passage into the valve is blocked; however,
a passageway between the service port and the valve
outlet into the compressor exists. By front seating a suc-
t Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
tion service valve, a technician can remove that suction Figure 10-22. Note that front seating a suction service valve
service valve from the compressor, while leaving the would block the suction line passage, and back seating the
suction line sealed. See Figure 10-22. By following this valve would block the service port passage.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 209

to mid-position the valve. In this position, all three disconnected from the compressor without refrigerant
valve passageways are open. Mid-position is used for escaping from the condenser. During normal system
system evacuation or standing pressure tests. When operation, hot, high-pressure refrigerant vapor flows
a low-side service valve is cracked open only slightly through this valve.
off the back-seated position, a technician can take low- When a discharge service valve is back seated, the
side pressure readings with a compound gauge dur- valve is positioned for normal system operation and
ing normal system operation. During normal system the service port for a gauge is blocked. Cracking open
operation, cool low-pressure vapor refrigerant flows a discharge service valve allows for pressure readings
through this valve. during normal system operation. Mid-positioning is
used for system evacuation or standing pressure tests.
Along with suction service valves, discharge ser- 4
10.3.3 High-Side Service Valves vice valves are a type of compressor service valve.
High-side service valves are found on the high They are not used on all refrigeration systems. Some
side of a refrigeration system. The function these valves systems have a service valve between the condenser
perform varies, depending on the location. Some large and the liquid line.
refrigeration systems may be equipped with extra A liquid line service valve is a high-side service
service valves that other systems do not have. These valve located in a refrigeration system's condenser and
other valves may be used for servicing and installation liquid line. In many cases, a liquid line service valve
purposes. is located much closer to the condenser's outlet than
A discharge service valve (DSV) is a high-side ser- to the metering device. These service valves are often
vice valve that is mounted at a compressor's discharge found on the condensing unit of a split system. During
port, providing a shutoff between the compressor and normal system operation, warm high-pressure liquid
the condenser. It also provides a service port for a high- refrigerant flows through this valve.
pressure gauge or a gauge manifold, Figure 10-23. A liquid receiver service valve (LRSV) is a high-
A discharge service valve has the same four posi- side service valve connected to the outlet of a liquid
tions as a suction service valve. When the valve is front receiver and the inlet of a liquid line, Figure 10-24.
seated, the passage out of the valve into the discharge Often, these valves are three-way valves, like suction
line and condenser is blocked, leaving the valve inlet service valves and discharge service valves. These
from the compressor and service port isolated. Front valves enable the technician to charge liquid refriger-
seating a discharge service valve allows the valve to be ant into the system.

/4 Discharge
service valve Suction
service valve

Liquid
receiver
inlet

Bitzer
Figure 10-23. This semihermetic reciprocating
compressor has a suction service valve (SSV) and a
discharge service valve (DSV). The suction valve has the
larger connection for the suction line, while the discharge Westermeyer Industries, Inc.
line is smaller. This clearly shows the result of the Figure 10-24. This liquid receiver service valve is installed
compression of the refrigerant. between the liquid receiver and liquid line, making it a king valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

210 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Pro Tip system, or isolate it in another part of the system,

LRSV Names and replace the valve.
In a diverse field like HVACR, a single part or com-
Safety Note
ponent can have several different names. On the job,
you may hear someone call a liquid receiver service Valve Cracking Tip
valve a king valve or a receiver outlet valve. Another When cracking open a stuck valve, always use a
service valve is the queen valve, which is installed fixed wrench rather than a ratchet wrench. This is done
between the condenser and the liquid receiver inlet. so the valve can be quickly closed again if a leak or
King and queen valves are useful when pumping down breakage occurs.
systems for component isolation.

When a liquid receiver service valve is front Caution

seated, the passageway between the liquid receiver
outlet through the valve to the liquid line inlet is
Avoiding Valve Seat Freezing
blocked. This isolates the liquid receiver and service Sometimes valves can stick shut because of
port from the liquid line. A technician front seats a expansion and contraction due to temperature differ-
ences within the valve. This condition is sometimes
liquid receiver service valve when pumping down the
referred to as "freezing." After back seating a valve,
system. For normal operation, a liquid receiver service turn it just enough to relieve some of the pressure on
valve is back seated, so the passage between the liquid the seat, but not enough to open the valve. This pro-
receiver and the liquid line is open, but the service port vides just enough clearance between the valve and its
is blocked from the system. seat to prevent it from getting jammed into its seat if the
valve body contracts. If the valve gets jammed into its
seat, the valve stem could break when the technician
10.3.4 Service Valve Maintenance and attempts to operate the valve.
Operation
Most service valves have a brass body and a steel When using a service valve wrench on service
stem. Stems have a tendency to rust and score the valve valves, apply the turning force gradually. Adjustable
gland or packing. Always clean and oil a valve stem end or fixed open end wrenches are not recommended
before turning it. A scarred or dirty valve stem will ruin for service valve stems. When installing a service port
the valve packing. Valve stem rusting can be reduced by plug or cap, tighten the plug firmly. Never tighten a
drying the valve body and then coating it with refrigera- cold service port plug into a hot service valve. When
tion lubricant before replacing the valve stem cap and the valve cools off, it will shrink. This could cause
service port plug or cap. This should be done before and the plug to be fitted so tightly that it cannot be easily
after each time a service valve is used. Use lubricant removed.
specified for the refrigerant in that system.
Service valves must be kept in good condition.
Three things can be done to maintain good operation
[fj Loosening a Stuck Service Port Plug
and extend valve life: II If a service port plug is stuck in a service
valve, use the following procedure to loosen it.
• Match the correct service valve wrench size to the
valve stem to prevent stripping of the valve stem 1. Heat the outside of the service valve body
head. with a flame from a torch. Be careful not to
overheat the valve. It should not glow. The
• Maintain the packing so that the service valve will
heat will cause the valve body to expand. As a
not leak.
result, it will weaken the valve body's thread
• Oil the threads of the service port each time grip on the plug.
gauges are used.
2. Use a wrench to gently turn and loosen the
Occasionally, after a period of use, service
plug.
valves must be repaired or replaced. Pipe threads
in the valve gauge openings may become worn and
leak. This results from frequent mounting of flex-
ible line fittings. If a service valve is being repaired,
10.3.5 Access Ports
the proper packing must be used. If a service valve As previously described, service valves are equipped
is beyond repair, recover the refrigerant from the with service ports. However, there are various parts of

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 211

a refrigeration system where a technician must access Easily replaceable

the system to measure pressure without stopping the valve cores
flow of refrigerant or completely opening the system.
Such areas are good places to install access ports. An
access port provides just the port, without an accompa-
nying service valve. Standard SAE

I
Cores with sealing
gaskets for various flare cap threads
A refrigeration system access port is a small valve
opening that usually contains a Schrader valve core and refrigerants
is used for checking pressure and servicing a system.
Hexagon service
Access ports are installed in systems where the need connection ,
for more convenient service outweighs the advantage
of having a minimum number of connections. Access
ports are often installed at an evaporator outlet or a ' Available with
liquid line inlet. They are typically placed just ahead threaded or
(downstream) of the metering device and on both sides Fits OD of smooth shank
1/4" tubing
of automatic valves in the system. Access ports may be
installed adjacent to metering valves, solenoid valves, Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

bypass valves, hot gas defrosting valves, and driers. Figure 10-25. A Schrader valve fitting can be used to
Often, access ports are equipped with Schrader connect pressure gauges and service lines to a system.
When a service line or gauge is mounted on this fitting, a pin
valves. A Schrader valve consists of an externally
depresses (forces inward) the stem of the valve core. This is
threaded, hollow tube with a spring-loaded, coaxi- the final action that opens the system for service.
ally centered pin that blocks access through the tube,
Figure 10-25. The tube can be opened by depressing
the pin against the spring pressure. Hose connectors
often include a pin that pushes open the Schrader
valve as the connector is being tightened into place.
Once the connector is removed, the spring pushes the
Schrader valve's pin back into the closed position, min-
imizing the amount of refrigerant lost from the system.
Schrader valves are the type of valves used in automo-
bile tires.
Having external threads allows Schrader valves to
be used as valve cores inside access ports, Figure 10-26. Schrader
While a valve core works fine for pressure measure- valve cores
ment and regular maintenance, a valve core can be Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
removed from an access port for certain procedures, Figure 10-26. Schrader valve cores can be stored inside this
such as pulling a vacuum. Technicians use a valve core valve core removal tool. This removal tool is only for use after
remover that mounts on the access port, Figure 10-27. the refrigerant from a system has been recovered and the
The tool has a long stem to remove the Schrader valve system is opened for service.
core for charging or evacuating a system. This tool
allows removal of the Schrader valve core from the
access port without losing charge or vacuum. The core
is removed to allow maximum flow of vapor. however, there are two general designs: bolted on and
brazed on. These valves are available in several sizes
for various tubing sizes.
10.3.6 Piercing Valves Brazed-on piercing valves seldom leak, but
The most common method used to gain access to they do require refrigerant removal prior to brazing.
small hermetic systems or those without access ports Bolted-on piercing valves do not require refrigerant
is to use piercing valves. A piercing valve is a valve removal prior to installation, but their seal may leak
that is secured to a length of tubing and accesses the over time in systems with large vibrations. Bolted-on
refrigeration system by piercing through the tubing. piercing valves should be used as temporary access to
Piercing valves may be mounted on the suction tub- the system. They should be replaced with brazed-on
ing, discharge tubing, or both. Many designs of tub- piercing valves or the addition of a brazed-on process
ing-mounted piercing valves have been developed; tube valve.

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212 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

with an insert that can be changed to accommodate

Retaining rod (pulled outward)
different tubing diameters.
l
System
coupler

Retaining rod
(pushed inward) Access port

Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division

Figure 10-27. Each valve core remover is shown in a different
position. The upper tool has the retaining rod pulled outward,
as if a valve core has already been extracted from a system.
The lower tool shows the retaining rod pushed inward, as if a
new valve core has been installed in a system.

Bolted-On Piercing Valves

Bolted-on piercing valve designs fall into two sub-
categories based on their sealing method. Figure 10-28
shows cross sections of these two subcategories of
bolted-on piercing valves. The system should be shut Interchangeable insert
off and de-energized when installing a bolted-on pierc-
ing valve. The rubber or nylon seal should be clean and
the tubing should be straight and clean. Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
Piercing valves must be selected for the correct Figure 10-29. A bolted-on, saddle-type piercing valve
diameter tubing. Figure 10-29 shows a piercing valve is shown here. Note the plastic insert, which can be
interchanged to accommodate different tubing diameters.

Bushing
gasket
Compound
Tapered
seal
Piercing needle
needle

A B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 10-28. These cross sections show two types of bolted-on piercing valves. A-This type of bolted-on valve is bolted to the
line by two socket head cap screws. Note the use of a special compound seal. B-ln this bolted-on piercing valve, a gasket seals
the hole made by the tapered needle.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 213

w Installing a Bolted-On Piercing Valve

1. With the size of the piercing valve in mind,
w Installing a Brazed-On Piercing Valve
1. With the size of the piercing valve in mind,
check to see if there is enough space around check to see if there is enough space around
the tubing to install and operate the piercing the tubing to install and operate the piercing
valve. Check also to determine if a service valve. Check also to determine if a service
hose can be easily attached where the pierc- hose can be easily attached where the pierc-
ing valve will be placed. ing valve will be placed.
2. Make sure that the part of the tubing where 2. Make sure that the part of the tubing where
you intend to install the piercing valve runs you intend to install the piercing valve runs 4
in a straight line and is round without any in a straight line and is round without any
dents or irregularities. dents or irregularities.
3. Clean the tubing area with a fine emery cloth 3. Clean both the saddle and tubing mating sur-
or fine sandpaper. Be careful not to scratch face with clean sandpaper or clean steel wool.
the tubing while cleaning. Wipe the tubing Wipe both the saddle and the tubing with a
with a clean cloth to remove any dust. clean cloth to remove any dust.
4. Back out the valve's piercing needle by rotat- 4. Remove the piercing valve stem and the gas-
ing the stem counterclockwise as far as it ket from the saddle.
will go. 5. Brazing requires flux or flux-coated filler rod.
5. Dab a little clean refrigeration lubricant (the If using a flux-coated filler rod, mount the
same type of lubricant used in the system) on saddle on the tubing. If not using a flux-coated
the tubing. filler rod, apply clean, fresh brazing flux on the
6. While holding the sealing washer steady to saddle according to the valve manufacturer's
be sure that it stays in place, mount the valve directions. Then mount the saddle on the tub-
on the tubing. Secure the valve body to the ing. The saddle must not move or shift during
tubing by tightening the screws evenly and the brazing or while the brazed joint is cooling.
snugly. Some technicians hold the saddle in place with
a small C-clamp during the brazing operation.
7. Once the valve body is firmly clamped to the
tubing, attach the service hose and rotate the 6. Check to see if there is enough room for using
piercing valve stem clockwise into the tubing. the valve in its present location. If there is not
It will be easier to tighten when the needle enough room, find a more suitable location
pierces the tubing. with better clearance.
8. Back off the piercing needle slightly by turn- 7. Using a torch, heat both the tubing and saddle
ing the stem counterclockwise in order to until the filler rod material flows around the
access the system. saddle. Do not overheat the tubing or it may be
weakened to the point of failure and burst.
9. Test for leaks to make sure the seal between
the piercing valve and tubing is airtight. 8. When you have finished brazing the joint,
inspect it carefully. Use a mirror to check hard-
to-see edges.
Brazed-On Piercing Valves 9. After the brazed joint has cooled, install the
A brazed-on piercing valve is used when piercing needle and gasket. Many piercing
there is good access to an area of straight tubing valve caps have 0-rings. These seal the system.
on a system to braze in the fitting. Refrigeration 0-rings must be in place before installing the
systems should be evacuated before a brazed-on cap to ensure a proper seal. Caps with a metal-
piercing valve is installed. The valve core should to-metal seal must be tightened one-eighth of a
be removed from the valve to prevent damage to tum with a wrench after being finger tightened.
the seals during brazing. Make certain there are no 10. Attach the service hose and then back off the
flammables or soft-soldered joints close to the area piercing valve stem slightly to access the system.
being brazed.
11. Test for leaks to make sure the seal between
the piercing valve and tubing is airtight.

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214 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Other Types of Piercing Valves A high-pressure gauge is mounted on the right

Tube-piercing pliers are useful for attaching a pierc- side of the manifold. Its red hose connects to the
ing valve. This tool is similar to using a pair of locking high side of the system through the discharge service
jaw pliers to insert the piercing valve into the tubing, valve, liquid line service valve, or liquid receiver ser-
Figure 10-30. Tube-piercing pliers are used to quickly gain vice valve. A hand valve on the right side of the gauge
temporary access to a system and to recover refrigerant manifold separates the high-pressure gauge from the
from a system prior to the unit being disposed. Temporary central chamber.
piercing valves should be removed from the system and Not all gauge manifolds have mechanical gauges.
replaced with a permanent brazed-on fitting. Either a Some have digital gauges. Such gauges often have
brazed-on piercing valve is used or a tee is inserted. To additional features, such as a thermocouple tempera-
insert a tee, the section of tubing where the piercing valve ture clamp or computer software. Digital gauges are
was inserted is replaced with a new section of tubing that useful as they are capable of being programmed to be
includes a tee for installation of a Schrader valve. used with many different refrigerants and can display
saturation temperatures and pressures in different
units, Figure 10-32.
10.4 Gauge Manifolds
A gauge manifold consists of a compound (low-
10.4.1 Gauge Manifold Construction
side) gauge, a high-pressure (high-side) gauge, at least
three ports that may be isolated from each other, and at Figure 10-33 shows the internal construction of
least two hand valves. A gauge manifold allows a service a gauge manifold. The rubber O-rings prevent refrig-
technician to check the operating pressures of both the erant from leaking out around the valve stem. When
low side and high side simultaneously, to add or recover the valve is turned counterclockwise, the valve plug
refrigerant, to add oil, to bypass the compressor, and to
perform many other service operations, Figure 10-31.
Manufacturers often color code the exterior of the
gauges and hoses: blue for the low side and red for the
high side. The compound gauge is mounted on the left Rubber gauge protectors
side of the manifold. Its blue hose on the left side connects
to the low side of the system through a suction service
valve or other low-side service valve. A hand valve on the
left side of the gauge manifold separates the compound
gauge from the manifold's central chamber.
A central chamber is located between the low and Compound
high sides of a gauge manifold. A yellow hose connect- gauge
ing to the center port is connected to a refrigerant cyl-
inder, a recovery machine, or a vacuum pump. Some
gauge manifold central chambers have a sight glass Low-side valve
that can be used to view the flow of liquid through the
central chamber. This can be used when charging or Low-side port
recovering liquid refrigerant. High-side port

Sight glass

Hose connected
to high side
Hose connected
to low side

Hose connected to
refrigerant cylinder,
recovery machine,
or vacuum pump
DiversiTech Corporation Imperial
Figure 10-30. Tube-piercing pliers for temporary access to a Figure 10-31. Gauge manifolds are often color coded, using
system with no service valves. blue for low pressure and red for high pressure.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 215

moves outward from the seat, opening a passage to purging may be necessary. Purging refers to the process
the center port from one of the side ports. When the of removing unwanted vapors, dirt, or moisture from
handle is turned clockwise, the plug moves toward the the refrigerant hoses that connect the gauge manifold
seat, sealing the side port from the center port. to the refrigeration system and releasing the contents
into the atmosphere. Since purging of refrigerant

I
hoses uses refrigerant as the purging agent, this pro-
10.4.2 Purging Gauges and Hoses cess should be performed to use as little refrigerant
In the event that the hoses become contaminated as possible to reduce the impact on the environment.
with debris or if there is moisture in the system, The use of quick-connect fittings greatly reduces the

Mastercool Inc.; Stride Tool Inc.

Figure 10-32. Digital gauge manifolds and wireless gauge manifolds provide tools for monitoring the system and collecting data.

a-rings

A B
Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
Figure 10-33. A-This cutaway shows the internal construction of a gauge manifold high-side valve. B-This replacement valve
shows the valve plug and O-rings used in a typical gauge manifold.

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216 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

amount of refrigerant released to the atmosphere dur-

ing service. Quick-connect fittings are spring-loaded,
brass fittings which seal off refrigerant inside each
hose. Older gauge sets can be retrofitted with quick-
connect fittings. Figure 10-34 shows typical quick-
connect hose fittings.

m
II
Purging a Gauge Manifold and Hoses
Refer to the diagram in Figure 10-35
throughout this procedure.
1. To purge the gauge manifold and refrigerant
service lines, begin by making sure that the
cylinder valve, the gauge manifold valves, and
the system service valves are closed. Service
valves should be back seated to ensure they
are completely closed.
2. Connect the center service line of the gauge
manifold to a refrigerant cylinder containing Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
the same refrigerant used in the system. Figure 10-34. Quick-connect fittings and couplers are
3. Remove the caps from the system service ports available in a variety of styles.
and loosely connect the gauge manifold's low-
side and high-side service lines for purging.
4. Open the low-side and high-side valves on Figure 10-36 shows the valve positions used when
the gauge manifold. connecting a gauge manifold to a refrigeration system
5. Briefly crack open the cylinder valve on the to perform various service operations. To measure
refrigerant tank to flush the gauge manifold a system's operating pressures, keep both manifold
and service lines with refrigerant. Any mois- valves closed to allow refrigerant to flow to each pres-
ture and air should be forced out of the loose sure gauge. With both valves open, the gauge mani-
connections at the service ports. A small fold can be used for system evacuation, which is done
amount of refrigerant will also escape. after the refrigerant in a system has been recovered. A
vacuum pump is connected to the center port of the
6. Close the cylinder valve and tighten the ser- manifold, and any vapor in the system flows through
vice line fittings at the service ports. The ser- the open valves and into the center hose leading to
vice valves can now be opened without fear the pump. To use the gauge manifold for charging
of contaminating the system. refrigerant, keep one valve open and the other closed,
depending on which side is being charged. This allows
refrigerant to flow from the refrigerant cylinder,
Code Alert
through the central chamber, and into the side of the
Venting Refrigerants gauge that corresponds to the side of the system being
Although it is illegal to knowingly vent refrigerant charged.
into the atmosphere, the EPA allows technicians to
release small amounts of refrigerants during recovery,
repair, purging, and charging. As a result, the small 10.4.4 Connecting a Gauge Manifold
amount of refrigerant released while purging gauge The procedure for connecting gauges to a system
manifold hoses is not a violation of the Clean Air Act. depends on the system design. It is different for each
system, as shown in Figure 10-37.
10.4.3 Gauge Manifold Operation • Some systems have both a suction service valve
and a discharge service valve.
Operation of a gauge manifold consists of opening
and closing the high-side and low-side valve handles. • Some have a suction service valve adapter
Valve positions for some common uses of a gauge man- mounted on the compressor.
ifold are explained below. To speed the installation of • Some do not have any service valves, but do have
hoses, quick-connect fittings can be used. a process tube.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 217

Metering device

Evaporator High-side
service valve
Condenser

I
Compressor

High-side valve

Cylinder

Cylinder vapor valve

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 10-35. To purge the gauge manifold and service lines, the hose connections at the service ports are loosened, the cylinder valve
is opened, and the hand valves on the gauge manifold are briefly opened. The fittings at the service ports are then tightened.

• Some have a process tube that is too short or These instruments are refrigeration system analyzers,
inaccessible. In such systems, piercing valves are Figure 10-38.
used. Piercing valves can be installed on the liquid Refrigeration system analyzers are used to mea-
line, on the suction line, or on each line. sure system variables, such as pressures and temper-
Attaching gauges to a system with two service atures, and help to determine whether operation is
valves, like the one in Figure 10-37A, is the easiest. The optimal. Measurements for subcooling and superheat
service hoses from the gauges simply screw onto the can indicate whether the system's refrigerant charge is
service ports. This arrangement, which is most com- correct. Datalogging capabilities allow a technician to
mon on commercial systems, permits checking both track a system's operation over a period of time. This
the low-side pressure and the high-side pressure. information can be displayed on a graph to show oper-
Other common valve attachments for gauge mani- ational trends. Some analyzers include software that
folds include the valve adapter in Figure 10-37B and is able to compute the measured numbers in order to
the piercing valve in Figure 10-37D. To access a system make suggestions or offer troubleshooting diagnoses,
with a process tube, Figure 10-37C, a technician can Figure 10-39.
use either a piercing valve or a process tube adapter to
connect the gauge manifold.
10.5 Leak Detection Devices
10.4.5 Refrigeration System Analyzers Refrigeration system leaks are usually very tiny,
Instrument manufacturers can combine a gauge so they require sensitive detecting devices. Some
manifold, temperature sensors, and other sensing ele- commonly used devices include bubble solutions,
ments into one package that includes digital connec- fluorescent dyes, refrigerant dyes, halide torches,
tivity and often some troubleshooting capabilities. electronic detectors, and ultrasonic detectors. Each

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

218 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Valve Valve
closed closed

Connected to high side

Pressure Readings

Valve Valve
open open

Connected
to low side
Evacuation

Valve Valve
open closed

Connected
to low side Connected to refrigerant cylinder

Vapor Charging

Valve Valve
closed open

Connected to
low side

Liquid Charging
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 10-36. Various valve positions of a gauge manifold. By adjusting the positions of the manifold valves, a technician can
use a gauge manifold to check low-side and high-side pressures, evacuate a system with a vacuum pump, and charge a system
with either liquid or vapor refrigerant.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 219

Valve ~
Suction Discharge adapter ~
line line

~ t t

I
Compressor Compressor

A B

Compressor

Process tube

C D
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 10-37. Four different methods for accessing a refrigeration system are shown here. A-Factory-installed service valves.
B-Factory-installed valve adapter on the compressor. C-Process tube attached to the compressor. D-Piercing valve installed
on the suction line.

.
._
--.
Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
Figure 10-38. Refrigeration system analyzer kit with gauges, hoses, and multiple transducers.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

220 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Mastercool Inc.
Figure 10-39. A refrigeration system analyzer displaying measurements and values for superheat, dry bulb temperature, wet
bulb temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, and temperature split.

method has pros and cons. Sometimes it is useful to

Code Alert
combine leak detecting methods, using one method to
locate the general area of the leak and another method EPA Leak Repair Standard
to pinpoint the exact spot. Some helpful tips to remem- According to Section 608 of the Clean Air Act, leak
ber while looking for leaks include the following: repairs are required within 30 days if a leaking system
• Check connections early in your search. Leaks contains more than 50 lb of refrigerant and has yearly
leak rates at or above trigger levels. The trigger level
often form at tubing connections, such as brazed
for commercial and industrial refrigeration systems is
areas, and at high-stress or high-vibration areas, 35%. The trigger level for comfort cooling and other
such as tubing near a compressor. appliances is 15%. These leak repair regulations do
• Look for oily or dusty areas. Because a small amount not apply to refrigeration systems with less than 50 lb
of oil often escapes through a refrigerant leak, oily of refrigerant.
areas are often good indicators that a leak is nearby.
Dust often gathers and sticks to oily areas.
• Eliminate any wind or breezes by blocking Thinking Green
off detection areas with cardboard or another Refrigerant Loss Logs
material. Keeping accurate logs of customers' refrigerant
• Block out any bright lights, such as sunlight, when use and loss will help technicians detect leaks early.
using color-changing methods, such as a halide The earlier a leak is detected and repaired, the smaller
the environmental impact of the leak.
torch or fluorescent dye.
• If possible, when using an ultrasonic detector, turn
off any equipment that could produce sounds that
would cause the detector to sound a false alarm. 10.5.1 Bubble Solutions
• It is useful to operate the system, if possible, The majority of leaks are found using a bubble
prior to leak detection to build up pressure when solution. A bubble solution is a soap-water or patented
using soap bubbles or refrigerant dye. The higher solution that is brushed over an area of tubing that is
pressure will force the refrigerant out in a larger suspected of leaking. If there is a leak, the vapor com-
spray pattern. ing through the solution film causes bubbles to form.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 221

Specialized leak-detection solutions provide a

stronger, longer-lasting bubble film than soap-water
solutions. These specialized solutions often produce
very elastic bubbles that balloon much larger than
soap-water bubbles. For this reason, specialized solu-
tions are more effective than soap. Figure 10-40 shows
two examples of bubble solutions reacting to the pres-
ence of a leak.

Caution
Bubble Solution and Oxidation
Remember to wipe the bubble solution off the tub-
ing or fitting after each leak check. Over time, bubble
solution can oxidize copper.
A R,fri:.,,, '"'"'"'"
Figure 10-40. A-These small bubble clusters on this
evaporator coil indicate small micro-leaks. B-Large bubbles
indicating a larger leak.
I
Compared to other methods, a bubble solution is a
low-cost, easy method of leak detection. Also, because
halide torch and electronic leak detectors react to the
refrigerant used as an expander in urethane insula-
tion, the bubble test is the most reliable test to use in
the presence of urethane insulation. A disadvantage is
that large high-pressure leaks can blow through a solu-
tion so that no bubbles will appear.

10.5.2 Refrigerant Dye and Fluorescent Injection gun

Dye Connected to service port to
Dye
Refrigerant dye leak detection involves charging inject dye into system
a dye into a refrigeration system and observing areas SPX Corporation
suspected of leaks during operation. While the system Figure 10-41. Dye injection kits often include an injection gun
is running, a technician visually inspects various parts and multiple dye cartridges.
for the dye color, which will be produced at the point of
the leak, Figure 10-41.
Refrigerant dye is injected into the system, and visually scans refrigerant tubing with an ultravio-
the system is returned to normal operation. The dye let light. This method may be used with a variety of
method depends on the oil circulation rate. Most leaks refrigerants, including R-134a, Figure 10-42.
show up in a short time. However, it may take a long The biggest advantage of the fluorescent leak
period of time (up to 24 hours) to indicate leaks, espe- detection method is that there are no false alarms. If
cially if it is a very small leak. you see a fluorescent gas, there is a leak. Unfortunately,
wind and bright sunlight may make detecting a small
Caution leak difficult.
Excessive Refrigerant Dye
Avoid injecting an excessive amount of refrigerant 10.5.3 Halide Torch Leak Detectors
dye into a system to check for leaks. Dyes can reduce a
Alcohol, propane, acetylene, and most other gases
refrigerant's cooling capacity, lower lubricant viscosity,
and even damage internal components in high concen- burn with an almost colorless flame. The flame will con-
trations. Also, make sure to use a refrigerant dye that is tinue to be almost colorless if a copper strip is placed in
compatible with the type of refrigeration lubricant used it. However, if the tiniest quantity of a halogen refrig-
in the system. erant is brought into contact with the heated copper,
it will cause the flame to change to a light green color.
Fluorescent dye leak detection uses fluorescent This principle is used in halide torches to detect leaks
dye and an ultraviolet light to detect leaks. While circu- in refrigeration systems. All CFC, HFC, and HCFC
lating a fluorescent dye through a system, a technician refrigerants are halogenated refrigerants.

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222 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

system being tested. The rubber tube draws air from

its open end into the burner. As the open end of this
tube is moved near a leaking connection, it draws up
some of the leaking refrigerant vapor. The burning
vapor immediately turns the flame color green, indi-
cating a leak. Be aware that bright sunlight can make
it difficult to observe a slight color change in the flame.
Windy or drafty conditions also create difficulties in
using a halide torch.

Pro Tip
Halide Torch Leak Detection and Urethane
Insulation
A halide torch should not be used around urethane
insulation, as urethane uses some refrigerant chemicals
Spectronics Corporation as an expander. When halide torches are used near
Figure 10-42. Fluorescent leak detection equipment urethane, they may indicate a leak whether there is one
is available in a variety of sizes and styles, such as this or not.
flashlight-sized LED lamp.
Halide torches are no longer commonly used.
However, in the proper conditions with the applicable
Halide torch leak detection involves burning a refrigerants, they can be used with success. Even after
fuel gas near a copper plate and using a rubber hose to a suspected leak area has been identified, it is still good
siphon air from areas suspected of leaking refrigerant. to confirm the leak by testing it with a bubble solution.
If the flame changes to green, a refrigerant leak is near
the inlet of the rubber hose. A halide torch is shown in
Figure 10-43.
10.5.4 Electronic Leak Detectors
The torch burner is at the top by the flame win- Electronic leak detection uses electronic sensors
dow. One end of a rubber tube is connected to the to determine if a refrigerant is present. Electronic leak
base of the burner. The other end of the tube is slowly detectors are often powered by batteries and are typi-
moved around various parts of the refrigeration cally able to detect very small leaks, Figure 10-44.

Sniffer tube

Fuel gas valve

Fuel gas tank

Sensing tip

Sensitivity
adjustment
Spark lighter controls

Uniweld Products, Inc. SPX Corporation

Figure 10-43. Halide torches are used to test for leaks. A Figure 10-44. Electronic leak detectors like this one
green flame showing in the flame window indicates a leak commonly use audio and visual indicators to alert technicians
near the sniffer tube opening. of a leak.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 223

An electronic leak detector is turned on and consist of a handheld device with LEDs or some other
adjusted to atmospheric pressure. The leak-detecting indicator feature, Figure 10-45.
probe is then passed over surfaces suspected of leak- Ultrasonic leak detectors modify and amplify the
ing. Air is drawn into the leak detector by a small pump sound of a leak and play it through the headphones.
inside the unit. If there is even a tiny leak, refrigerant Background noise produced by equipment not related
is drawn into the probe. The unit then emits a piercing to the refrigeration system can sometimes produce
sound, flashing light, or both. In some detector models, false alarms in some ultrasonic leak detectors.
the frequency of the sound or flashing light increases
in relation to an increasing concentration of refriger-
ant. The closer you are to the leak, the louder and faster 10.6 Vacuum Pumps
the sound from the detector. 4
A vacuum pump is a vapor pump used to cre-
When using an electronic leak detector, mini- ate vacuums for evacuating a refrigeration system of
mize drafts. Shut off fans or other devices that cause moisture and other contaminants before refrigerant
air movement. Always position the sniffer below the is recharged into the system, Figure 10-46. A high-
suspected leak. Since refrigerant is heavier than air, vacuum pump will produce a vacuum higher than
it drifts downward. Move the tip slowly, at a rate of 28.92 in. Hg vacuum (less than 25.4 mm Hg or 25,400
about one inch per second. Just waving the wand in the microns). Most manufacturers recommend a vacuum
air will not locate a small leak on a tube. If the probe of 500 microns prior to charging a system. This can take
tip comes in contact with a surface, it can become con- several hours depending on the system size. Creating
taminated by water or other substances, interfering such low-pressure conditions is necessary to com-
with the proper operation of the detector. A plastic tip pletely dehydrate (remove moisture from) the system. It
guard should be used in situations that might contam- is necessary to remove all substances from the system
inate the sensing tip. because any foreign materials could cause higher pres-
sures than usual and possibly damage the system.
Safety Note HVACR technicians should be familiar with vac-
Explosive or Flammable Vapors uum pump specifications in order to choose the proper
Halide torches and electronic leak detectors should vacuum pump for a given job. Ultimate vacuum is the
not be used in areas containing explosive or flammable highest vacuum that a vacuum pump can pull. It is
vapors. the most important specification of a vacuum pump,
and it is usually measured in microns. The lower the
number of microns, the higher the vacuum a vacuum
Electronic leak detectors provide similar responses
pump can pull. Ultimate vacuum may also be called
to CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, and refrigerant blends. Therefore,
it is not necessary to determine the refrigerant in use or
blank off pressure. Free air displacement is the speed at
reset the detector for different refrigerants.

Pro Tip
Electronic Leak Detectors and Urethane Detection display
Insulation
Electronic leak detectors are difficult to use around
urethane insulation because urethane uses refrigerant
chemicals as an expander. When an electronic leak
detector is used near urethane, it may indicate a leak
even if there is no leak.

Headphone jack
10.5.5 Ultrasonic Leak Detectors
Ultrasonic frequencies are sound waves that are
beyond the range of human hearing. Ultrasonic leak
detectors detect the sound that a vapor makes as it is Photo courtesy of INF/CON
escaping from a pressurized system. Some units have Figure 10-45. Since ultrasonic leak detectors operate
headphones connected to a portable, handheld detec- by identifying certain sounds, they are compatible with all
tor that picks up ultrasonic sounds. Others simply refrigerant types.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

224 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Carrying handle high-vacuum rotary pump can pull a SO-micron vac-

uum pressure. This deep vacuum is necessary to boil
Oil reservoir off moisture in the system. Most high-vacuum rotary
port and pump pumps use two rotors in series (two-stage pump),
exhaust
Figure 10-47.

./ 10.6.2 Oil in Vacuum Pumps

Motor________,,,- The purpose of oil in a vacuum pump is to act as a
lubricant for the pump and as a fluid seal between air,
gases, and contaminants entering the pump from the
Oil level
refrigeration system. During evacuations, gases and
Isolation sight glass water vapor pulled from the refrigeration system often
valve become trapped in the oil, which raises the oil level in
the pump.
Many vacuum pumps have a sight glass that
allows technicians to check the oil level and oil color.
Oil drain plug Vacuum pump oil should be replaced frequently since
Vacuum gauge
oil rapidly becomes dirty when water and solvent
Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division vapor are drawn and dissolved into it. Water will also
Figure 10-46. Though designs may vary, vacuum pumps are turn the oil white and foamy. If dirty or degraded oil is
often recognizable as having a motor, a vacuum gauge, an oil left in the pump, sludge will form, reducing the service
level sight glass, and an oil drain plug. life of the pump. When vacuum pump oil is clear, it
means it is clean. Dirty oil also reduces a pump's ulti-
mate vacuum.
For good evacuation results, change vacuum
which gas may be pumped through a vacuum pump.
pump oil before each system evacuation or test the
It is measured in units of cfm (cubic feet per minute).
vacuum pump. The quickest test method is to isolate
The higher a vacuum pump's free air displacement
the vacuum pump from the system and pull a vacuum
number, the more gas is moved per minute. Free air
on the vacuum hose only.
displacement may also be referred to as volume capacity.
Below are a few examples of vacuum pump capacities
used for different size refrigeration systems:
• 1.5 cfm-3- to 5-ton residential systems.
• 3-5 cfm-5- to 100-ton medium systems.
• 10-15 cfm-large systems over 100 tons.
Outlet

10.6.1 Types of Vacuum Pumps I

There are two main types of vacuum pumps: single
stage and two stage. Single-stage vacuum pumps use
a single pump mechanism to draw a vacuum. These
can only be used when the triple evacuation method
is employed. Two-stage vacuum pumps consist of two Isolation
pump mechanisms working in series. The two pump valve
mechanisms working together are able to draw a vac-
uum more efficiently than a single pump mechanism
working alone. These are used when the deep-vacuum
(high-vacuum) method is used. Two-stage vacuum
pumps are the most commonly used type. Procedures
for pulling a deep vacuum and triple evacuation are Second stage
covered in Chapter 11, Working with Refrigerants. Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
Care should be taken to purge refrigerant from Figure 10-47. A two-stage, high-vacuum rotary pump uses
the service lines when connecting hoses to a unit. A two rotors in series.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 225

w Testing a Vacuum Pump

1. Using a tee fitting, connect an electronic vac-
uum gauge between the vacuum pump and
the center port of a gauge manifold.
2. Close the low- and high-side gauge manifold
valves.
3. Start the vacuum pump.
4. Allow the pump to run long enough to pull a
vacuum of approximately 500 microns.
5. Turn off the vacuum pump and wait two to
three minutes, allowing the vacuum pressure
to rise as moisture boils off inside the hose.
6. Pull another vacuum down to 500 microns.
7. Watch the vacuum gauge reading. If it rises, Mastercool Inc.
check for leaks at the hose fittings. Figure 10-48. With the proper equipment, refrigerant
If a pump will not pull down to high recycling can be done on a jobsite. Such kits will include the
vacuum, change the oil. Always follow the proper type of filter for recycling the refrigerant.
manufacturer's directions.

AHRI Standard 700 for purity. A reclaimed refriger-

ant can be charged back into any unit designed for use
10.7 Recovery, Recycling, and with that refrigerant. Reclamation services are avail-
Reclaiming Equipment able only at a reprocessing or manufacturing facility.
Refrigerant recovery management equipment is
The term recovering refers to removing refrigerant
divided into three categories:
from a system and storing it in an external container,
regardless of the condition of the removed refrigerant. • Recovery-a unit that removes the refrigerant.
It is illegal to purge or vent refrigerants into the atmo- • Recovery/Recycle-a unit that removes and filters
sphere. Recovery equipment is designed to allow the the refrigerant.
technician to safely remove refrigerant from refrigera- • Reclaim-a unit that reprocesses refrigerant to a
tion equipment so the equipment can be repaired or pure state, in accordance with EPA regulations.
properly disposed of without harming the atmosphere. The technician must always follow local, state, and
The term recycling refers to cleaning a refriger- EPA rules and regulations when working with refrig-
ant for reuse by separating out the oil and passing the erants. Proper procedures must always be followed
refrigerant through filter-driers. These filters reduce when operating refrigerant recovery/recycling equip-
moisture, acidity, and foreign materials. Recycling is ment. Always follow the manufacturer's instructions
generally done on a jobsite where the HVACR system is when operating such equipment.
located or at a local service shop, Figure 10-48. Upon determining that there is a leak or fault in a
In most cases, recovered refrigerant is returned to refrigeration system, a service technician must recover
the system from which it was taken following repair all the refrigerant in the unit. After recovery of the
of the system. Recycled refrigerant can be returned to refrigerant, the technician can fix the leak and then use
the system it was recovered from or used in another a vacuum pump to fully evacuate the system prior to
system belonging to the same owner. EPA regulations recharging.
prohibit a change of ownership of recycled refrigerant,
so that it may not be sold or given away. Before a recov- Code Alert
ered refrigerant can be sold, it must be reclaimed.
Refrigerant Recovery and Recycling
The term reclaiming refers to reprocessing a
In the past, refrigerants were often vented to the
recovered refrigerant so that it is chemically pure. In
atmosphere. Section 608 of the Clean Air Act prohibits
order to ensure purity, the reprocessed refrigerant
this. Refrigerant is now recovered and recycled. When
must be analyzed at an approved testing facility before opening equipment for service, technicians must evacu-
it can be classified as being reclaimed. According to ate the HVACR equipment to established vacuum levels.
EPA regulations, reclaimed refrigerant must meet the

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226 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

10.7.1 Refrigerant Recovery Equipment OutleVdischarge

pressure gauge
Advanced technology has made refrigerant recov- lnleVsuction
ery machines faster and lighter, Figure 10-49. Many
recovery machines are self-purging, eliminating the
need to change hoses at the end of the recovery pro-
cess. These machines are compatible with all com-
monly used CFC, HCFC, and HFC refrigerants.
During recovery, refrigerant is removed from the
system in whatever condition it happens to be and is
stored in a recovery cylinder. Then, the refrigerant Inlet
can be recycled at a service center. It can also be sent valve
to a reclaiming station and used at a later date. The
primary purpose of recovery equipment is to remove
refrigerant from a system. Recovery machines should
be used in conjunction with other instruments, such
as a digital scale, in order to measure the amount of
I
Outlet port Outlet valve
refrigerant removed from a system. Bacharach, Inc.
Some recovery machines are sold with a recovery cyl- Figure 10-49. This compact recovery machine has a
inder from the manufacturer. Replacement cylinders are shoulder strap allowing the unit to be easily transported.
readily available. Some recovery machines are equipped
with an automatic vacuum shutoff and an automatic liq-
uid-level shutoff that respond to an integrated level switch leak. Fittings should be checked approximately
in the recovery cylinder. This level switch is electrically every three months.
connected to the recovery machine and automatically
shuts off the machine when the recovery cylinder is filled • Verify overfill or high-pressure shutoff. The tank
to capacity. This feature acts as a second layer of control overfill protects the user against injury if excessive
along with scales or other weighing devices. pressure should occur and cause a rupture.
• Check gauge calibration. Use a reference gauge and
Code Alert compare its readings against the recovery machine's
Equipment Certification gauge. Follow the manufacturer's guidelines if
recalibration is required.
All recovery machines manufactured after
November 15, 1993, are required to be certified by • Check the recovery machine's compressor oil.
an EPA-approved testing organization. Certification Adequate lubrication protects working parts and
ensures that the recovery equipment will be able to ensures the long life of a machine. In general,
achieve the required vacuum levels. Technicians ser- compressor oil should not need to be changed or
vicing or disposing of air conditioning or refrigeration added. However, if slugging of the compressor
equipment must acknowledge in writing to the EPA that with liquid refrigerant has occurred, the oil
the recovery equipment used is EPA-approved. may be washed out. Some machines use oilless
compressors. Oilless machines alleviate concerns
Maintenance of recovery machines requires a regarding loss of lubrication.
small time commitment, but will extend the life of • Complete a visual inspection. Inspect hoses and
the machine. Always follow the manufacturer's main- hose fittings for damage and loosening. Check
tenance guidelines. The following are some typical tank fittings. Check the date on the tank to be sure
maintenance tasks for recovery machines: that it has not expired. Tanks should be recertified
• Change the filter-drier. Always replace the filter-drier every five or ten years. Follow the manufacturer's
per the manufacturer's schedule. The function of the instructions for checking lights and other
filter-drier is to remove contaminants (including electronic indicators. Clean the case and control
moisture) from the refrigerant. If the recovery panel once a week.
machine contains an inlet filter-drier, it should be • Use appropriate cables. Be certain to use a heavy-
replaced as often as the manufacturer recommends. duty extension cord capable of handling the
• Perform leak checks. The fittings for connections electrical current draw of the recovery machine.
may loosen with use. This can cause a refrigerant Use as short an extension cord as possible.

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 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 227

10.7.2 Refrigerant Recycling Equipment Refrigerants. Do not use disposable or unapproved

containers.
Refrigerants recovered from a system cannot
• Do not mix refrigerants. Clearly mark each cylinder.
be reused unless they are first cleaned. Recovery!
Thoroughly clean cylinders and all fittings upon
recycling machines recover and clean the refrigerant
completion of tasks.
on site or at a local service shop. Recovery/recycling
machines must be built to EPA standards for recovery • Change the filter-drier. Each time a recovery/
rate and amount of vacuum the machine is capable of recycling machine is connected to a new system,
pulling. The recovery/recycling machine must contain remember to change the filter-drier. This prevents
a label that indicates it has been certified to comply mixing of refrigerants.
with AHRI Standard 740. Many recovery/recycling machines are designed 4
Recovery/recycling machines provide on-site fil- to be versatile and easy to use. This is essential for per-
tering so refrigerants can be put back into service, forming difficult service calls in a short period of time.
Figure 10-50. However, the recycled refrigerant must Occasionally, refrigeration systems are in inconvenient
be used in the system from which it was recovered or locations where technicians cannot bring all their tools
another system with the same owner. Replaceable-core and equipment. In some cases, the recovery/recycling
filter-driers or other devices reduce moisture, particles, machine remains in the service vehicle. With hoses
and acidity. Some of the machines separate the oil and connected to the machine in the vehicle, the technician
acid and measure the oil in the vapor. Oil separation is brings the gauge manifold and the other ends of the
achieved by one or more passes through the machine. hoses to the refrigeration system location.
A single-pass recycling machine processes refrig- The entire recovery, recycling, and recharging
erant through a filter-drier and uses distillation to operation is done by opening and closing valves. A
separate the oil from the refrigerant. The refrigerant recovery/recycling machine can be operated in both
makes only one trip through the machine and then
is stored in a recovery cylinder. A multiple-pass recy-
cling machine recirculates refrigerant through the
filter-drier many times and does not distill the oil-
refrigerant mixture. After a given period of time or a
certain number of cycles, the refrigerant is transferred
into the recovery cylinder.
The following guidelines apply to recovery/ recy-
cling equipment:
• Follow manufacturer's guidelines. Change filters
and check the system and recycling equipment for
leaks as recommended.
• Use proper recovery and recycling procedures.
Do not vent refrigerants into the atmosphere.
Handle refrigerant safely and properly. Keep the
refrigerant contained and keep the air out. Most
new recovery/recycling systems have shutoff
valves. The shutoff valves operate automatically
as the hose is connected or disconnected.
• Use basic refrigeration principles as guidelines.
When transferring refrigerant from one cylinder
to another, use the liquid transfer method when
possible. This will allow transferring all of the
liquid from one tank to the other without an
accumulation of frost building up on the tank.
Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
• Always use appropriate cylinders. Do not fill
Figure 10-50. Recovery/recycling machines can be used on
the cylinder with more than the recommended the jobsite to recover refrigerant, clean it, and charge it back
amount of refrigerant. Specific instructions into the refrigeration system. The recovery/recycling machine
for calculating the maximum recommended shown here is designed for use on automobile air conditioning
capacity are presented in Chapter 11, Working with systems.

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228 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

the liquid and vapor cycles, and the hoses do not have After being approved for reclamation, the refriger-
to be changed between processes. A recovery/ recy- ant is recovered from its system and stored in a recov-
cling system includes a refrigerant compressor that ery cylinder. The refrigerant must then be taken to a
is used for refrigerant recovery and a vacuum pump service shop and shipped to a refrigerant reprocessing
used for evacuation. center. The reprocessing center reclaims the refriger-
ant and returns it for future sale as a used refriger-
ant. Both low-pressure refrigerants and high-pressure
10.7.3 Refrigerant Reclaiming Equipment refrigerants can be reclaimed. Early refrigeration units
Reclamation is the reprocessing of a refrigerant used carbon dioxide, ammonia, and various other
to its original production specifications. This must be gases as refrigerants, some of which may be flammable
verified by chemical analysis. Refrigerants are recov- or dangerous and should not be reclaimed. When in
ered at the jobsite and taken to a refrigerant reclama- doubt of the type of refrigerant in a system, contact an
tion center, which has the capability to clean and test EPA-approved reclamation center before removing the
large quantities of refrigerant. In accordance with EPA refrigerant.
regulations, the machine performing the reclama- Company standards vary regarding refrigerant
tion must meet AHRI Standard 740 and remove 100% transportation procedures. The technician recovering
of the moisture and oil particulates. Many recovery/ the refrigerant should closely follow the procedure
recycling machines cannot guarantee that the refriger- outlined by the company providing the service. For
ant will be returned to its original specifications and, record keeping and government compliance, the ser-
therefore, cannot be regarded as reclaiming machines. vice company requires the technician to fill out various
The operation of a typical reclamation system can forms documenting the exchange of refrigerant.
be described as follows: Reclamation companies can also dispose of
1. The refrigerant is introduced into the reclamation unwanted refrigerants. This can only be accomplished
system as either vapor or liquid. by incineration at 1200°F (649°C). The EPA has certified
2. The refrigerant is boiled at high temperature plants throughout the United States that are equipped
under extremely high pressure. to do so.
3. The refrigerant then enters a large separator
chamber where its velocity is greatly reduced. Thinking Green
This allows the vapor, at high temperature, to rise. Refrigerant Conservation
During this phase, contaminants (such as copper
An environmentally conscious technician not only
chips, carbon, oil, and acid) drop to the bottom of minimizes and repairs all refrigerant leaks, but also takes
the separator, where they will be removed. steps to ensure that refrigerants remain pure, clean,
4. The distilled vapor passes to the air-cooled and dry. For example, if a compressor motor burns out
condenser and is converted to liquid. because of improper service, the technician has not
5. A replaceable filter-drier in the reclaimed refrigerant only cost the customer money, but has also wasted the
circuit removes the moisture as well as the energy and materials that will be required to evacuate
microscopic contaminants. and flush the system and recycle the refrigerant.
6. The liquid passes into on-board storage chambers.
Within these chambers, an evaporator assembly
lowers the liquid refrigerant temperature.
10.7.4 Digital Charging Scales
7. The refrigerant is transferred to external cylinders. A digital charging scale is an electronic refriger-
Numerous refrigerant manufacturers have set up ant scale that monitors the weight of a refrigerant cyl-
refrigerant reclamation services. These provide a way inder as refrigerant is being charged into or recovered
to dispose of used refrigerant and obtain pure replace- from a system. Some models of these scales are also
ments as needed. To make use of these services, a tech- automated to start or stop the flow of refrigerant into
nician must first select the appropriate DOT-approved the cylinder, Figure 10-51.
recovery cylinders and fill out tags identifying the When using a digital charging scale, a technician
refrigerant to be reclaimed. Standard cylinders will places a refrigerant cylinder on the scale to enter its weight.
hold approximately 100 lb of used refrigerant and oil. This weight includes the weight of the cylinder and the
Other containers can range from 40 lb to one ton. On weight of the refrigerant inside the cylinder. The techni-
large commercial installations, sample cylinders are cian then enters the refrigerant cylinder's tare weight,
provided. These are sent back to a reclaiming center. which is the weight of the refrigerant cylinder when it
This is done to obtain refrigerant analysis of contami- is empty. This value should be stamped on the cylinder.
nants prior to evacuation and approval for reclamation. The scale then calculates the weight of the refrigerant in

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 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 229

the cylinder by subtracting the tare weight from the total

weight of the refrigerant and the cylinder.
The technician enters the amount of refrigerant
to charge into a system. The scale measures the total
cylinder and refrigerant weight as refrigerant is being
charged into the system. When the weight measured
indicates that the proper amount of refrigerant has
been charged, the scale illuminates a light, sounds an
alarm, or stops the flow of refrigerant being pumped
~~~~~&
Maximum gross capacities that digital charging 4
scales can measure vary among manufacturer models.
Some common maximum gross capacity values include
110 lb (50 kg), 220 lb (100 kg), and 330 lb (150 kg). Many
scale displays can switch from US Customary values to
SI values. Some digital scales are equipped with a Hold
key that allows the technician to interrupt the charg-
Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
ing or recovery cycle by closing a solenoid valve. This
Figure 10-51. A digital charging scale equipped with a
solenoid valve that stops the charging or recovery process
can be done without losing the programmed values, so
when the programmed refrigerant weight has been removed the charging or recovery can resume right where it left
or added from the cylinder. off, Figure 10-52.

Solenoid valve Wireless Charging Scale

Digital readout
Programmable
scale controls

Solenoid Valve Built into the Scale

A B
Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division; Mastercaal Inc.
Figure 10-52. Some digital charging scales can be equipped with a solenoid valve to stop the charging or recovery process
when the programmed refrigerant weight has been removed or added from the cylinder. A-An external solenoid valve for
charging or recovery. B-A solenoid valve built into the scale.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Recycling is the process of cleaning a
refrigerant for reuse. Recycled refrigerant
• There are three main types of refrigerant cannot be sold to a different owner.
cylinders: storage, disposable, and recovery. • Reclaiming a refrigerant is the act of
The Department of Transportation (DOT) sets reprocessing a refrigerant to certain purity
regulations for refrigerant cylinders in order to specifications. Reclamation is performed by
ensure technician safety. refrigerant reprocessing or manufacturing
• Pressure gauges are instruments that measure companies.
and display the pressure of a fluid in a • A digital charging scale ensures that the proper
container. The three main types of pressure amount of refrigerant is charged into a system.
gauges used in HVACR work are vacuum Tare weight is the weight of a refrigerant
gauges, compound gauges, and high-pressure cylinder when it is empty.
gauges.
• Service valves have four different positions for
different operations: back seated, front seated, Review Questions
mid-position, and cracked open. Service valves
are placed on both the low side and high side Answer the following questions using information in this
of an HVACR system to allow the technician chapter.
to check pressures and isolate refrigerant in 1. Which governmental body sets refrigerant
certain parts of the system. cylinder regulations?
• An access port is a small valve opening to a A. Occupational Safety and Health
refrigeration system that usually contains a Administration (OSHA)
Schrader valve and is mostly used for checking B. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
pressure. A piercing valve is a valve that is C. Department of Transportation (DOT)
secured to a length of tubing and accesses the D. Department of Labor (DOL)
refrigeration system by piercing through the 2. Large refrigerant cylinders are protected
tubing. against bursting by a _ _.
• Gauge manifolds are used to take pressure A. protective cap
measurements, charge refrigerant, recover B. compressible bladder at the bottom of the
refrigerant, and evacuate a system. It is tank
important to purge a gauge manifold and C. small surge tank
its hoses before performing any system D. fusible plug
procedures. 3. Large refrigerant cylinders called _ _
• Leaks often form at tubing connections and cylinders are often positioned upside-down
areas under high stress or vibration. Bubble with their valves at the bottom.
solutions, dyes, halide torches, and electronic A. recovery
and ultrasonic leak detectors can be used to B. storage
detect leaks in a system. Each method has both C. disposable
advantages and disadvantages. D. returnable
• A vacuum pump should be used to evaporate 4. The operating element used in pressure
moisture from a system and achieve a specific gauges that is made of a thin-walled tube of
vacuum level before recharging the system metal bent into a circular shape is called a
with refrigerant. Vacuum pumps are rated
based on their ultimate vacuum and free air A. Bourdon tube
displacement. B. thermocouple
• Refrigerant recovery machines allow a C. bimetal strip
technician to make repairs on a system without D. retarder
venting refrigerant into the atmosphere.
Recovery machines are used to remove
refrigerant from a system and store the
refrigerant in a recovery cylinder.

230 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 231

5. The device that engages an extra spring 12. During normal system operation, hot high-
in a pressure gauge to adjust the gauge's pressure refrigerant vapor flows through the
calibration to higher graduation marks on its service valve.
scale is a A. discharge
A. Bourdon tube B. liquid line
B. thermocouple C. liquid receiver
C. bimetal strip D. suction line
D. retarder 13. Mostly used for checking pressure, a(n) _ _
6. A pressure gauge that is specifically designed
to measure lower-than-atmospheric pressure
is a
A. compound gauge
B. vacuum pump
C. high-pressure gauge
D. vacuum gauge
does not have a service valve to control the
flow of refrigerant.
A. queen valve
B. king valve
C. access port
D. valve core remover
I
14. An externally threaded valve with a spring-
7. Vacuum gauges use the following units to loaded center pin is called a _ _.
measure vacuum pressure except _ _. A discharge service valve
A. in. Hg vacuum B. piercing valve
B. torr C. Schrader valve
C. psi D. king valve
D. microns 15. A technician must use a to access small
8. A pressure gauge designed to measure hermetic systems that do not have service
pressure above and below atmospheric valves or access ports.
pressure is a _ _. A. valve core remover
A. vacuum gauge B. king valve
B. compound gauge C. Schrader valve
C. high-pressure gauge D. piercing valve
D. recovery gauge 16. Which system procedure is normally done
9. A pressure gauge that can read high-pressure with both hand valves opened on a gauge
values on a single continuous scale, from 0 up manifold connected to a refrigeration system?
to 800 psi, is a _ _. A. Brazing
A. vacuum gauge B. Evacuation
B. compound gauge C. Liquid charging
C. high-pressure gauge D. Pressure readings
D. recovery gauge 17. The process of removing unwanted air,
10. A service port is closed off from the vapors, dirt, or moisture from gauge
refrigeration system when the service valve is manifold hoses by venting them to the
atmosphere is called _ _.
A. back seated A. purging
B. front seated B. evacuating
C. mid-position C. recovering
D. cracked open D. reclaiming
11. Which of the following service valves is 18. Areas where leaks are likely to occur include
located on the low side of a refrigeration all of the following, except _ _.
system? A. tubing connections
A. Discharge service valve B. straight runs of tubing
B. Suction service valve C. high-vibration areas
C. King valve D. brazed joints
D. Queen valve

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232 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

19. The leak detection method involving the 26. What acts as a fluid seal between air, gases,
application of a soap and water solution to and contaminants entering a vacuum pump
areas where leaks are suspected is the _ _ from the refrigeration system?
method. A. Recovered refrigerant
A. refrigerant dye B. Refrigeration lubricant
B. halide torch C. Vacuum pump oil
C. ultrasonic D. Water reservoir
D. bubble solution 27. Cleaning a refrigerant for reuse by oil
20. Which of the following is a disadvantage of separation and single or multiple passes
using an electronic leak detector? through filter-driers defines _ _ a
A. Cannot detect small leaks refrigerant.
B. Can only be used with one refrigerant A. reclaiming
type B. recovering
C. Hard to see leaks in bright areas C. recycling
D. Produces false alarms near urethane D. evacuating
insulation 28. Removing a refrigerant from a system and
21. The leak detection method that uses an storing it in an external container, regardless
ultraviolet light to find leaking refrigerant is of the condition of the refrigerant, defines
the method. _ _ a refrigerant.
A. fluorescent dye A. reclaiming
B. halide torch B. recovering
C. electronic detector C. recycling
D. bubble solution D. evacuating
22. The leak detection method that involves 29. Reprocessing a refrigerant so that it is
burning a fuel gas near a copper plate and chemically pure defines _ _ a refrigerant.
using a rubber hose to siphon air from areas A. reclaiming
suspected of leaking refrigerant is the _ _ B. recovering
method. C. recycling
A. fluorescent dye D. evacuating
B. halide torch 30. An instrument used to monitor the weight of
C. refrigerant dye a refrigerant cylinder as refrigerant is being
D. ultrasonic detector charged into or recovered from a system is a
23. The leak detection method that detects the
sound of vapor escaping from a pressurized A. digital charging scale
system is the _ _ method. B. gauge manifold
A. fluorescent dye C. service valve
B. halide torch D. vacuum scale
C. ultrasonic detector
D. bubble solution
24. A device used for creating vacuums to
dehydrate an HVACR system is a _ _.
A. vacuum gauge
B. Bourdon tube
C. retarder
D. vacuum pump
25. Which of the following terms is used to
specify the speed at which gas can be
pumped through a vacuum pump?
A. Blank off pressure
B. Ultimate vacuum
C. Free air displacement
D. Single-stage volume

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 10 Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and Service 233

Uniweld
A nitrogen cylinder and kit with different hoses and attachments can be used for multiple HVACR procedures, such as low flow
purging for brazing, leak testing a refrigerant circuit, calibrating control devices, and cleaning lines, coils, and various parts.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 11 Working vVith
Refrigerants

Chapter Outline ~
11.1 Checking Refrigerant Charge 5
11.1.1 Checking Refrigerant Charge by Subcooling ~ Learning Objectives
11.1.2 Checking Refrigerant Charge by Superheat
11.2 Redistributing Refrigerant ii Information in this chapter will enable you to:
11.2.1 Pumping Down a Refrigeration System • Check refrigerant charge by determining a system's
11.2.2 Refrigerant Recovery Concepts and superheat or subcooling.
Procedures • Implement both passive and active refrigerant
11.3 Locating and Repairing Refrigerant Leaks recovery procedures.
11.3.1 Pressure Testing for Leaks • Charge a system with an inert gas to pressure test for
11.3.2 Repairing Leaks with Brazing leaks.
11.3.3 Repairing Leaks with Epoxy Resin
• Carry out refrigeration system leak repairs using
11.4 Evacuating a System
either epoxy resin or brazing.
11.4.1 Tips for Performing Evacuations
11.4.2 Deep Vacuum • Evacuate a refrigeration system using both deep
11.4.3 Triple Evacuation vacuum and triple evacuation methods.
11.5 Charging a System • Charge a specific amount of refrigerant into a system
11.5.1 General Guidelines for Charging a System as either a liquid or vapor.
11.5.2 Charging by Weight • Follow approved safety procedures when recovering
11.5.3 Changing Refrigerants (Retrofitting) and charging refrigerant.
 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 235

Technical Terms Introduction

active recovery push-pull liquid recovery Compression refrigeration systems require a pre-
charging method cise amount of refrigerant to work properly. Having an
charging cylinder retrofitting excess of refrigerant or not enough refrigerant can cause
deep vacuum subcooling a number of problems with operation. The amount of
epoxy resin superheat refrigerant a system requires varies depending on the size
evacuation tare weight of the system, its cooling capacity, its metering device,
liquid recovery method triple evacuation and its system accessories. For instance, compression

I
passive recovery vapor recovery method systems equipped with a liquid receiver can hold a range
positive pressure water capacity (WC) of refrigerant amounts because a certain amount of extra
pump-down refrigerant can be stored in the liquid receiver and used
when needed. However, compression systems with no
liquid receiver often require a very specific amount of
Review of Key Concepts refrigerant. For example, systems using a capillary tube as
the metering device must have a very specific refrigerant
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
charge in order to operate properly.
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
Many service and repair procedures require a sys-
• A technician can use a gauge to measure the
tem to be emptied of refrigerant. In order to prepare
pressure in an evaporator or condenser and then use
technicians to perform these procedures, this chapter
a pressure-temperature chart to find the saturation
will explain recovery methods and techniques. Other
temperature of the refrigerant inside the component.
standard service procedures covered in this chapter
(Chapter 9)
include checking refrigerant charge, repairing refrigerant
• Recovery machines should be used in conjunction leaks, evacuating a system, and charging a system with
with other instruments, such as a digital charging refrigerant.
scale, in order to measure the amount of refrigerant
removed from a system. (Chapter 10)
• Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a certain
volume of a liquid or a solid compared to the
mass of an equal volume of water. Water is given a
specific gravity of one. (Chapter 4)
• All air must be removed from tubing that is being
brazed. This is best done by purging the tubing with
a low-pressure flow of either carbon dioxide or
nitrogen. (Chapter 8)
• A vacuum pump is used to remove moisture and
other contaminants from a refrigeration system
before refrigerant is charged into the system.
(Chapter 10)
236 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

11.1 Checking Refrigerant Charge The amount of subcooling that occurs on the high
side of a refrigeration system determines the amount
The correct refrigerant charge is very important. of refrigerant that will flash vaporize when it enters
In undercharged systems, the compressor is over- the evaporator. This is important because less flash
worked and may operate continuously, which leads to gas means more liquid refrigerant in the evaporator.
poor refrigeration and wasted electrical energy. A lack The more liquid refrigerant there is in the evaporator,
of refrigerant also results in an increase in liquid line the more heat the evaporator can absorb from a condi-
and drier temperatures (a result of high-side refriger- tioned space. This equates to a higher cooling capacity.
ant not condensing due to low pressure). As the drier In other words, the more subcooling or the higher the
heats up, some of the moisture it has collected may be value of subcooling is, the greater the cooling capacity
released back into the system. of a refrigeration system. This is the general principle;
An overcharged system has more refrigerant however, it is only true up to a point. A certain amount
occupying the same volume as a properly charged of flash gas is necessary in an evaporator. Also, sys-
machine. An overcharge causes excessive head pres- tems are only designed to produce a specific amount of
sure in systems with a thermostatic expansion valve subcooling before some other variable is affected that
metering device. In an overcharged system with a cap- will reduce capacity or efficiency in another way.
illary tube metering device, liquid refrigerant may be
forced into the compressor, which may cause severe Checking Refrigerant Charge by
compressor damage. Subcooling
There are a number of ways to determine if a
refrigeration system has the right amount of refriger- 1. Turn on the refrigeration system and let it run
ant. The following sections cover two of the most com- for ten or fifteen minutes. Ensure that there
mon processes: checking charge by subcooling and is proper airflow through the condenser and
checking charge by superheat. The subcooling method evaporator coils.
is generally used to check the charge in systems with 2. Take a head (high-side) pressure measure-
thermostatic expansion valves. The superheat method ment: _ _ psi.
is used to check the charge in systems with fixed orifice 3. Use the head pressure measurement to deter-
metering devices, such as capillary tubes. These meth- mine the temperature of the refrigerant in the
ods can be used to check refrigerant charge as part of condenser. There are two ways of doing this.
the troubleshooting process or after system charging Some high-pressure gauges have displays
to ensure that the proper quantity of refrigerant has showing saturated refrigerant temperatures
been added to the system. that correspond with a pressure measure-
A number of other methods may be used to per- ment. If your gauge does not have this, check a
form quick checks of different types of refrigeration pressure-temperature (P/T) chart that shows
systems. These methods will be addressed in the the corresponding values for the refrigerant
appropriate service chapters. in the system. Record saturation temperature:
_ _op_
11.1.1 Checking Refrigerant Charge by 4. Measure the temperature of the liquid line
Subcooling near the metering device. When using a tem-
perature probe, firmly attach the probe to the
Subcooling is used for checking refrigerant charge pipe and insulate the probe to get an accurate
in a system that uses a thermostatic expansion valve as reading not affected by the surrounding tem-
its metering device. Subcooling refers to the amount of perature, Figure 11-1. Record liquid line tem-
heat removed from a refrigerant after it has condensed. perature: _ _ F.
0

It is equal to the temperature drop of refrigerant in

the liquid line from high-side saturation temperature, 5. To determine the subcooling value, subtract
which is the temperature at which high-side refriger- the measured liquid line temperature from
ant vapor condenses into a liquid. Subcooling can be saturation temperature value. Subcooling =
_ _op_
determined by measurement and calculation. Check
high-side pressure, consult a P/T chart for the corre- Saturation temperature - Liquid line temper-
sponding temperature, and measure liquid line tem- ature = Subcooling
perature. Subtract the two temperature values for 6. Look up and record manufacturer subcooling
system subcooling. Most systems are designed for a value: _ _0 F.
subcooling value between 10°F and 20°F.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 237

Thermocouple----..11_·'1 • Ambient air dry-bulb temperature at the condenser.

temperature • Wet-bulb temperature of the return air just before
probe
the evaporator.
• Pressure of the refrigerant in the evaporator.
• Temperature of the refrigerant at the suction line
service valve.
The target superheat is the ideal superheat for the
measured dry-bulb and wet-bulb air temperatures.
The target superheat is typically looked up on a table,
Figure 11-2. Once the target superheat is found, it is
compared to the actual superheat, which is determined
by the evaporator pressure and suction line temperature . •

Checking Refrigerant Charge by

Superheat
1. Turn on the refrigeration system and let it run
Mastercaal Inc.
for ten or fifteen minutes.
Figure 11-1. Superheat/subcooling calculators can also be
used. These include a temperature probe and can compute 2. Ensure that there is proper airflow across the
answers using measured temperature and pressure value condenser and evaporator coils.
entered based on refrigerant type.
3. Measure the dry-bulb temperature of the
ambient air surrounding the condenser coil.
Record dry-bulb temperature: __ F. 0

7. Compare the calculated subcooling value

with manufacturer specifications. Record any 4. Measure the wet-bulb temperature of the
difference: __ F.0 return air just upstream from the evaporator
If subcooling is too low, it may indicate that coil. Record wet-bulb temperature: __ F. 0

there is not enough refrigerant in the system. If 5. Look up the target superheat for the system
subcooling is too high, it may indicate that there based on the temperatures of the ambient air
is too much refrigerant in the system. outside and return air inside. Record target
superheat: __ F.
0

For example, the pressure measurement in the 6. Take an evaporator (low-side) pressure mea-
condenser of a system charged with R-410A is 446 psig. surement: _ _ psi.
Using a pressure-temperature chart, you can deter- 7. Use the evaporator pressure measurement to
mine that the temperature of the saturated liquid in determine the saturation temperature of the
the condenser is around 125°F. The temperature of the refrigerant in the evaporator. There are two
refrigerant in the liquid line near the metering device is ways of doing this. Some compound gauges
100°F. This means the subcooling value is 25°F. Check have displays showing saturated refrigerant
the manufacturer's specifications to see if a subcooling temperatures that correspond with a pres-
value of 25°F is acceptable. sure measurement. If your gauge does not
have this, check a pressure-temperature chart
that shows the corresponding values. Record
11.1.2 Checking Refrigerant Charge by saturation temperature: __ F.0

Superheat 8. Measure the temperature of the suction line

Superheat is commonly used for checking refriger- near the compressor. When using a thermom-
ant charge in systems with a capillary tube or fixed ori- eter with a sensing probe, secure the probe to
fice metering device. Superheat refers to the amount of a flat, clean area of the suction line and wrap
heat added to a refrigerant after it has evaporated. It is it in insulation. This practice will prevent
the sensible heat over saturation temperature. The pro- ambient air from affecting the temperature
cedure consists of comparing the superheat calculated reading. Superheat/subcooling calculators
from measured values to the target superheat based on are useful for this step, Figure 11-3. Record
those values. This procedure requires the technician to suction line temperature: __ F. 0

measure the following four values:

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

238 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Target Superheat
Condenser Dry- Return Air Wet-Bulb Temperature (°F)
Bulb Temperature
(OF) 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76

55 8.8 11.5 14.2 17.1 20.0 23.1 26.2 29.4 32.4 35.1 37.7 40.2 42.7 45.0

60 7.0 9.8 12.6 15.4 18.2 21.0 23.8 26.6 29.6 32.4 35.1 37.8 40.4 42.9

65 7.0 10.0 12.9 15.8 18.5 21 .2 23.8 26.7 29.7 32 .5 35 .3 38 .1 40.8

70 6.4 9.7 12.7 15.7 18.4 20.9 23 .9 27.0 30.0 33.0 35.9 38.7

75 5.6 9.2 12.4 15.3 18.0 21 .1 24.3 27.5 30.6 33 .7 36.7

80 8.7 12.0 15.0 18.3 21.7 25.0 28.3 31.6 34.8

85 8 .5 11 .9 15.5 19.0 22 .6 26.0 29.5 32 .9

90 8.8 12.8 16.5 20.1 23.8 27.5 31 .1

95 5.6 10.0 13.9 17.8 21 .6 25.5 29.4

100 7.3 11.4 15.4 19.5 23.6 27.7

105 8.8 13.1 17.4 21 .7 26.0

110 6.4 10.8 15.3 19.9 24.4

115 8.6 13.3 18.1 22.9

Adapted from 2005 Residential ACM Manual

Figure 11-2. This chart shows the target superheat for a system based on the condenser dry-bulb and return air wet-bulb temperatures.
To locate the target superheat for a system, determine the two temperatures and find the intersection of the dry-bulb temperature
row and the wet-bulb temperature column.

around 25°F. The measured temperature of the refrig-

9. Subtract evaporator saturation temperature, erant in the suction line near the compressor is 52°F.
determined by the pressure measurement, This means the superheat value is 27°F. Use the mea-
from the temperature of the suction line near sured wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures to find the
the compressor to determine the superheat
value: __ F.
0

Suction line temperature - Evaporator tem-

perature = Superheat
10. Compare the calculated superheat value to
the target superheat for the measured wet-
bulb and dry-bulb temperatures. Record any
difference: __ F. 0

If the superheat is low, the problem could be

a malfunctioning metering device, inadequate
airflow through the evaporator, or an excessive
refrigerant charge. If the superheat reading is too
high, the problem could be a restriction in the
liquid line, a malfunctioning metering device,
moisture in the system, an excessive heat load, or
an insufficient refrigerant charge.

For example, the pressure measurement in the

evaporator of a system charged with R-410A is 88 psig. Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
Using a P/T chart, you can determine that the tem- Figure 11-3. Superheat/subcooling calculators often include
perature of the saturated vapor in the evaporator is software for PIT charts for multiple refrigerants.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 239

target superheat, and determine if a superheat of 27°F area by pumping down, the refrigerant must be recovered
is acceptable. from the system prior to service.

11.2 Redistributing Refrigerant 11.2.1 Pumping Down a Refrigeration

There are occasions in HVACR service when refriger- System
ant needs to be moved within or removed from a system. A pump-down is a procedure that involves relo-
Depending on the system and area being serviced, it may cating a system's entire refrigerant charge into its
be possible to remove all the refrigerant from one part liquid receiver. With the liquid receiver service valve

I
of the system and store it in another part of the system front seated, refrigerant will not be able to exit the liq-
prior to service. This allows one portion of the system to uid receiver. The compressor is used to pump most of
be opened for service and saves the technician the time it the system's refrigerant into the liquid receiver. Pump-
would take to recover the refrigerant, pull a vacuum, and down procedures are useful when repairing leaks,
recharge the refrigerant. This procedure is commonly adjusting low-side pressure controls, and replacing
referred to as "pumping down the system" by storing the components, such as various valves and filter-driers.
refrigerant in the liquid receiver or condenser and liquid Performing a pump-down is a sensible alternative to
line. Liquid receivers are commonly found on commer- recovering a system's refrigerant when service requires
cial refrigeration machines, such as those for walk-in cool- the low side of a system be opened to the atmosphere,
ers or display cases. If it is not possible to isolate the work Figure 11-4.

Condenser

Low-side
service valve ______________,
cracked
Liquid
open receiver
service valve
\ (king valve)
front seated

Queen valve
Discharge if included, ~
service valve back seated during
back seated during pump-down, then
pump-down, then front seated
front seated

High-side
Low-side valve closed
valve closed

D High-pressure vapor
• High-pressure liquid
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 11-4. Pumping down a system. Arrange the system as shown. When the compound gauge reads O psi, front seat the
high-side service valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

240 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

w Pumping Down the System

1. With the refrigeration system cycled off, front
Verify A/C service request

seat the liquid receiver service valve by turning Use gauges on A/C system
the valve stem clockwise as far as it will go. to check pressure

2. Attach a compound gauge to a low-side ser-

vice valve and crack the valve open. Check for
leaks and Is pressure
3. Cycle the compressor on. repair as
Yes
o psi?
4. Monitor the low-side pressure on the com- needed
pound gauge.
5. When the low-side pressure is Opsi, cycle off Charge A/C
the compressor and quickly front seat the dis- system enough No
charge service valve to trap the refrigerant in to find leak
the condenser and liquid receiver. If the sys-
tem has a queen valve, front seat that valve. Perform leak test with a
Check operation
leak detector and check
of A/C system
A/C system operation

11.2.2 Refrigerant Recovery Concepts

Use recovery machine to
and Procedures recover refrigerant
Refrigerant recovery is the removal of refriger-
ant from a refrigeration system in whatever condition Service A/C system
that refrigerant may be. Among the different methods
of refrigerant recovery, procedural steps vary signifi-
cantly. The operation of refrigerant recovery machines Recharge the A/C system with
clean refrigerant by weight
may also vary for each make and model. Sequential
steps must be followed during a recovery process. In Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
general, the stages of a recovery job will proceed as Figure 11-5. The general steps to follow on a service call
shown in Figure 11-5. to determine if refrigerant needs to be recovered to perform
Recovery methods are generally divided into two service procedures.
categories: passive and active. Passive recovery uses
the pressure of a refrigeration system to recover the
refrigerant. Active recovery uses a recovery machine's
compressor to draw out a system's refrigerant charge. Passive Recovery Procedure Using the
Passive recovery methods are generally used less fre- Compressor
quently than active recovery methods. Use the following procedure to pump
refrigerant from the high side of the system into a
Passive Recovery
recovery bag using the system compressor.
Passive recovery is a process of recovering vapor
refrigerant from a system using that system's static 1. Turn off the refrigeration system.
pressure to force vapor refrigerant into an unpressur- 2. Attach a refrigerant hose to the high side of
ized recovery container. The passive recovery method the system. If no access to the system is avail-
is generally used on smaller systems with charges of able, use piercing valves.
5 lb of refrigerant or less. Such systems include com- 3. Attach the high-side hose to a recovery bag.
bination refrigerator-freezers, room air conditioners,
4. Open the high-side valve to fill the recovery
water coolers, drinking fountains, ice machines, vend-
bag. This may take 10-15 minutes depending
ing machines, and other small systems.
on system pressure.
If the compressor is operational, it may be used
to pump the refrigerant out of the system. No recov- 5. Turn on the compressor to pump the remain-
ery machine is employed. A technician connects the ing refrigerant into the bag.
refrigeration system to an unpressurized recovery con- 6. Close the high-side valve and cap the refriger-
tainer, often a special type of refrigerant recovery bag, ant bag.
Figure 11-6.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 241

HVAC system
Passive Recovery Procedure without the
'\ Compressor
Liquid line to
evaporator 1. Make sure the refrigeration system is off and
unplugged.
2. Attach a gauge manifold to the low side and
high side of the system. If no access to the sys-
tem is available, add piercing valves.
3. Connect the refrigerant bag to the center port
Service Suction line from Refrigerant
valves evaporator recovery bag
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 11-6. A refrigerant recovery bag is an unpressurized
container used for passive refrigerant recovery. The higher
pressure inside the refrigeration system forces refrigerant into
of the gauge manifold. Keep the refrigerant
bag in an ice water bath to keep its pressure

low.
4. Open both low- and high-side valves on the
gauge manifold to allow refrigerant to flow
into the recovery bag.
I
the lower pressure of the recovery bag.
5. Heat the compressor to remove additional
refrigerant.
If a compressor is not operational, a few simple 6. Gently tap on the compressor using a mal-
techniques can be performed to improve the speed and let made of rubber, leather, or soft wood to
efficiency of passive refrigerant recovery. These tech- release refrigerant dissolved in oil in the
niques are mostly based on the laws of physics regard- compressor.
ing pressure and temperature, which were explained Z After as much refrigerant has been recovered
in Chapter 5, Gases. as possible, close the piercing valves or low-
Passive recovery begins with the internal pres- and high-side service valves.
sure of a refrigeration system forcing vapor into the 8. Close off the gauge manifold valves and cap
recovery container because the system has a higher the refrigerant bag.
pressure. However, as this happens, the recovery con-
tainer's pressure rises. Eventually, the pressures will
equalize. Once the pressures equalize, recovery ends
Vapor Recovery
with some of the refrigerant vapor still in the system.
The principles of the combined gas law can be The vapor recovery method is a form of active
applied to get even more refrigerant from the system recovery, because it recovers vapor refrigerant from a
into the recovery container. By placing the recovery refrigeration system by drawing it out with a recovery
container in an ice and water bath, you can lower machine. Using the vapor recovery method, a techni-
its temperature, which in turn, lowers its pressure. cian can remove refrigerant from light commercial,
automotive, and residential systems. Vapor recovery
Lowering the recovery container's pressure causes
procedures may vary depending on the manufacturer
more vapor refrigerant from the refrigeration system
of the refrigeration system.
to flow into the recovery container.
Vapor refrigerant is drawn out of a refrigera-
Raising the refrigeration system's temperature
tion system and into a gauge manifold. The gauge
(and therefore its pressure) also causes more vapor
manifold allows a technician to recover from both
refrigerant to push into the recovery container. Using
sides of the refrigeration system at the same time.
crankcase heaters, electric blankets, defrost heaters,
Vapor refrigerant from the low side and the high
heat guns, or heat lamps to warm a compressor is the
side mixes in the gauge manifold central cham-
safest method of applying heat to raise the pressure in
a system. ber and exits the gauge manifold. Next, the vapor
flows through an in-line filter-drier before entering
Caution
the recovery machine. A compressor in the recov-
ery machine compresses the vapor refrigerant and
Warming Parts of a System forces it through the recovery machine's condenser
Never use an open flame from a torch to warm a where the refrigerant releases enough heat to turn
compressor or other part of a system to increase the into liquid. The liquid refrigerant flows out of the
system pressure. Using a torch to simply warm parts of recovery machine and into a recovery cylinder,
a system is dangerous and could cause damage. Figure 11-7.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

242 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

7. As the recovery machine is operating, make

sure the weight of refrigerant in the cylinder
does not exceed the safe limit.
8. Watch the gauges on the gauge manifold for
a vacuum reading. Refer to your recovery
machine's operating manual for the proper
vacuum level. When the proper vacuum level
is reached, turn off the recovery machine.
9. When the recovery is completed, close the
low-side service valve.
10. Write down the pressure reading of the sys-
tem:
11. Let the system and recovery machine sit for
about five minutes.
12. Read the pressure of the system and compare
it to the previous reading that was written
Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
down. If the pressure has risen 10 psi or more,
Figure 11-7. Casing removed from recovery machine. Its there may be pockets of cold refrigerant still
compressor draws in refrigerant and passes it through the
in the system. In that case, repeat the last five
condenser at the back. A fan creates airflow through the
machine to cool and condense recovered refrigerant into liquid steps of this procedure until the final pres-
before it exits to the recovery cylinder. sure reading remains steady after five min-
utes of system rest.
13. If there is still refrigerant in the system, run
Vapor Refrigerant Recovery Procedure the recovery machine while chilling the
For this procedure, refer to Figure 11-8 and recovery cylinder and heating the compres-
your recovery machine's operating manual. sor to remove the residual refrigerant.
1. If the system is operational, run the compres- 14. Close the gauge manifold valves, turn off the
sor for a few minutes to circulate the refriger- recovery machine, and close the recovery
ant and evaporate any dissolved refrigerant cylinder.
out of the oil in the system.
2. Turn off power to the refrigeration system.
3. To prevent overfilling, connect the recovery Liquid Recovery
unit's 80% overfill cord to the recovery cylinder. The liquid recovery method is an active recovery
Note that not all recovery units and recovery process that uses a recovery machine to recover refrig-
cylinders are equipped with this safety feature. erant in liquid form from the high side of a refrigeration
system. Liquid recovery moves more refrigerant faster
4. Connect the gauge manifold and recovery than vapor recovery. However, since not all the refrig-
machine to the system and set the valves to erant in a system is in liquid form, liquid recovery must
their proper positions. Note that the low- and be followed by vapor recovery in order to remove a sys-
high-side service valves should be in mid- tem's entire refrigerant charge. By properly arranging
position and both gauge manifold valves the hoses connecting the gauge manifold, refrigeration
should be opened fully (back seated). Consult system, and recovery machine, a technician can set up
the operating manual for your recovery for liquid recovery and vapor recovery without having
machine for information on how to position to disconnect any hoses between procedures.
its control and shutoff valves.
5. Set up a digital charging scale to monitor the Caution
recovery cylinder's weight. Find the cylinder's Liquid Recovery Method
tare weight (weight of the empty cylinder),
The liquid recovery method should not be used on
and calculate the total maximum weight the
all systems. Do not use liquid recovery on either heat
recovery cylinder and refrigerant can weigh. pump systems or systems with less than ten pounds of
6. Switch on the recovery machine. refrigerant.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 243

High-side
Low-side valve open Recovery
valve open

~
/ Inlet
machine
Outlet

In-line
filter-drier
HVAC system off

High-side
service valve
(mid-position)

/ t t
Liquid line

service valve
(mid-position) Scale Vapor valve
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 11-8. Using a gauge manifold and recovery machine, a technician can perform vapor recovery without disconnecting any
hoses during the process.

Caution
Liquid Recovery Capability the cylinder tare weight, and calculate the
total maximum weight the recovery cylinder
Not all recovery machines are designed for liquid
recovery. Attempting to recover liquid into a recovery
and refrigerant can weigh.
machine without this capability could seriously damage 5. Position the recovery machine's control valves
the recovery machine's compressor. A recovery machine for direct liquid recovery after referring to the
that can recover liquid refrigerant has a restriction that operator's manual for specific instructions.
operates like a metering device by flashing liquid refriger-
6. Switch on the recovery machine.
ant into vapor before it is pumped through the recovery
machine's compressor. Before attempting this procedure, 7. Watch the sight glass and pressure gauges on the
always refer to the recovery machine's operating manual gauge manifold and on the recovery machine.
to determine if it is capable of liquid recovery. Monitor how cold the filter-drier, hose, and hose
connectors are between the gauge manifold and
recovery machine inlet by feeling them. The
Liquid Refrigerant Recovery Procedure recovery machine has begun pumping vapor
For this procedure, refer to Figure 11-9 and refrigerant when the pressure on the high-pres-
your recovery machine's operating manual. Be sure gauge of the manifold has dropped, and
sure that the machine being used is capable of the hose connectors and gauge manifold no lon-
direct liquid recovery. ger feel as cold as previously.
1. Turn off power to the refrigeration system. 8. Fully open the low-side valve on the gauge
manifold to begin recovering vapor refriger-
2. Connect the system as shown in Figure 11-9.
ant from the low side of the refrigeration sys-
3. To prevent overfilling, connect the recovery tem. This step marks the switch from liquid
unit's 80% overfill cord to the recovery cylin- recovery to vapor recovery. Complete the rest
der, if it is equipped with a properly operat- of the recovery procedure as if it were the
ing level switch safety device. vapor recovery method. If necessary, change
4. Set up a digital charging scale to monitor the any valves on the recovery machine accord-
recovery cylinder's weight. Remember to find ing to manufacturer directions.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

244 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

High-side
Low-side valve open
valve closed

~
/ Recovery
machine

Inlet Outlet

In-line
filter-drier

HVAC system off

High-side
service valve
(mid-position)

/ t
Liquid line

service valve
(mid-position) Scale Vapor valve
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 11-9. The liquid recovery method draws as much liquid refrigerant as possible from the high side of the system before
valve positions must be changed to complete the process using the vapor recovery method.

Push-Pull Liquid Recovery the same time. The recovery cylinder's vapor valve is
The push-pull liquid recovery method is a process of connected to the recovery machine's inlet. The recov-
removing liquid refrigerant from a refrigeration system by ery cylinder's liquid valve is connected to the high side
creating a pressure difference between the system and the of a refrigeration system.
recovery cylinder. When performing the push-pull liquid The push-pull recovery method cannot be used in
recovery method, a recovery machine creates low pressure the following circumstances:
in a recovery cylinder when it pulls vapor refrigerant out of • If a system's charge is under a minimum amount of
the cylinder. Then, the machine pumps the vapor at a high refrigerant, usually 5 to 10 lb (refer to the operating
pressure into the refrigeration system where the vapor pushes manual for your recovery machine model).
out liquid refrigerant into the low-pressure recovery cylinder. • If a refrigeration system is a heat pump or uses a
The push-pull method creates a drastic pressure reversing valve, which is discussed in Chapter 40,
difference by lowering the pressure in the recovery cyl- Heat Pumps.
inder and raising the pressure in the refrigeration sys-
tem. However, this method cannot recover a system's • If an accumulator is located in the refrigerant circuit.
entire refrigerant charge, because it is constantly using • When a refrigeration system cannot maintain a
that charge to force more refrigerant out. Eventually, a steady column of liquid refrigerant.
recovery machine will reach a point where as much liq-
uid as possible can be pumped out and the amount of
refrigerant pumped into the recovery cylinder is equal
to the amount of vapor pumped out. At that point, a
w Push-Pull Liquid Recovery Procedure
Befme beginnffig this prncedme, check to
see if the recovery cylinder to be used contains
technician will need to change the setup and com-
any refrigerant. The recovery cylinder must
plete the recovery using the vapor recovery method.
have some refrigerant already inside that can be
Although the push-pull liquid recovery method moves
pulled into the recovery machine and pushed
more refrigerant faster than the vapor recovery method,
into the refrigeration system at the start of push-
it cannot remove a system's entire refrigerant charge.
pull recovery. Usually less than one pound is
The push-pull liquid recovery method uses a
sufficient, depending on the recovery machine
recovery cylinder's vapor valve and a liquid valve at

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 245

size. Some refrigerant vapor from the system can smaller hoses. Also, the shorter the hose is the better. Less
be passively allowed in for this purpose. distance requires less pressure and quickens vapor travel.
Less distance also produces less resistance and pressure
1. Disconnect power to the refrigeration system. drop. Schrader valve cores in access ports and service
2. Connect the hoses and components as shown valves should be removed with a valve core remover to
in Figure 11-10. Both the high-side and low-side reduce resistance and allow more flow.
service valves should be opened to mid-position. To protect the recovery machine's compres-
3. Purge all the hoses. Refer to the recovery sor, always place an in-line filter-drier between the
machine's operating manual for specific refrigeration system and the recovery machine's inlet
instructions. port. This will prevent contamination or particulates
4. Open the liquid and vapor valves on the in a refrigeration system from entering the recovery
recovery cylinder. machine.
5. Refer to manufacturer instructions to adjust
the recovery machine to its proper valve set-
tings. Often this involves opening both inlet
and outlet port valves and turning an opera-
tions valve to a Vapor or Purge setting.
6. Turn on the recovery machine.
Caution
Recovery Burn-Out Oil
After a recovery machine is used to recover refrig-
erant from a burned-out system, its compressor oil
should be changed. However, note that many modern
recovery machines use oil-less compressors.
I
7. Monitor the sight glass in the service line to the
recovery cylinder. The refrigerant should be a
steady flow of liquid. Watch for bubbles, which Pro Tip
indicate that liquid is no longer flowing. Retrofit Recovery
8. When liquid is no longer flowing through the A recovery machine's compressor oil should also be
sight glass, turn off the recovery machine. changed before it is used to recover a refrigerant that is
9. Reconfigure the hoses and system setup for different from the last refrigerant recovered. The drier must
vapor recovery. be replaced, and the transfer machine and hoses must be
evacuated before transferring a different refrigerant.

Recovery Tips
There are a few general practices that help all active Recovery Cylinder Capacity
recovery procedures flow efficiently, quickly, and safely. Recovery cylinders, like all refrigerant cylinders,
In general, the bigger the hose diameter is, the faster the are given capacity ratings. These ratings designate the
recovery. Larger hoses allow more refrigerant to flow than maximum amount of liquid refrigerant a cylinder can

HVAC system off Recovery

~ High-side
service valve
(mid-position)
Sight
glass
- machine

/- ---
-
\ ~ Suct;on Hne
Recovery
cylinder

Low-side
service valve Scale
(mid-position)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 11-10. The system and hose connections for performing push-pull liquid recovery. Push-pull liquid recovery cannot be used
to recover all the refrigerant in a system, so the hoses must be reconfigured for vapor recovery to complete the recovery process.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

246 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

safely accommodate. According to AHRI Guideline K, refrigerant fills 80% of a cylinder and is less dense than
the formula for filling recovery cylinders is 80% water water, it will weigh less than the same volume of water.
capacity by weight. If the refrigerant is denser than water, it will weigh
more than the same volume of water. The denser a
Code Alert refrigerant is, the more it can weigh while being safely
AHRI Guideline K stored in a cylinder.
The Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration
Technicians must calculate the weight of the vol-
Institute (AHRI) publishes industry standards and ume of liquid refrigerant at 80% water capacity of a
guidelines as a way to verify and compare product per- cylinder. This is done by multiplying three values
formance and specifications. Guideline K applies to together:
refrigerant cylinders used to store and transport recov- • The percentage of liquid that a cylinder should
ered refrigerants. Guideline K is regularly updated to hold (80%, which is represented by 0.8)
reflect new research and information. AHRI provides
a wide variety of information regarding standards and
• The water capacity number on the cylinder (in lb
guidelines on its website. orkg)
• The specific gravity (SG) of the refrigerant being
Water capacity (WC) is the weight of the volume recovered.
of water needed to fill an entire recovery cylinder of a This equation will produce the maximum weight
given size. This amount is provided in pounds or kilo- of refrigerant that can safely be charged into a recovery
grams of water capacity (WC, WC LB, or WC KG) on a cylinder:
recovery cylinder's label, Figure 11-11. W = 0.8 x WC x SC
Earlier recovery cylinder standards stated that the W = weight of refrigerant that can be safely
proper fill level of a recovery cylinder was 80% of the water stored in cylinder
capacity. This meant that a cylinder that could hold 500 lb WC = weight of water that would fill the cylinder
of water had a maximum capacity of 400 lb of refrigerant to 100% volume
(500 x 0.8 = 400). The newer standard is often termed 80% SC = specific gravity of the refrigerant
water capacity by weight. The phrase by weight is the key. Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of the refriger-
AHRI Guideline K takes into account that each ant to the mass of an equal volume of water under similar
refrigerant has a different density. Since refriger- pressure and temperature conditions. In other words, it is
ants have different densities, their weights will vary a comparison of the density of the refrigerant in relation to
at 80% water capacity. Remember that water capacity the density of water. Since each refrigerant has a different
is the weight of the volume of a full cylinder. If liquid density, a technician must look up a refrigerant's specific
gravity in order to determine the weight of a given vol-
ume of refrigerant. This information is given in a refriger-
ant's specification sheet.
Technicians often charge recovery cylinders using
scales. If the scale being used cannot zero out the
weight of the cylinder, the technician must also add
the tare weight of the cylinder to get the final weight
value that the scale should read. The tare weight of a
refrigerant cylinder is how much the cylinder weighs
when empty. The maximum recovery cylinder weight
formula would then be changed to the following:
Wc = [0.8 x WC x SC] + TW
Wc = maximum safe recovery cylinder weight
WC = weight of water that would fill the cylinder
to 100% volume
Water capacity SC = specific gravity of the refrigerant
TW = tare weight of the cylinder

Recovery Cylinder Safety Devices

As a recovery machine operates, the technician
Steven Shepler
must ensure that the recovery cylinder is not over-
Figure 11-11. This recovery cylinder has a tare weight of 24.6 lb
filled. If the cylinder is filled to its safe limit before the
and a water capacity of 47.7 lb.

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 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 247

recovery process is complete, the technician must shut If a recovery cylinder has a liquid level switch
down the recovery process, replace the full cylinder or high-pressure switch that is wired to the recovery
with an empty cylinder, and begin the process again. machine, the machine will turn off when the recovery
There are several different ways of monitoring the cylinder becomes 80% full, Figure 11-12. However, it
amount of refrigerant in the cylinder. If a digital charging is not good to rely on this function for turning off a
scale is used and the maximum weight is reached, some recovery machine. It is designed as a safety precaution,
scales will close the path between the recovery machine not a regular shutoff. The mechanical parts of these
and the recovery cylinder by closing a solenoid valve. safety devices could malfunction and cause unsafe
Other scales will sound an alarm or illuminate a light, sig- conditions. Turning off a recovery machine manually
naling for the technician to stop the process. is the preferred, and safest, method.

~ Recovery cylinder
float switch cable
A

Wiring Cylinder
connection threads

B C
Mastercool Inc.; Manchester Tank; SPX Corporation
Figure 11-12. A-A recovery machine with a float switch cable to connect to a recovery cylinder. B-This liquid level switch
is installed in a recovery cylinder and wired to a recovery machine. If the cylinder fills to a certain level, the switch turns on a
warning light or alarm or it turns off the recovery machine. C-Wiring for a liquid level switch runs between the recovery cylinder
and the recovery machine.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

248 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Checking a Recovery Cylinder Liquid 11.3 Locating and Repairing

Level Switch Refrigerant Leaks
Recovery cylinder overfill shutoffs may be Low head pressure, low suction pressure, and a
actuated by either a high-pressure or a liquid lack of cooling are all good indicators that a system has
level switch. This procedure is only for recovery a leak. Most refrigerant recovery machines include a
cylinders with a liquid level switch. To check a leak detection feature. The recovery machine pulls a
recovery cylinder's liquid level switch, carefully vacuum on the system and uses a software algorithm
follow the steps of this procedure. that holds the vacuum for a predetermined time. If
1. Connect the electrical cable of the liquid level the refrigeration system does not hold the vacuum, an
switch to a recovery cylinder that has a liquid alarm will sound. This indicates a leak, but does not
level switch receptacle. instruct the technician where the leak is located.
2. Turn the recovery cylinder upside-down. If Methods for locating leaks vary with the refrig-
the recovery cylinder has a built-in liquid erant used. However, all methods have one procedure
tube, this may not be required. in common: applying pressure to the system. When a
3. Turn on the recovery machine. technician determines that a system has a leak, a gauge
set should be attached to the system. If no pressure
4. The tank overfill light or signal should appear. is present in the system, the refrigerant has entirely
If the recovery machine has an overfill shut-
leaked out. The technician must then add pressure to
off, the recovery machine compressor should the system to begin locating the leak. If the system con-
also cycle off. tains refrigerant, leak testing may begin.
5. If the tank overfill light does not illuminate If the system does not contain refrigerant, an inert
or the recovery machine compressor does not gas (such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide) is used to
cycle off, the liquid level shutoff system is not pressurize the system to check for leaks. It is always
functioning properly. preferable to use an inert gas for leak detection before
charging an empty system with more refrigerant to
If there is enough room in the recovery cylinder detect a leak. Refrigerants are much more expensive
to safely hold the entire refrigerant charge from a than nitrogen or carbon dioxide. If the entire refriger-
system, then the recovery machine will turn off auto- ant charge has not leaked out, however, use the refrig-
matically when it reaches the proper vacuum, pro- erant already in the system to test for leaks.
vided the recovery machine has a vacuum shutdown
function. Otherwise, the technician will need to turn Safety Note
off the recovery machine when the proper vacuum Proper Charging Gas for Leak Testing
measurement has been reached. Before beginning a Never use oxygen, acetylene, or any other fuel
recovery procedure, refer to the recovery machine's gases to develop pressure in refrigeration tubing, pip-
operating manual for specific instructions for using ing, or equipment. Oxygen will cause an explosion in
the equipment. the presence of oil. Acetylene will become unstable and
As a recovery cylinder is filling, its pressure should explode at pressures over 15 psig.
be watched. If only one recovery cylinder valve is being The following inert gases may be used for devel-
used during the recovery process, connect a pressure oping pressures in refrigeration lines: carbon dioxide,
gauge to the other valve. This allows the technician to nitrogen, and argon. These three inert gases are safe
if used with a pressure regulator and a pressure-relief
monitor recovery cylinder pressure. The gauge should
valve.
not read above the cylinder service pressure.
At the start of testing, a positive pressure (greater
Caution
than atmospheric pressure) of 5 psig to 30 psig is neces-
Cylinder Capacity sary throughout the refrigeration system. Large leaks
Do not exceed a cylinder's capacity. Overfilling a may be detected by an audible hissing sound or may
refrigerant container may cause it to burst. Never use easily be found using a bubble solution or ultrasonic
a torch or other heat source to warm a cylinder in order detector. Smaller leaks may not be audible and will
to increase the refrigerant pressure when charging a require the use of an electronic leak detector or other
system. The pressure resulting from high temperatures tool. Electronic leak detectors, halide torches, and
could rupture the cylinder, endangering the technician
refrigerant dye detect refrigerant vapor and will not
and others.
detect nitrogen or other inert gases.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 249

[ti Locating a Refrigerant Leak Safety Note

111 The following general sequence should be High-Pressure Testing
followed when searching for a refrigerant leak. A refrigeration system can explode if pressure
1. Attach a gauge manifold set to the system. is allowed to build up in the system. Many accidents
have been caused by using too much testing pressure.
2. If there is refrigerant pressure in the system,
When testing for leaks with either nitrogen or carbon
listen for a leak and use an electronic leak dioxide, always install a pressure regulator and a pres-
detector or halide torch to find the leak. If no sure-relief valve between the cylinder and the system,
refrigerant is present, pressurize the system Figure 11-13.
using an inert gas to the manufacturer's spec-
ified condensing pressure and listen for leaks.
3. If an audible leak is detected, use a bubble Caution
solution to pinpoint and confirm the location.
4. If the leak cannot be found using only an
inert gas, vent the gas and hook up a recovery
machine to the system.
5. Evacuate the system and then charge it with a
small amount of refrigerant (approximately 10%)
Accurately Calibrated Regulator
When blowing out lines and pressure testing with
nitrogen or carbon dioxide, be certain that your pres-
sure regulator is accurately calibrated. The relief valve
should be designed to open at 180 psig.
I
and an inert gas (90%) to raise pressure up to the
manufacturer's specified condensing pressure. m
111
Pressure Testing with an Inert Gas
This test requires the use of a cylinder of carbon
6. Use an electronic leak detector or halide torch
to find the leak. dioxide, dry nitrogen, or some other inert gas. Only a
high-pressure gauge from a gauge manifold should
be installed on a system for this test. A compound
11.3.1 Pressure Testing for Leaks gauge may be ruined by the pressure.
1. Recover any remaining refrigerant from the
There are two methods for pressurizing a refrig-
system.
eration system to test for leaks if the system's entire
refrigerant charge has already leaked out. One method 2. Connect an inert gas cylinder, a pressure
involves charging the system with an inert gas. The regulator, a pressure-relief valve, and a hand
second method, used if the leak cannot be found with valve, as shown in Figure 11-13.
just an inert gas, involves evacuating the system and 3. Build up a pressure of 30 psig to 100 psig in all
charging it with nitrogen and a small amount of its parts of the system by charging the inert gas
specified refrigerant (about 10%). through the system. Close the cylinder valve
Testing with an inert gas, such as nitrogen or carbon after reaching the desired pressure.
dioxide, should be done with caution. The nitrogen cylin- 4. Read the high-pressure gauge. If the gauge
der is connected to a gauge manifold. The gauge mani- shows no drop in pressure after an hour, fur-
fold service hoses are connected to the low- and high-side ther test the system by raising the pressure.
service valves on the refrigeration system. Nitrogen is
5. Raise the pressure to 170 psig by opening the
allowed to pressurize the system through both the high
nitrogen cylinder.
and low sides. It is safest to pressurize the system to the
lowest normal operating head pressure. For example, in 6. Test the system again by ensuring that the
R-134a systems, a pressure on both sides less than 170 psig system pressure does not drop. Do not exceed
should be sufficient. Large systems, using a refrigerant the pressures prescribed by the manufactur-
such as R-410A, may operate at higher pressures. er's nameplate. Excessive pressure may rup-
ture some part of the system.
Caution 7. Read the high-pressure gauge. If no decrease
Unknown System Testing Pressure in pressure occurs after 24 hours, the system
is leak-free and ready to be vented, evacuated,
Before using nitrogen or carbon dioxide to test a
and then charged.
system, look at the system nameplate. In most cases, it
will give recommended testing pressures. If these pres- 8. Close the nitrogen cylinder valve, the pres-
sures are not known, the pressure should not exceed sure regulator, and the hand valve installed
170 psig when testing with carbon dioxide or nitrogen. between the nitrogen cylinder and the system.

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250 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Cylinder Testing
pressure ...______ ----- pressure
gauge ----------- .--------- gauge

Pressure-relief
valve

Cylinder/
safety valve

Pressure
regulator
Nitrogen
cylinder Connected
to system

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 11-13. A pressure regulator and pressure-relief valve must be installed between an inert gas cylinder and the system
when pressure testing for leaks.

detecting devices, such as an electronic leak detector, can

9. Disconnect the nitrogen cylinder and its be used. Although it is illegal to knowingly vent refriger-
accessories from the refrigeration system. ant into the atmosphere, the EPA does allow refrigerant to
10. Purge the test gas from the system by remov- be released when it is being used as a leak test gas.
ing the caps from the suction service valve
and discharge service valve and setting their Pressure Testing with the System's
valve stems to mid-position. Refrigerant
11. Evacuate the system using the deep vacuum To test for leaks using refrigerant, carefully
method or the triple evacuation method. follow the steps of this procedure.
12. Charge the system with proper amount of 1. Attach a gauge manifold to the high and low
the proper refrigerant. The system should be sides of the system. Connect the center port to
ready to operate. a refrigerant cylinder.
2. Open the high-side valve just enough to build
If the system pressure drops after being charged up a pressure of 15 psig to 30 psig throughout
with an inert gas, then the system has a leak. The techni- the system.
cian should look for leaks at tubing connections using a 3. Test for leaks using one or more of the follow-
bubble solution. The technician should also look for leaks ing methods: bubble solution, halide torch, or
near bent or crimped tubing, poorly constructed joints, or electronic leak detector.
tubing that rubs against a moving part, such as an evapo- 4. If no leaks are detected at low pressure,
rator fan or condenser fan. For leaks at a flared connection, increase the pressure by opening the high-
the tubing flare may not be correct, the flare nut may not side valve. Pressurize the system to the manu-
be tightened adequately, or the flare nut threads may be facturer's recommended high-side operating
stripped. It is best to remedy a leak at a flared connection pressure and test again.
by forming a new flare and installing a new flare fitting.
If a leak cannot be found after using a bubble solution
5. If a leak is found, recover the refrigerant in the
to test areas that typically leak, then the system should system. It is not necessary to pull a vacuum at
be charged with refrigerant and nitrogen so that leak this time because the leak must be repaired first.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 251

6. Open the system at the leak point and inspect Caution

all parts to identify the source of the leak. Recovery before Soldering/Brazing
7. If possible, cut out and replace a broken sec- Never braze a system with refrigerant in it. Heat
tion of tubing. If a brazed joint is leaking, take it may cause a breakdown of the refrigerant, which could
completely apart. Clean and reassemble. When create toxic fumes. Only inert gases, such as carbon
brazing is required, purge the brazing area with dioxide or nitrogen, should be used in the system when
a constant low-pressure flow of nitrogen to pre- brazing, as they are nonflammable. The inert gas should
vent any oxidation from forming. If the leak is in be allowed to flow through the system during brazing to

I
an aluminum evaporator, an epoxy patch may prevent the brazing heat from building up pressure in
be required. Replace any defective parts, then the system and prevent any oxidation of the parts.
clean and reassemble the system.
8. Repeat the leak detecting procedure. If no To braze the system using an inert gas, connect the
leaks are found, the system is ready to be evac- inert gas (typically nitrogen) cylinder and refrigeration
uated, recharged, and returned to operation. system as shown in Figure 11-14. The nitrogen cylinder
connects to the system through an access port or ser-
vice valve. Charge the system to 2-3 psi with the inert
11.3.2 Repairing Leaks with Brazing gas. Crack open the suction or low-side service valve to
To repair a leak, recover the refrigerant from that part permit a continuous stream of gas flow. This prevents
of the system. In some cases, the entire refrigerant charge the pressure in the system from building up to danger-
will have to be recovered from the system. After recover- ous levels due to the brazing heat. Always make cer-
ing the refrigerant, check the system pressure to be sure it tain that the inert gas tank is not located where it may
is Opsig (neither having pressure nor being in vacuum). be affected by the brazing torch.
Purge the system with an inert gas, such as nitrogen, prior Before repairing a leak with brazing, it is important
to brazing to flush any debris from the tubing. During to know what material the leaking parts of the system are
brazing, arrange for a continuous low-pressure flow of made of. Refrigeration systems are made of copper, steel,
nitrogen (1 to 2 psi) to pass through the part of the system or aluminum. Leaks can start in any part of the system.
being brazed. This prevents oxides from forming inside The type of repair made depends on the material that has
the tubing during brazing. failed or on the combination of materials at the leak. Steel

/ HVAC system

Welding
brazing outfit
Nitrogen kit
Uniweld Products, Inc.
Figure 11-14. After recovering the refrigerant and evacuating the system, pressurize it with 2-3 psi of nitrogen prior to brazing.
Nitrogen can also be used to pressurize the system for leak testing.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

252 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

and copper can be brazed; aluminum can be soldered or

brazed. Aluminum can also be resistance welded to steel
or copper or repaired with epoxy cement.

Pro Tip
Determining the System's Material
To find out what metal is used, scrape the sur-
face. Steel is gray-white, hard, and magnetic. Use a
small magnet to test it. Copper is reddish in color when
scraped and is nonmagnetic. Aluminum is white, soft,
and nonmagnetic.

Leakage at a brazed or silver-soldered connection

can be repaired by cleaning the joint, coating it with
flux, and reheating the area. Steel tubing usually has a
lengthwise seam. This seam must be cleaned prior to
brazing. Clean the seam by wire-brushing lengthwise
or file off enough metal to remove the seam. If the fit-
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
ting has been taken apart, clean, reflux, and install the
fitting if there is no damage. If the fitting is defective, Figure 11-15. Epoxy repair kits are used for repairing leaks in
replace it. Heat the connection and solder or braze it aluminum, copper, and other metals.
in place. Avoid overheating other parts of the system.
Never heat a drier. Heating a drier drives moisture out
of it and into the system where it can freeze to block
orifices or mix with oil to form corrosive acid.

Caution
Heat Damage from Brazing
Avoid damaging materials around the refrigeration
system. Use a fire-resistant sheet material as a protec-
tive barrier between flammable surfaces and an open
flame. This type of material is also used when the tubing
is next to a metal side.

11.3.3 Repairing Leaks with Epoxy Resin

Epoxy resin is a thermosetting polymer that forms
a strong adhesive. It may be used to repair cracks and
leaks in evaporators and joints. Epoxy resin has good
adhesion qualities when used with aluminum, steel, LA-CO Industries Inc.
copper, and many plastics. Figure 11-16. This one-part epoxy needs only to be rubbed
The most effective type of epoxy resin is the against its sealing surfaces while heat is applied.
two-part system. This consists of an epoxy resin and
a hardener in two jars or tubes, Figure 11-15. These
two paste-like substances harden at room tempera- Safety Note
ture when mixed together. One-part epoxies must be
heated in order to harden, Figure 11-16. Handling Epoxy Resin
The shelf life of most epoxy resins is about six Care must be taken when using epoxy resins
months. Epoxy resins should be purchased from a because they contain chemicals that may irritate the
refrigeration wholesaler because some epoxies avail- skin. Contact with the skin should be avoided. In case of
contact, remove the epoxy and clean the skin with rub-
able elsewhere may not be compatible with refrigerants.
bing alcohol or waterless soap. Then, wash thoroughly
Always follow the epoxy manufacturer's recommen-
with soap and water.
dations and instructions when making repairs.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 253

[ti Two-Part Epoxy Repair 3. Heat the area next to the leak. Do not put the
flame directly on the epoxy as it will melt.
II When repairing tubing, first determine
the size of the leak. Small leaks or holes up 4. Keep the flame next to the leak and once the
to 1/16" in diameter can often be successfully one-part epoxy begins to melt, rub to cover
sealed by placing the mixed epoxy over the leak the leak completely.
and allowing it to cure. The same procedure is 5. Allow the epoxy to cool to room temperature.
recommended for small tubing cracks. For larger 6. Recharge the system and test with a leak
holes, a patch of the same type of tubing material detector to confirm the leak has been repaired.
is recommended.
1. Clean the surface or surfaces to be bonded by
scrubbing them with clean, coarse sandpaper
or clean steel wool. 11.4 Evacuating a System
2. Clean the surface with a recommended solvent, A refrigeration system should only contain its refrig- ·
such as methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, acetone, erant in a liquid or vapor state and a compatible lubricant.
or a similar industrial solvent. Obey all solvent However, moisture and other substances often enter a
safety guidelines listed on the container. refrigeration system during service work. This happens
3. Connect a vacuum pump to the service port. after refrigerant has been recovered and the system is
opened to the atmosphere. To remove this unwanted
4. Run the vacuum pump until 5 in. Hg vacuum moisture, a technician must evacuate the system.
is registered on the suction compound gauge. Evacuation is the removal of all vapors, gases, and
5. Mix together equal parts resin and hardener fluids from a system. Evacuation occurs after the refrig-
on a clean surface, such as a piece of card- erant has been recovered from the system and before
board. Blend the parts together with a mixing the system is recharged. Anything that is not refrig-
stick until the mixture has a uniform color. erant or refrigeration lubricant is a foreign substance
Work quickly, as the compound will harden that can be removed by connecting the refrigeration
within five minutes. system to a vacuum pump and drawing a vacuum on
6. Apply the epoxy mixture directly to the sur- the system. However, even the most careful evacuating
face if there is only a small hole. Apply to and purging will not protect a system from damage if
mating surfaces if a patch of the same type it was carelessly reassembled with dirt in the system.
of material in the system is to be used. Epoxy The two main methods of evacuation are deep
compounds should be used immediately vacuum and triple evacuation. The primary differences
after mixing, since chemical hardening starts between the deep vacuum method and triple evacu-
immediately. ation method are the level of pressure achieved in the
7. Allow several hours for the epoxy to dry. system and the number of times a vacuum is pulled on
During this time, the technician may perform the system.
other service duties. By reducing the pressure in a system, a vacuum
pump lowers the boiling point of any substances
8. Pressure test the system by adding a small remaining in the system, Figure 11-17. When an ade-
amount of nitrogen pressurized up to 5 psig. quate vacuum is drawn, any moisture in the system
9. Add more nitrogen to the system and test to will boil and be drawn out by the vacuum pump. For
100 psig. this reason, evacuation for the purpose of moisture
10. Epoxy on tools may be cleaned using isopro- removal is also called dehydration.
pyl alcohol or white vinegar.
Caution
Compressor Use
UJ One-Part Epoxy Repair In some refrigeration systems, the compressor
depends on vapor flow to cool its motor windings and
1. Locate the leak, recover any remaining refrig- other parts. Therefore, do not use a refrigeration sys-
erant, and pull a vacuum. tem's compressor as a vacuum pump to evacuate a sys-
2. Clean the area with a stainless steel brush. tem. It may overheat and suffer damage.
Do not use emery cloth or products that may
leave a residue. If a refrigeration system has a leak, the system
will be unable to maintain a vacuum. Even after the

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254 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

pressure and the way moisture in the system affects

Boiling Point of Water at Various
pressure. The graphs show the change in vacuum
Vacuum Levels
when the valve to the vacuum pump is closed.
Boiling Point (°F) In. Hg Vacuum Microns

35 29.72 5,170 11.4.1 Tips for Performing Evacuations

45 29.62 7,630
A few key practices help evacuation jobs go more
55 29.48 11,075 smoothly and easily. Several of these practices are the
65 29.30 15,815 same as when performing recovery procedures, such
as using short, large-diameter hoses and adding heat
75 29.05 22,245
to the compressor and other places moisture might
85 28.70 30,850 freeze.
95 28.25 42,220 Vacuum pump service lines should be as large in
diameter as possible and as short as necessary to negate
105 27.68 57,050
any pressure drop. Pressure drop is very important.
115 26.92 76,180 Evacuation may take up to eight times longer with a
125 25.96 100,590 1/4" line than with a 1/2" line. It may take twice as long
using a 6' line than with a 3' line, Figure 11-19.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
In the process of lowering system pressure for
Figure 11-17. This chart shows the evaporating temperature
evacuation, temperature also drops. Remember the
of water at different vacuum pressures.
principles of the combined gas law: in a fixed vol-
ume, as pressure drops, temperature also drops. A
vacuum pump has been turned off and the valve to the rapid pressure-temperature drop may freeze some
pump has been closed to isolate the system, the system of the moisture in a refrigeration system. To com-
pressure will rise steadily. A technician can pull a vac- pletely dehydrate an evacuated system, technicians
uum on a leaking system for days and still not guaran- often have to warm the system. Warming the sys-
tee that it is completely dehydrated and clean. Always tem causes any moisture in the system to vaporize
repair all leaks before performing an evacuation. so that it can be drawn out by the vacuum pump.
Another possible cause of insufficient or incom- The entire system should be warmed evenly so that
plete vacuum is moisture in the system. If moisture is water vapor does not recondense in cooler areas of
in the system, it will cause the system pressure to rise the system.
and level off after the valve to the vacuum pump is
closed. The gauge reading will level off at a pressure Caution
corresponding to the water vapor pressure at that tem- Safe Heat Application
perature. Figure 11-18 illustrates the way a leak affects
When heating a refrigeration system during evacua-
tion, never use a torch. A torch may create localized tem-
peratures that are high enough to decompose lubricant,
Effect of Leak on Effect of Moisture on insulation, and refrigerant. Heat should be applied by rais-
System Pressure System Pressure
ing the ambient air temperature or by using heat lamps.
Constant Pressure rise
pressure rise levels off

I ~
ir
Pro Tip
Vacuum Pump Storage
Always break the vacuum of a vacuum pump
C:
before storing it. Breaking the vacuum means equal-
izing the vacuum pump and atmospheric pressure. A
vacuum pump should not be stored when it is in vac-
Time Time uum or pressurized. If a vacuum pump's vacuum is
not broken, the cylinder will fill with oil and the pump
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
will become oil-locked. Also, when a vacuum pump
Figure 11-18. These graphs show how leaks and moisture
is in vacuum, be careful to keep the area around its
affect pressure in a system once the system is isolated from
inlet free and clear, especially while opening the iso-
the vacuum pump. A leak will cause a constant pressure rise.
lation valve.
Moisture will cause a pressure rise that eventually levels off.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 255

When the vacuum pump is shut off, the gauge

reading will rise from its 250 micron reading for
approximately one minute. If the reading levels off and
holds steady around 500 microns, the system is leak-
free, moisture-free, and ready to be recharged. If the
gauge reading continues to rise after one minute, there
is moisture or a leak in the system.
Piercing valves are impractical for deep vacuum
evacuations because their valve openings are too

I
small. Service ports and access ports must be used for
deep vacuum evacuations. Also, if the system is being
evacuated through Schrader valve access ports, the
valve cores should be removed prior to evacuation. If
left in place, the valve cores would create a restriction
Appian Inc.
and increase the time required for the procedure.
When pulling a vacuum, standard synthetic charg-
Figure 11-19. Using short, large diameter hoses with the vacuum
pump as close as possible to the unit minimizes evacuation time.
ing or servicing hose may collapse due to the deep vac-
uum. Also, the synthetic material used for standard
hose is somewhat permeable, meaning it allows gases
11.4.2 Deep Vacuum to pass through. This makes it impossible to pull a
vacuum on a system. Instead, use specially designed
Deep vacuum is an evacuation method in which refrigerant hoses, copper tubing, or special metal hoses
a technician uses a vacuum pump to pull a vacuum for vacuum pump connections, Figure 11-21.
of 250 microns (0.25 mm Hg) or deeper until no mois-
ture or other vapor remains in the system. A vacuum Pro Tip
gauge is used to measure the pressure conditions pro-
duced by the vacuum pump. Watching vacuum gauge Vacuum Pump Solenoid Valve
readings during a deep vacuum evacuation is the best It can take a long time to draw a deep vacuum. If the
way to determine if a system has moisture in it or if vacuum pump will be running unattended for a long period
it has leaks. A vacuum gauge is installed between the of time, a solenoid valve should be installed between the
vacuum pump and refrigeration system. The solenoid valve
vacuum pump and the refrigeration system by using a
should be wired in parallel with the vacuum pump motor.
T-fitting, Figure 11-20. If power to the pump is interrupted, the solenoid valve will
automatically close. This prevents the vacuum in the sys-
tem from potentially drawing oil out of the vacuum pump.
If power is restored, the solenoid valve will automatically
open, and the evacuation will resume.

rn Deep Vacuum Evacuation Procedure

Ejl After the refrigerant has been recovered
from a system and system power has been
turned off, a technician may begin pulling a deep
vacuum.
1. Begin by connecting equipment to the sys-
tem as shown in Figure 11-22. Use copper
tubing or hoses that are heavy duty or made
of metal instead of regular refrigerant hoses.
Arrangements may vary depending on the
type of system and the number of service
valves, but the vacuum gauge should be as
Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division close to the refrigeration system as possible.
Figure 11-20. By using a T-fitting, a technician can place a Also, there should be some type of valve
vacuum gauge between the vacuum pump and refrigeration between the vacuum gauge and the vacuum
system to monitor pressure.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

256 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

off the vacuum pump. This isolates the system

and vacuum gauge from the vacuum pump.
7. Monitor the pressure reading on the vacuum
gauge for three minutes. The pressure should
rise slightly, but then level off to a steady pres-
sure. If the pressure rises above 500 microns,
the system is leaking or contaminated with
moisture. If the pressure levels off and holds
steady at a pressure of 500 microns or less, the
system is dry and leak-free.

Metal Hose

11.4.3 Triple Evacuation

Triple evacuation is an evacuation method in which
a technician uses a vacuum pump to pull a vacuum of
1500 microns three times. After the first and second vac-
uum, the technician charges the system back up to a pres-
sure between Opsig and 3 psig with nitrogen. When the
vacuum is drawn on the system, moisture evaporates into
water vapor. When small amounts of nitrogen are charged
into the system, some of the moisture (in vapor form)
remaining in the system is absorbed into the nitrogen.
Before performing a triple evacuation, remember
to recover the refrigerant from the refrigeration system
and turn off power to the refrigeration system. Also,
before evacuating the system, conduct a pressure test.
Use either dry nitrogen or dry carbon dioxide (CO).
Heavy-Duty Hose Use these gases with a pressure regulator and a large
Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
capacity pressure-relief valve.
Before recovering refrigerant and preparing to
Figure 11-21. Special hoses should be used to pull a deep
vacuum to prevent leaks and the infiltration of outside gases. perform a triple evacuation, consider using a gauge
manifold with more than three ports and two valves.
Gauge manifolds with additional ports and valves
allow a technician to perform multiple procedures
pump that can isolate the refrigeration system with several different instruments and machines with-
and vacuum gauge from the vacuum pump. out having to break connections, which reduces work
In Figure 11-22, the gauge manifold performs time and task difficulty.

2.
this function, but other couplings and con-
nectors with valves may also be used.
Fully open the gauge manifold valves.
flJ Triple Evacuation Procedure
Before beginning this procedure, review
3. Open the service valves to mid-position. your vacuum pump's operating manual for
instructions on the positions and controls of the
4. Check to see if the vacuum pump has an
isolation valve, gas ballast valve, and exhaust.
inlet valve and a gas ballast valve. Refer to
the vacuum pump manufacturer's operating 1. Arrange and connect the equipment to the
manual for instructions on these valve posi- system as shown in Figure 11-23. Make sure
tions. Typically, you must open the inlet valve a pressure regulator and pressure-relief valve
and close the gas ballast valve. are installed on the nitrogen cylinder.
5. Turn on the vacuum pump and pull a vac- 2. Close the shutoff valve between the nitrogen
uum of 250 microns. cylinder and gauge manifold.
6. After the pump achieves the desired vacuum, 3. Open the shutoff valve between the vacuum
close the gauge manifold valves and then turn pump and the gauge manifold.
------
Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017
 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 257

4. Turn on the vacuum pump and pull a vac- 7. Charge the system to a pressure between
uum of 1500 microns. 0 psig and 3 psig with nitrogen. Then, close
5. Close the shutoff valve between the vacuum the cylinder valve, regulator, and shutoff
pump and the gauge manifold and then turn valve.
off the vacuum pump. 8. Repeat Steps 3-5 to pull a vacuum of 1500
6. Open the shutoff valve to the nitrogen cylin- microns for a second time.
der and then slowly open the cylinder valve. 9. Repeat Steps 6-7 to recharge the system.
Slowly open the pressure regulator. 10. Repeat Steps 3-5 a third and final time.

'Metering
device

High-side
I
Low-side service valve
(mid-position)
Condenser

! Vacuum
/ gauge \ Compressor
High-side
valve open
Low-side
Metal hoses used valve open~
Hitting
for evacuation

I
-

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 11-22. Equipment setup for pulling a deep vacuum. Note the solenoid valve wired in parallel with the vacuum pump's
motor. If power to the vacuum pump is interrupted, the solenoid valve will close, preventing the vacuum in the system from
drawing oil out of the pump.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

258 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

"'- Metering
device

Evaporator High-side
service valve
/ (mid-position)
/ Condenser

Vacuum
/ gauge Compressor
High-side
valve open
Low-side
Metal hoses used valve open~
for evacuation

Nitrogen/ Shutoff
Vapor
cylinder valve valves

pump

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 11-23. Gauge manifold, nitrogen cylinder, vacuum gauge, and vacuum pump setup for the triple evacuation process.
Evacuate the system with the vacuum pump and then charge it up to 3 psi using the nitrogen cylinder. Repeat the evacuation and
charging. End with a third and final evacuation.

11.5 Charging a System Thinking Green

Charging a system means adding refrigerant to Refrigerant Charging
a refrigeration system. Anytime a system has been Refrigeration system manufacturers often design
opened, repaired, and evacuated, it must be charged their systems to operate with a specific amount of refrig-
with refrigerant before being put back into service. erant. For such systems, any refrigerant more or less
than the system's rated charge results in efficiency
This is usually done by charging the proper weight of
losses and increased wear and tear.
refrigerant back into the system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 259

Systems that require periodic charging of small 11.5.1 General Guidelines for Charging
amounts of refrigerant may indicate a small leak in the
system. In these cases, find the leak and repair the unit.
a System
Allowing refrigerant to escape to the atmosphere may Refrigerant can be charged into a system either
be harmful to the environment. Additional refrigerant in vapor or liquid form. Liquid charging is quicker,
is usually charged into the system until the superheat, but it presents some serious risks. Charging with liq-
subcooling, and system pressures are in their normal uid refrigerant can cause slugging in the compressor,
operating ranges. Symptoms that can indicate that a which could severely damage the equipment. For this
system needs to be charged with additional refrigerant reason, most systems should be vapor charged. To

I
include the following: charge with vapor refrigerant, place the refrigerant
• A partially frosted evaporator. cylinder in the upright position, and charge the refrig-
erant into the system's low side. To charge with liquid
• Low head (high-side) pressure.
refrigerant, turn the cylinder upside-down, and charge
• Low pressure on the low side. the refrigerant into the high side.
• A visible leak (oil spots). Pure refrigerants, such as R-134a, should be vapor
• System short cycling. charged to prevent compressor slugging. Zeotropic refrig-
Remember that a pressure difference is needed to erant blends (400 series refrigerants) should always be
move the refrigerant from the cylinder into the system. liquid charged. The different refrigerants that make up a
The charging equipment must be at a higher pressure zeotropic refrigerant blend vaporize at different tempera-
than the refrigeration system to force refrigerant to tures. For this reason, if a zeotropic blend is charged into
flow from the cylinder into the system. a system as a vapor, the individual refrigerants will frac-
The amount of refrigerant that should be used tionate (split into their component refrigerants). The com-
varies with the type of system. Some systems (includ- ponent refrigerant with the lowest boiling point will boil
ing those equipped with a low-side float, automatic out of the blend and fill the system first. This would create
expansion valve, or thermostatic expansion valve) are an improper mixture of refrigerant in the system.
not particularly sensitive to the amount of refriger- If a system is being charged following service, it
ant charge. These systems often have a liquid receiver should be charged with the full amount of the recom-
that can store a reserve of refrigerant and a metering mended charge. If the system is partially charged, it
device that meters the amount of refrigerant entering may have a leak. Locate and correct the leak as needed
the evaporator to match the load. In contrast, high- before charging the system. If the system is not leak-
side float systems and capillary tube systems, which ing, refrigerant can be added to the system in small
do not have these capabilities, are very sensitive to the quantities until the proper charge is achieved. The
amount of refrigerant charge. system's superheat, subcooling, and system pressures
Some systems are equipped with sight glasses. should be closely monitored to ensure that the system
A sight glass in the liquid line is a quick way to is not overcharged. Detailed information about moni-
check if a system has sufficient refrigerant. Vapor toring the system charge using superheat and subcool-
bubbles in a sight glass are often a sign that a system ing is discussed earlier in this chapter.
is short of refrigerant. The bubbles in the sight glass Some of the lubricant in the system will dissolve
should disappear after the system has been prop- in the refrigerant. If the compressor becomes noisy
erly charged. In general, a sight glass is not the most soon after adding refrigerant, lubricant should be
reliable or dependable method of checking a charge. added. Oil quantity can be checked if the compressor
It is best used as a quick confirmation of a correct has an oil sump with a sight glass. Hermetic compres-
charge after checking other system measurements sors have no method of measuring the oil quantity. The
and conditions. only method to determine the oil amount in a hermetic
compressor is to remove the compressor and drain the
Pro Tip oil. This is seldom required, as most oil in a hermetic
system stays in the system after evacuation.
Sight Glasses on Capillary Tube Systems
Sight glasses are not reliable for checking the
refrigerant charge on systems that use a capillary tube 11.5.2 Charging by Weight
as a metering device. Some liquid refrigerant may begin
The amount of refrigerant that should be charged
to flash to vapor in the liquid line of a system with a cap-
illary tube metering device. Only use sight glasses on
into a system is specified by weight. In order to charge
systems with other metering devices. a system by weight, an HVACR technician must first
determine the proper charge for the system. Often this

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260 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

information can be found on a system's label or tag. It when the proper weight has been charged
is expressed as the weight of the total amount of refrig- into the system.)
erant that should be in the system.
8. Let the system operate for 10-15 minutes to
Pro Tip stabilize temperatures and pressures. Check
superheat, subcooling, and discharge and
Determining Refrigerant Charge suction pressures to verify that the system
A single packaged machine will have a specified has the correct charge.
refrigerant charge that can be taken at face value. A
9. Check the digital charging scale and record
split system, however, will have a refrigerant charge
amount that is conditional on the distance between the
how much refrigerant was charged into the
condenser and the evaporator. Usually the specified system: _ _.
refrigerant charge will be enough refrigerant for a spe-
cific length of liquid line. If the liquid line is longer than Occasionally, you may encounter a comfort cool-
specified, additional refrigerant must be added. Refer to ing system or domestic appliance that has a low charge.
system labels and tags to determine the total amount of
If the low charge is the result of significant leak, the
charge required.
refrigerant must be recovered, the leak must be located
and repaired, and the system evacuated. It is then
Charging by weight requires the use of a digi-
recharged using the previous procedure.
tal charging scale or a charging cylinder. Charging
A small leak, however, may be caused by a loose
cylinders are generally used on small systems, such
valve core in an access port or a similar problem. If the
as domestic appliances. These cylinders are used for
cause of the low refrigerant level can be detected and
adding small, precise amounts of refrigerant. They
fixed without recovering the refrigerant, the technician
only hold around five pounds of refrigerant or less.
can simply "top off" the existing refrigerant charge.
Charging cylinders are rarely used. Digital charging
scales are commonly used to charge by weight.
Vapor Charging to "Top Off" an
Vapor Charging by Weight Undercharged System
After recovering refrigerant in the system, The following procedure explains how to
making repairs, and evacuating the system, you add refrigerant to an undercharged system.
are ready to begin. 1. Connect a refrigerant cylinder and gauge man-
1. Connect the gauge manifold, digital charg- ifold to the system as shown in Figure 11-25.
ing scale, and service hoses as shown in Leave the connections to the service valves
Figure 11-24. Leave the connections to the loose.
high- and low-side service valves loose. 2. Open the low-side and high-side valves on
2. Open the high-side and low-side valves on the gauge manifold.
the gauge manifold. 3. Crack open the cylinder valve to purge the
3. Purge the service lines and gauge manifold. service lines. Close the refrigerant cylinder
After purging, tighten the high-side and low- valve when the lines have been purged and
side service valve connections. then tighten the service valve connections.
4. Zero the digital charging scale. 4. Zero the digital charging scale.
5. With the compressor off, begin charging the sys- 5. Close the high-side valve on the gauge
tem. Keep an eye on the scale readout to ensure manifold.
that the system is not being overcharged. 6. Put the low-side service valve and high-side
6. When refrigerant stops flowing into the sys- service valve in the mid-position.
tem, close the gauge manifold's high-side 7. Start the compressor and then open the refrig-
valve and start the system compressor. erant cylinder valve to add refrigerant to the
7. Watch the readout of the digital charging low side of the system.
scale closely. When the proper weight of 8. Allow the system to run for several minutes
refrigerant has been added, close the gauge to stabilize pressures and temperatures, and
manifold's low-side valve to stop the charg- then check the superheat and subcooling. If
ing process. (Some scales can be programmed the subcooling is low or the superheat is high,
to stop the charging process automatically add more refrigerant. Repeat this step until

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 261

the superheat and subcooling values indicate into a system. Initially, the refrigerant is liquid charged
the proper charge has been added. into the high side of the system. When the liquid line is
filled to capacity, the remaining liquid is charged into
9. Check the digital charging scale and record the low side of the system, using a special metering
how much refrigerant was charged into the device installed between the service hose and the low-
system: _ _.
side service valve. Some technicians use the same pro-
cess to quickly charge individual refrigerants, but this
As discussed earlier in this chapter, zeotropic is not recommended because of the risk of slugging the
refrigerants, such as R-410A, must be liquid charged compressor.

Evaporator
Metering
device

High-side
I
service valve
Low-side
/ (mid-position)
service valve
(mid-position) Condenser

\ Compressor
f (not running)
f High-side
valve open
Low-side
valve open~

--
Refrigerant "-
--
cylinder "'-

Charging "-
scale "'-

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 11-24. Review this cylinder, gauge, and hose arrangement for charging vapor refrigerant into a system. Begin by charging
to both the high side and low side. Close the gauge manifold's high-side side before starting the compressor.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

262 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

[ti Liquid Charging by Weight service valve connections loose to purge the
II The following procedure is used to liquid equipment. After purging, tighten the service
charge a refrigeration system: valve connections.
1. Connect the gauge manifold, refrigerant cyl-
2. Invert the refrigerant cylinder and open the
inder, and digital charging scale as shown in liquid receiver service valve to the mid-posi-
Figure 11-26, but with the refrigerant cylinder tion. Watch the scale closely. When the proper
standing upright (valves on top). Also, leave weight of refrigerant has been added, close
the liquid receiver service valve and low-side the high-side valve on the gauge manifold.
-------

Metering
device

Evaporator
High-side
service valve
Low-side
/ (mid-position)
service valve
(mid-position) / Condenser

Compressor
t (running) High-side
valve closed
Low-side
valve open

--
Refrigerant
--
cylinder

Charging "-
scale "'-

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 11-25. Review this cylinder, gauge, and hose arrangement for charging vapor refrigerant into the low side of a system.
Note that the compressor is running while charging to the low side. This setup can also be used to "top off" a refrigeration system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 263

3. If the refrigerant stops flowing before the only small amounts of liquid refrigerant to
proper amount of refrigerant has been added, be added at a time, providing the refriger-
close the high-side manifold valve. Open the ant time to evaporate prior to reaching the
low-side service valve to mid-position, and compressor.
make sure the low-side manifold valve is 4. Start the compressor and watch the scale
open. Closely meter the refrigerant into the closely. The metering device installed
suction line by cracking the low-side gauge between the gauge manifold and the low-side
manifold or metering valve. This allows service valve will meter the refrigerant to the

Low-side
- - - - - - - - - - - - 'Evaporator
Metering
device

/ Condenser
Filter-drier
I
service valve
(m;d-pos•;o\
Liquid receiver
service valve
(mid-position)

L
Liquid receiver ~

Compressor
(not running)
\Qu;ck charge
metering device
High-side
t
Low-side valve open
valve closed ~

-
Refrigerant "-
cylinder "-
t
Charging
scale

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 11-26. Setup for liquid charging a system with zeotropic refrigerant blends. Begin by liquid charging the high side of the
system with the compressor off.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

264 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

low side, ensuring that no liquid refrigerant 7. Check the digital charging scale and record
enters the compressor. See Figure 11-27. how much refrigerant was charged into the
5. When the proper amount of refrigerant has system: _ _.
been added, close the low-side manifold 8. To end the procedure, bypass liquid refriger-
valve. ant in the high-side hose through the gauge
6. Check superheat, subcooling, and suction manifold into the low side of the system.
and liquid line pressures to ensure that the Backseat the LRSV, crack open the high-side
proper charge has been added. gauge manifold valve, and crack open the

Metering
device
Filter-drier

Evaporator / Condenser
Low-side
service valve
(m;d-posmo\

Liquid receiver
service valve
(mid-position)

i
Liquid receiver ~

Compressor
(running)
\Qu;ck charge
metering device

t Low-side
valve open~
/
High-side
valve closed

--
Refrigerant "-
cylinder "-
t
Charging
scale

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 11-27. If additional refrigerant is needed to complete liquid charging, install a metering device between the gauge
manifold and the low-side service valve and charge into the low side with the compressor running.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 265

If it is necessary to change refrigerant, certain

low-side gauge manifold valve. The liquid in
system components must be modified. This is depen-
the high-side hose is being metered into vapor
dent on the original design of the system. A techni-
and drawn into the low side. Wait until the
cian should contact original equipment manufacturers
high-pressure gauge and compound gauge
(OEMs) prior to changing the type of refrigerant or
both read suction pressure.
refrigerant controls to see what service and replace-
ment will need to be performed.
Often the metering device will need to be changed
11.5.3 Changing Refrigerants and the lubricant replaced. The proper replacement
device and lubricant are determined by the new refrig-
(Retrofitting) erant to be used. Also, the system should be flushed

=:.~~;;;~::::r: o.:ld:.:~:~:1:d,::::::·~ I
Retrofitting is the updating of an existing system
to new standards, often by installing modern replace-
ments for certain components. The identification of the Code Alert
type of refrigerant used in a system may be difficult.
It is normally accomplished by checking the manu-
facturer's tags on the equipment. Technicians cannot refrigerants that can be used in refrigeration systems.
properly identify refrigerants by color or smell and The codes may address the purity of refrigerants, mixing
should never attempt to do so. of refrigerants, retrofits from one refrigerant to another,
and the amount of refrigerant that can be contained in
Safety Note a system. The types of refrigerants that are permissible
depend on the building's occupancy type (residential,
Toxic and Lethal Gases commercial, industrial, institutional) and the potential for
Sniffing refrigerants can be deadly. Never attempt the system to leak in an occupied space.
to identify refrigerants by smell. They can cause a variety
of harmful physical responses, including asphyxiation.
R-22 to R-41 QA Retrofit
A refrigerant analyzer identifies unknown refrig- Due to its negative environmental impact, the
erants and determines their concentrations. It can be refrigerant R-22, which is an HCFC, is in the process
used on residential systems, commercial systems, of being phased out in the United States. It has been
automotive systems, or refrigerant cylinders. It is used illegal since 2010 to manufacture new equipment con-
extensively in automotive air conditioning, where it taining R-22. By 2020, all production and importing of
is difficult to determine if an R-12 system has been R-22 will cease in the United States. To prepare for this
converted to R-134a or another type of refrigerant, phaseout, contractors and technicians are starting to
Figure 11-28. retrofit R-22 systems with HFC refrigerants, such as
R-404A, R-407C, and R-410A.
Systems that use R-410A have increased efficiency
and use less energy, which means they have less
impact on the environment than systems with R-22.
One reason for the increased efficiency with R-410A is
its extremely low boiling point -61°F (-51°C). However,
one side effect of R-410A's low boiling point is that
systems using R-410A operate under much higher
pressures than systems using R-22. This difference
in pressure poses special problems when retrofitting
from R-22 to R-410A.
Many of the components that are used in an R-22
system cannot be used in a system using R-410A. The
metering device used in R-22 systems is typically too
large for R-410A systems and will need to be replaced
with a metering device that is 10-15% smaller. Because
Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division R-410A operating pressures are 40-70% higher than
Figure 11-28. Refrigerant analyzers vary by manufacturer. in R-22 systems, a retrofit with R-410A often requires
Always read the operator's manual before using any type of a new compressor with thicker walls, which can han-
refrigerant identification instrument. dle the higher system pressures. In addition, R-410A

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

266 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Rheem Manufacturing Company

Figure 11-29. Many equipment manufacturers make HVAC
equipment specifically designed for use with R-410A, such as
the evaporator unit shown here.

systems require thicker ACR tubing, a condenser rated

for use with R-410A, filter-driers that are rated for at
least 600 psi, and an evaporator that is rated for 235 psi,
Figure 11-29.
Beyond changing system components, a techni-
cian will have to change the lubricant in the system
as well. Many R-22 systems use mineral oil as a lubri-
cant, but systems that use R-410A must use polyol ester
(POE) lubricant. A single oil change to POE will still
leave a significant amount of residual mineral oil in the
system. When replacing mineral oil with POE, a tech-
nician must change the oil two or three times to ensure
that only a negligible amount of mineral oil remains in
the system.
Much of the service equipment that is required
to work on R-410A systems, such as gauge manifolds,
service lines, and recovery cylinders, must be rated
specifically for use with R-410A. Recovery cylinders Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
typically must be rated to handle 400 psi, and pressure Figure 11-30. Notice how the R-22 high -pressure gauge only
gauges and service hoses must be rated for 800 psi, goes up to 500 psi, while the R-410A high-pressure gauge
Figure 11-30. goes up to 800 psi.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Retrofitting is the updating of an existing
system to new standards, often by installing
• Two methods for determining whether a modern replacements for certain components.
refrigeration system's charge is correct is by An example of a retrofit is R-22 being replaced
checking the system's subcooling or superheat. with HFC refrigerants, such as R-404A and
To perform each method, a technician must R-410A.
know how to measure system temperatures
and pressures. A technician must also be able
to convert pressure to temperature using a Review Questions

I
pressure-temperature (P/T) chart.
Answer the following questions using information in this
• Passive recovery uses pressure differences chapter.
between the refrigeration system and the recovery
device to recover refrigerant without using a 1. If a refrigeration system has a capillary tube
recovery machine. Active recovery processes use metering device, then the _ _ method
a recovery machine to remove refrigerant from a should be used to check the charge in the
system in either vapor or liquid form. system.
• Recovery cylinders can hold a maximum A. active recovery
refrigerant weight that is equal to 80% of the B. passive recovery
cylinder's water capacity by weight. A formula, C. subcooling
which takes into account the specific gravity of D. superheat
the refrigerant being used, is used to calculate 2. Most refrigeration systems have a subcooling
the maximum amount of refrigerant that a value between °F.
cylinder can hold. A. 0-8
• One method of leak detection involves B. 10-20
pressurizing a system with an inert gas, such as C. 20-40
nitrogen or carbon dioxide. Another method of D. 40-65
leak detection uses the pressurized refrigerant 3. Superheat is equal to suction line temperature
already charged in the system. Another method minus _ _ temperature.
requires the technician to add trace amounts of A. liquid line
refrigerant along with nitrogen to a system to B. compressor
create a positive pressure. C. condenser saturation
• There are two ways to repair a leak in ACR D. evaporator saturation
tubing: brazing or epoxy resin. In order 4. Subcooling is equal to _ _ temperature
to repair a leak in refrigeration tubing by minus liquid line temperature.
brazing, a technician first needs to recover the A. suction line
refrigerant in the system and then arrange for B. compressor
part of the system to be brazed to have a low- C. condenser saturation
pressure flow of an inert gas, such as nitrogen, D. evaporator saturation
to prevent oxidation from occurring.
5. If a system using a capillary tube or fixed
• Evacuating a system involves using a vacuum orifice metering device has low superheat,
pump to lower the pressure in the system, then the system has _ _.
which lowers the temperature at which liquids A. an excessive refrigerant charge
inside the system boil. Evaporated moisture B. no refrigerant charge
and any other vapors are then drawn out by the C. a low refrigerant charge
vacuum pump. A system needs to be evacuated D. All of the above
before any refrigerant can be charged into it.
6. Performing a pump-down involves moving
• Charging a system means adding refrigerant all the refrigerant in a system to the _ _.
to the system. Charging by weight is the A liquid receiver
most accurate form of charging an evacuated B. compressor
refrigeration system. Because of fractionation, C. recovery cylinder
zeotropic refrigerant blends must be liquid D. evaporator
charged into systems.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 267

268 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

7. Passive recovery may involve using the _ _ 15. Some recovery cylinders have a(n) _ _ that
to pump refrigerant out of the system. shuts the recovery machine off to prevent
A. recovery machine overfilling the cylinder.
B. compressor A. liquid level switch
C. vacuum pump B. in-line filter-drier
D. superheat C. fusible plug
8. Active recovery methods use _ _ to recover D. burst disc
refrigerant from a system. 16. Which type of gas should be used to
A. a recovery bag pressurize a system to check for leaks?
B. static pressure A. Oxygen
C. the system's compressor B. Nitrogen
D. a recovery machine C. Acetylene
9. During vapor recovery, the low- and high- D. Butane
side service valves should be 17. All leak detection methods involve applying
A. back seated _ _ to a refrigeration system.
B. front seated A. heat
C. mid-positioned B. pressure
D. cracked open C. oxyacetylene gas
10. Liquid recovery must be used in combination D. R-22
with _ _ in order to remove a system's 18. When recovering refrigerant, do not apply
entire refrigerant charge. heat to because it drives moisture out of
A. vapor recovery them.
B. passive recovery A. compressors
C. static pressure B. evaporators
D. push-pull recovery C. filter-driers
11. The push-pull liquid recovery method pulls D. condensers
vapor refrigerant from the _ _. 19. It is always necessary to _ _ the refrigerant
A. liquid receiver in a system before repairing a leaking
B. compressor connection by brazing.
C. recovery cylinder A. recycle
D. evaporator B. reclaim
12. There should always be a _ _ between C. pressurize
the refrigeration system and the recovery D. recover
machine to protect against contamination. 20. A continuous flow of _ _ is passed through
A. recovery cylinder a system during brazing to prevent the
B. filter-drier formation of oxidation.
C. metering device A. water
D. compressor pump B. oxygen
13. The maximum amount of refrigerant that can C. nitrogen
be stored in a recovery cylinder is equal to D. refrigerant
80% of the cylinder's _ _ by weight. 21. Which type of epoxy resin must be heated in
A. vapor capacity order to harden?
B. vacuum capacity A. One-part
C. recovery capacity B. Two-part
D. water capacity C. Three-part
14. The total recovery cylinder weight is equal D. Four-part
to the maximum refrigerant weight plus the 22. Which method of evacuation is most effective
_ _ of the cylinder. at removing moisture from a system?
A. specific gravity A. Triple evacuation
B. water weight B. Deep vacuum
C. tare weight C. Push-pull evacuation
D. density D. Passive evacuation

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 11 Working with Refrigerants 269

23. Vacuum pump service lines should have a 30. To retrofit a system, a technician should
_ _ to increase evacuation efficiency. contact _ _ to identify which components
A. large diameter need to be replaced.
B. small diameter A. a reclamation center
C. long length B. the equipment owner
D. Schrader valve core C. a service company
24. A deep vacuum evacuation uses a vacuum D. the original equipment manufacturer
pump to create a pressure of _ _.
A. 25 in. Hg vacuum
B. 250mmHg
C. 1500 microns
D. 250 microns
25. To perform a triple evacuation, a technician
pulls a vacuum and then charges the system
with dry nitrogen to a pressure of _ _.
A. 0-3 psig
B. 10-25 psig
C. 100-150 psig
I
D. 500-800 psig
26. Adding refrigerant to a refrigeration system
is called
A. recovery
B. charging
C. evacuation
D. recycling
27. To charge a system with liquid refrigerant, a
technician should charge refrigerant into the

A. high side
B. compressor
C. low side
D. evaporator
28. The proper charge of refrigerant in a system
is best specified in terms of the refrigerant's

A. volume
B. density
C. weight
D. specific gravity
29. When liquid charging a zeotrope into
the low side, which device is installed to
prevent liquid refrigerant from entering the
compressor from the low side?
A. piercing valve
B. Schrader valve
C. metering device
D. vacuum gauge

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 12 Basic Electricity

Chapter Outline
12.1 Fundamental Principles of Electricity
12.1.1 Electromotive Force and Current
12.1.2 Resistance
12.1.3 Ohm's Law
12.1.4 Capacitance
Learning Objectives
12.2 Types of Electricity
:::
:: Information in this chapter will enable you to:
12.2.1 Static Electricity 5 • Identify the parts of an atom.
12.2.2 Current Electricity • Use Ohm's law to explain the mathematical
12.3 Electrical Materials == relationship among voltage, current, and resistance.
12.3.1 Conductors ii
• Contrast the properties and applications of static
12.3.2 Insulators
electricity, direct current, and alternating current.
12.3.3 Semiconductors
12.4 Circuit Fundamentals • Summarize the three types of materials used in
12.4.1 Circuit Symbols electrical and electronic parts and systems.
12.4.2 Series Circuits • Design diagrams of series, parallel, and series-
12.4.3 Parallel Circuits parallel circuits.
12.4.4 Series-Parallel Circuits • Use formulas to calculate the voltage drop across an
12.4.5 Voltage Drop electrical load.
12.5 Magnetism
• List the components of an electromagnet and factors
12.5.1 Permanent and Induced Magnetism
that affect the strength of its magnetic field.
12.5.2 Electromagnetism
12.6 Electrical Generators • Explain how electrical generators use magnetism to
12.6.1 AC Generator create electricity.
12.6.2 DC Generator • Summarize how electricity flows between the coils
12.7 Transformer Basics of a transformer.
 Chapter 12 Basic Electricity 271

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

alternating current (ac) insulator Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
ampere magnetic field you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
atom magnetic flux • Substances that are good conductors of heat, such
brushes neutron as copper, aluminum, and iron, are also good
capacitance nucleus conductors of electricity. (Chapter 4)
capacitor ohm • Dielectric strength is a measure of an insulating
closed circuit Ohm's law

I
substance's ability to resist the flow of electrons.
commutator open circuit (Chapter 9)
conductor parallel circuit
• On service calls, reviewing a system's electrical
coulomb primary coil
wiring and component diagram can help
current proton
a technician diagnose how malfunctioning
current electricity resistance
components affect the system problem. (Chapter 3)
dielectric resistor
direct current (de) secondary coil
electrical circuit semiconductor
electrical load series circuit
Introduction
electricity series-parallel circuit Many of the components in an HVACR system are
electromagnet slip ring electrically operated. For example, the majority of com-
electromagnetism static electricity pressors and fans are driven by electrically powered
electromotive force (emf) transformer motors. These electrically powered motors operate by
electron volt using magnets to generate motion. Electricity not only
farad (F) voltage operates many parts of an HVACR system, but it also
induced magnetism voltage drop controls many parts of the system. For instance, electric
induction relays open and close compressor and fan motor circuits
when a desired temperature has been reached or when
operating conditions become unsafe. Having a good
understanding of basic electricity, electrical circuits, and
the relationship between electricity and magnetism will
help a technician install and troubleshoot electrical and
electronic components.
272 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

12.1 Fundamental Principles of /Electron

Electricity
In order to understand electricity, it is best to begin at
the atomic level. All matter is composed of atoms. Atoms
are the smallest part of any element and are, therefore, the
basic building blocks of all matter. Each atom contains a
nucleus. The nucleus of each atom is made of subatomic
particles called protons and neutrons. Protons are posi-
tively charged (+) atomic particles, while neutrons have
no charge. Orbiting around the nucleus are electrons.
Electrons are negatively charged(-) subatomic particles.
Figure 12-1 illustrates the basic structure of an atom.
An atom normally has the same number of elec-
trons as protons, which means it has a neutral charge.
When an atom has an imbalance of electrons and pro-
tons, it is ionized. If an atom has more electrons than
protons, it is a negatively charged ion. If an atom has
more protons than electrons, it is a positively charged Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
ion. This difference in atomic charges causes electrons Figure 12-1. Atoms are composed of protons and neutrons in
to flow between atoms. the nucleus and electrons that orbit the nucleus.
To regain its balance of electrons and protons, a nega-
tively charged ion gives up its extra electron to an adjacent
atom. This atom then becomes a negatively charged ion charges. This potential difference is called voltage or
and gives up its extra electron to the next adjacent atom. A electromotive force (emf). Voltage is the electrical force
chain reaction occurs that causes electrons to move from or electrical pressure that a power source, such as a bat-
one atom to another because each atom is trying to bal- tery, can generate. The unit of measurement for volt-
ance its atomic charge. This flow of electrons from one age is the volt. One volt is the amount of electromotive
atom to another is electricity. See Figure 12-2. force required to send one ampere of current through a
resistance of one ohm. Therefore, a nine-volt battery has
enough electromotive force to send nine amperes of cur-
12.1.1 Electromotive Force and Current rent through a resistance of one ohm.
The flow of electrons is caused by a potential differ- Current is the flow of electrons. The flow of cur-
ence, which is the push created by a difference in atomic rent is measured using a unit called the ampere. One

Electron from Chain reaction

Atom becomes
negatively charged ion
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 12-2. The movement of electrons from one atom to another occurs because there is a difference in atomic charges
between the atoms. This chain reaction of electron movement is electricity.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 12 Basic Electricity 273

ampere is equal to the flow of one coulomb per sec- \ I

ond. A coulomb is a measure of the electrical charge in
6.24 x 1018 (6,240,000,000,000,000,000) electrons. Thus, if
Lightbulb burns
less bright -
-
-
Wire
an electrical conductor, such as a copper wire, has a (conductor)
current of one amp, then 6.24 x 1018 electrons are flow-
ing past any given point in the wire in one second.
Think of voltage as electrical pressure that causes
.,__ I
electrical current to flow, just as fluid pressure causes the
flow of gases and liquids. Water pressure causes water
to flow through a hose. Increasing the water pressure
Wire
(conductor)---+
i ____.
t
increases the water flow, Figure 12-3.
In an electrical circuit, increasing the voltage

I
increases the current. This parallels the principles of Switch
the combined gas law. In a fixed and unchanging vol- Battery
ume, increasing a fluid's pressure will also increase (power source)
its temperature. Likewise, in an electrical circuit with
an unchanging resistance, increasing voltage will Lightbulb burns
increase current (more electrons flowing). The effect of brighter
increasing the electrical pressure (voltage or emf) in an Wire
(conductor)
electrical circuit is shown in Figure 12-4.
I
.,__
12.1.2 Resistance
Different elements have different numbers of
electrons in orbit around their nuclei, which affects
whether the element allows electrons to flow with
Wire
(conductor)---+
i t
ease, with difficulty, or not at all. A copper atom allows
electrons to flow because it has a single electron in its
Switch
outermost orbit that it gives up easily to other copper
atoms. This is why copper is an excellent conductor. Batteries
Other elements, such as iron and carbon, conduct elec- (power source)
tricity, but have fewer free electrons in each atom. It Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 12-4. The circuit with two batteries has twice the
voltage or electrical pressure of the circuit with one. The
increase in voltage leads to increased current, which causes
the bulb to illuminate more brightly.
Taller water - +i--- -- - i

column

is more difficult for electrons to travel through iron or

carbon atoms than copper atoms.
Resistance is the name of the electrical property
Same that expresses how much a material resists the flow
- - - - diameter _ ___, of electrons through it. The electrical resistance of a
Less pipe Greater
pressure-----+ ~ pressure material is measured in ohms. An ohm is equal to the
resistance that allows one volt to push one ampere of
current through a circuit. In other words, if one ampere
flows through a conductor when one volt is applied,

Less flow
\
Greater flow
then the conductor has a resistance of one ohm. The
symbol for the ohm is the Greek letter omega (Q).
Components designed to offer specific levels of
Lower Water Level Higher Water Level resistance in a circuit are called resistors. Resistors are
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher often made of carbon and usually have a series of color
Figure 12-3. The rate of flow depends on pressure. A shorter bands that represent both the amount and accuracy
water column provides less pressure and less flow, and a of resistance. See the Appendix for a brief summary of
higher water column provides more pressure and more flow. these color bands, Figure 12-5.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

274 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Wirewound Resistors

Color bands indicate

amount of resistance

i
E= E =Ix R

Wireleads 7
Carbon Composition Resistors
Solving for Voltage
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 12-5. Two of the many types of resistors used in
electrical circuits in HVACR equipment.

The harder it is for electrons to move through a R= R = _g_

material, the greater the heat generated in that mate- I
rial. This is why iron, steel, and steel alloys are often
used for electric heating purposes. Iron and steel
have greater resistance than copper or silver, which
Solving for Resistance
means they produce more heat when current passes
through them. Electrical resistance usually increases
with an increase in temperature, an increase in con-
ductor length, and a decrease in conductor diameter
(thickness).
I=

12.1.3 Ohm's Law

Looking at the earlier descriptions of voltage, cur-
rent, and resistance, it is apparent that they have an Solving for Current
interdependent relationship. How voltage, current, Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
and resistance interact in a circuit is shown mathemati- Figure 12-6. Ohm's law can be used to calculate one variable
cally in Ohm's law, Figure 12-6. The three variables in when the other two are known. This pie chart will help you to
Ohm's law are represented by the following letters: remember which equation to use depending on which variable
E = electromotive force (emf) or voltage you are solving for.
in volts (V).
I = current in amperes (A).
R = resistance in ohms (Q). R=~
I
E (volts)= I (amperes) x R (ohms)
As shown in Figure 12-6, as long as you have the R = 120V
values of two of the variables, you can solve for the 2A
unknown variable. For instance, if a lamp draws 2 A R=60Q
at 120 V, what is its resistance? Since we are solving for The equations of Ohm's law demonstrate a few
resistance, the Ohm's law pie chart indicates to divide principles concerning the relationship among voltage,
voltage by current. current, and resistance. If a circuit's resistance remains

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 12 Basic Electricity 275

constant, an increasing voltage increases the current, material called a dielectric. See Figure 12-7. Capacitors
or a decreasing voltage decreases the current. This are classified by their dielectric material. These include
means that in a circuit with a constant resistance, the mica, paper, oil, and ceramic. Figure 12-8 shows sev-
values of voltage and current are directly related to each eral types of capacitors.
other. When one value rises, so does the other. When In HVACR systems, capacitors are widely used
one value falls, so does the other. on control circuit boards and also in motor circuits.
For example, a technician is replacing a 120 V Capacitors can be used to help start motors, to increase
motor that normally runs at 5 A The technician acci- motor efficiency, and to improve a circuit's power fac-
dentally connects the 120 V motor to a 240 V power tor. How a capacitor affects motor operation will be
supply. The voltage is twice what it was. With the resis- covered in Chapter 15, Electric Motors.
tance remaining the same, the doubled voltage also
doubles the current. This will cause trouble. If the fuse Safety Note

I
does not blow, the motor windings will overheat from Charged Capacitor
carrying excessive current. The insulation on these
Never assume a capacitor has been discharged.
wires will be destroyed, and the motor will be ruined. A high-voltage capacitor may store as much as 600 V.
Another principle demonstrated by Ohm's law is Before handling or replacing a capacitor, drain off its
that when a circuit's voltage remains constant, lower- charge with a 20,000 Q (20 kQ) resistor. Place the
ing the resistance will increase the current, or increas- capacitor in a box in case it ruptures. Wear insulated
ing the resistance will decrease the current. This means gloves and place the 20 kQ resistor across both termi-
that in a circuit with a constant voltage, the current and nals for a couple of seconds.
resistance are inversely related to each other.
For example, an electric heater draws 5 A of current.
On a 120 V circuit, we can calculate the heater's resistance 12.2 Types of Electricity
by dividing voltage by current: 120 V + 5 A = 24 Q. Now, Electricity is classified as either static electricity or
replace that 5-amp electric heater with an electric heater current electricity. Static electricity is defined as the
that draws 25 A Both heaters operate when 120 V are accumulation of an electric charge, such as in a capacitor.
applied, but while the first heater only drew 5 A, the sec- Static electricity is electricity at rest. Current electricity is
ond heater drew 25 A The voltage remained the same, so electricity flowing through conductors (wires).
why is the amount of current different?
According to Ohm's law, the resistances must be
different. To confirm this, calculate the 25-amp heater's Surplus
Aluminum plate
resistance by dividing voltage by current: 120 V + 25 A electrons
= 4.8 Q. As the resistance decreased from 24 Q to 4.8 n,
the current responded inversely by increasing from
5Ato25A.
~-------------------------------------------
--- •• • • • • • • • • • • - - - i+

12.1.4 Capacitance Insulating

material
t
Aluminum plate
{dielectric)
Capacitance is the ability of a material to store a
charge of free electrons or electrical energy in an electro- Charged Condition
static field. Capacitance is represented in equations by the
letter C. The unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is Aluminum plate
defined as a charge of one coulomb on a capacitor surface
with a potential difference of one volt. In other words, a
capacitor with a charge of one farad has enough free elec- •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •
trons stored to discharge one volt of electrical pressure. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • •• •• • • •• • • •
A farad is a rather large unit of capacitance. Most capaci-
tors used in HVACR systems are rated in microfarads. A
Insulating
material
t
Aluminum plate
microfarad is one-millionth (0.000001) of a farad, and the (dielectric)
symbol for the microfarad is µF. Discharged Condition
Capacitors are devices that are specifically Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
designed and used for their capacitance (ability to store Figure 12-7. This cross-section drawing shows the basic
free electrons). Capacitors are composed of two metal construction of a capacitor, illustrating the location of electrons
surfaces, such as aluminum, separated by an insulating during the charged and discharged conditions.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

276 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Ceramic Capacitors Ceramic Chip Capacitors Polyester Film Capacitors

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 12-8. These are a few of the many types, shapes, and sizes of capacitors.

12.2.1 Static Electricity rings the bell. There are two common types of electric
current: direct current (de) and alternating current (ac).
There are two kinds of static charges: positive and
negative. An object with a negative charge has accumu- Direct Current
lated more electrons than protons, and an object with a Direct current (de) is electron flow along a con-
positive charge has more protons than electrons. Objects ductor in one direction. It is the type of current pro-
with the same kind of charge repel each other (push apart). duced by batteries. A flashlight is a simple example of
Objects with different charges attract each other. direct current circuit, Figure 12-9.
A common example of static electricity generation is Direct current's chief uses are in electronics, portable
when a person in a dry environment walks across a car- power tools, elevator operation, electric welding, and auto-
pet. Negative charges flow from the carpet to the person mobiles. Generally, in both elevator operation and electric
due to friction. This charges the entire body with a nega- welding, direct current is generated at the site. One way of
tive charge. When the person touches a filing cabinet, fau- generating a direct current involves rectifying an alternat-
cet, or any other object that may have a positive charge, the ing current. This means that the ac current is converted
negative static charge, which is attracted to the positively into de current using an electrical device called a recti-
charged object, will quickly jump to what is touched. fier. Direct current can also be generated by driving a
There may be a visible or audible spark as the negatively
charged person touches the positively charged item.
Lightning is another example of the discharge of
static electricity. Under certain conditions, materials,
such as paper and clothing, can become charged with
static electricity as well. That is why they sometimes
cling together. Static electricity is often produced by
materials rubbing against each other.
Static electricity does not have a wide range of
practical uses, but an HVACR service technician may
encounter static electricity in a few applications. Certain
types of capacitors are used to store a static charge that
can be used later. For example, a motor capacitor stores
electricity that is needed to help a motor start. Static
electricity is also used to filter the air. Electrostatic air
t~ Switch
cleaners use static electricity to attract and filter out
dust and other small particles from an airstream.

12.2.2 Current Electricity Electron flow

Battery
Current electricity is the movement of electrons Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
along an electrical conductor. For example, pushing
Figure 12-9. A battery produces direct current, which flows in
the button on a doorbell closes the circuit, causing elec- only one direction. Electrons flow from the negative terminal of the
trons to flow through the circuit. This electrical flow battery through the lightbulb to the battery's positive terminal.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 12 Basic Electricity 277

de generator with an ac motor or by driving a de generator 12.3.1 Conductors

with a gasoline or diesel engine.
Conductors are materials that allow electrons to
Alternating Current flow easily. Most electrical conductors are made of metal.
Alternating current (ac) is electron flow along However, some metals are better conductors than others.
a conductor first in one direction, then in the other. Each element allows free electrons to move with varying
Alternating current switches its direction of flow ease. Silver, gold, copper, and aluminum are very good
at regular intervals. The regular intervals at which conductors of electricity. Iron, steel, and carbon will also
an alternating current switches its direction can be conduct electricity, but their resistance is relatively high.

I
graphed to form a sine wave, as shown in Figure 12-10. A conductor has atoms with free electrons in its
In ac, the voltage starts at zero. Positive voltage structure. Any electromotive force (voltage) will cause
represents current flowing in one direction, and nega- these electrons to travel from one atom to another. This
tive voltage represents current flowing in the other is the electrical energy moving through the material.
direction. The time it takes for the voltage to peak in In a wire, for example, energy moves from one end to
both the positive and negative directions and return to the other, Figure 12-11. Note that de electron move-
zero is called a cycle. ment is from negative (-) to positive (+).
An alternating current's frequency is the number Wires (solid or stranded) are used for carrying elec-
of cycles that occur per second. Frequency is measured tricity from one electrical device to another. Stranded
in Hertz (Hz). One Hz equals one cycle per second. In wire is more flexible than solid wire, Figure 12-12.
the United States, the standard frequency for ac cur-
rent is 60 Hz. This means that the ac current changes
direction 120 times per second. The peak voltage (V )
depends on the voltage supplied by the power sour~~~

12.3 Electrical Materials

There are three physical electrical materials that
are used in electrical and electronic systems:
• Conductors-metals such as copper, silver, and
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
aluminum.
Figure 12-11. This image illustrates a wire with free electrons
• Insulators-nonmetals such as glass, wood, paper, traveling from negative(-) to positive(+).
and mica.
• Semiconductors-metalloids such as silicon and
germanium.

One Cycle of Alternating Current

I I
170V ___ _L ___ _J _ ___ L __
(Vmax) I I
I I
G) I I
C)
.l!! I I
0
0
> I
I
-170V I I
- - - -1- - - - 1 - - -
(Vmax) I I I
1/4 1/2 3/4
cycle cycle cycle cycle t Conductor
Time Solid
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Insulated Wires Bare Wire
Figure 12-10. The red line represents one complete cycle of Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
alternating current flow in a typical household circuit. Note that Figure 12-12. Wires may have stranded or solid conductors,
the voltage varies from zero to Vmax twice each cycle. depending on the size of the wire and the flexibility requirements.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

278 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

12.3.2 Insulators switch or other device is open or disconnected, and

current cannot flow. See Figure 12-13.
Insulators resist electron flow. The atoms in an insu-
lator have virtually no free electrons. A perfect vacuum
is also an insulator. The use of insulators in electrical sys- 12.4.1 Circuit Symbols
tems is just as crucial as the use of conductors or semi- Electrical wiring diagrams use symbols to represent
conductors. There are many parts of a system in which many of the electrical parts found in HVACR systems.
electrical current must be stopped. Insulators are needed The symbols used for each electrical or electronic com-
for this purpose. Some common insulators are quartz, ponent are designated in the following technical stan-
ceramics, mica, glass, rubber, wood, paper, and plastics. dards: IEEE 315-1975, which is published by the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and ASME Y14.44-
12.3.3 Semiconductors 2008, which is published by the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. Figure 12-14 shows many of the
Semiconductors are ordinarily insulators; however, electrical symbols you may encounter as a technician.
under certain conditions, they can be made to conduct
electricity. These materials are the basis of the modem
electronics industry. The term solid-state electronics refers Lightbulb is off
to electronic devices that are made up of semiconduc-
tor elements. The term solid-state specifically refers to the
way these devices can switch from insulator to conductor
without moving parts.
Transistors and diodes are common semiconduc-
tors. Many modern motor controls consist of silicon
controlled rectifiers (SCRs). An SCR is a type of elec-
tronic switch that does not conduct electricity until it Switch (open)
is triggered by a certain voltage level. The conductivity
of a semiconductor can be controlled by an electrical
signal, light intensity, pressure, temperature, and other
signaling devices. In this way, semiconductor devices
often serve as electronic relays or switches. For exam-
ple, photocells used on automatic door openers are
semiconductor switching devices activated by light.

12.4 Circuit Fundamentals Lightbulb is off

An electrical circuit provides a complete path for

electrons to follow. An electrical circuit has three main
components: a power source, conductors, and an electri-
cal load. The power source can be a generator, a battery,
or the electrical outlets in a building. Any device that
consumes electricity to perform work, such as a light-
bulb, is an electrical load. When speaking of electrical ---- Switch (open)
circuits, an electrical load is often simply called the load.
Conductors are usually copper wires that connect
the power source and electrical load, allowing elec-
trons to flow. When conductors are used to connect
a battery to a lightbulb, a lightbulb to a switch, and a
switch to the battery, an electrical circuit is made. Refer
back to Figure 12-9.
If the switch is closed, the electron path is complete, Battery
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
and the bulb will light up. This is a closed circuit. The
Figure 12-13. This circuit is open because the switch is
electrons are able to leave the power source and return disconnected. The top drawing is a schematic drawing of
back to it. A closed circuit may also be called a con- the circuit, and the bottom image is a pictorial diagram of the
tinuous circuit. An open circuit means that an electrical same circuit.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 12 Basic Electricity 279

Electrical Symbols for HVACR Diagrams

Component Symbol Component Symbol Component Symbol Component Symbol
0 0
-H-..:_ General 0

Capacitor *Identifying terminal

(nearest ground)
Thermocouple
u Switches selector
switch
0,
Any number of
o
transmission paths
may be shown

r.°f'1 °r.°-F1 w Jlo

0
o~
Circuit
breakers ~ ~ ~
Thermal
+++
Magnetic
Transformer
Fl
Single throw ------<>-.__fl-
Segment
contact 8=8,000008=8,
or

Relay, timer,
solenoid, etc.
--0---
*Designate device
Thermal
overload coil
----orx.,o----- Double throw ~
0
Thermal relay
.......efXp-
-'

Contacts

Conductors
-H-
Normally
open (NO)
-II-
Timed closed
(TC)

+ +
Crossing
---'!-I;-
Normally
closed (NC)
---'!-I;-
Timed open
(TO)

Juncti on
Terminal

Thermistor ----@-
0
Double pole
double throw

Push button
(NO)
~

~0---
I

......L..
0
0---

0
Circu it closing (make)
Motors

General
=O
I
Push button ili Main : 0
Fuse ----illJ-- Connectors Windings
(NC) Circu it opening (break) Aux.

Fusible link -----1\_r- Male -------1

Push button o¾ 1_ _ _
o+a
"2S" ___ J
Conductors
(Two circuit) No spring return

(NO) (NC)
Ground ....L Pressure Power (factory
Female >-- ---
connection
-
-=- activated °t ~ wired)

Temperature Control
Light ---0--- Engaged -------1>-- activated )2 (factory ---
Close on rising
(NO) wired)

Temperature
Meter -0---
*Denote usage
4 Conductor
""""T""""""< ...............
---+-----)
---+-----)
---+-----)
}---+--
}---+--
}---+--
activated 1°
Open on rising
Power (field
installed)
----
(NC)

Diode -----t>I-- Alarms

Flow activated
(NO)
[ Control (field
installed)
----
Close on increase

Resistor Bell
8 Flow activated
(NC)
°t
Open on increase
Transistors

Shielded
cable
--~ Horn [[JJ Liquid level
(NO)
s
Close on rising
PNP type 6?>
Multiple
conductor =9= Buzzer \[]
Liquid level
~ NPN type @
(NC) Open on rising
cable

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 12-14. Electrical symbols commonly used in wiring diagrams.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

280 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Pro Tip (3 Q + 4 Q + 5 Q = 12 Q). Therefore, the current through-

out the whole circuit is 1 A, as 12 V + 12 Q = 1 A.
Electrical Symbols in Diagrams While current stays the same through each device
Manufacturers of HVACR equipment sometimes in a series circuit, the voltage across each device will dif-
use their own symbols for electrical components. fer, depending on the resistance of each device. Using
HVACR service technicians should always check the Figure 12-15 as an example again, the first lightbulb has
symbol for a component by comparing the wiring dia-
a resistance of 3 Q. According to Ohm's law, the voltage
gram with what is physically in the unit.
across it is 3 V because voltage equals resistance multi-
plied by current (3 Q x 1 A = 3 V). Each lightbulb in this
series circuit has a different voltage across it because each
12.4.2 Series Circuits bulb has a different amount of resistance.
A circuit having only a single path for current is
called a series circuit. The same current flows through
all the electrical loads in a series circuit, Figure 12-15. 12.4.3 Parallel Circuits
If one of these devices is open or does not conduct, the A parallel circuit allows current to flow to and
circuit is broken and will not conduct current. from a power source along two or more electrical paths,
Since failure of a single component causes the each of which has only one electrical load, Figure 12-16.
whole of a series circuit to fail, a series circuit may be The electrical wiring in a house is an example of a
used as a safety circuit. For instance, when a power parallel circuit. If one of the bulbs burns out, the rest
switch, a safety limit switch, and a fuse are wired in continue to light because their paths to and from the
series with a compressor, any one of these devices can power source remain complete. If the lights in a house
open and stop compressor operation in an unsafe situ- were wired in series, then the failure of any one of the
ation. However, series circuits are rarely used in power lights would cause all the lights in the house to go out.
circuits for the same reason. One component can cause This is why power circuits are wired in parallel.
the failure or apparent failure of every other compo- Whereas the current is the same across each load in
nent in series. a series circuit, the voltage across each load is the same
Remember that Ohm's law states that current is in a parallel circuit. This means that in a parallel circuit,
determined by the amount of voltage divided by the current changes based on the resistance of each load.
amount of resistance applied across a device. Since the The load with the lowest resistance receives the highest
voltage applied to a series circuit treats the entire circuit current, and the load with the highest resistance receives
as a single resistance, the current flowing through each the lowest current. Looking at Figure 12-16, you can see
device is calculated by dividing the total applied volt- that the lightbulb with the lowest resistance (3 Q) has
age by the total circuit resistance. Using Figure 12-15 the most current (4 A), and the lightbulb with the high-
as an example, the total resistance of the circuit is 12 Q est resistance (6 Q) has the least current (2 A).

1A

Battery
( 12 V) -----+- t

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 12-15. In a series circuit, current only has one path to follow. Therefore, current is equal at each point of the circuit. Notice
that the current is 1 A at each point between the lightbulbs. However, the voltage is different across each lightbulb because each
lightbulb's resistance is different.

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 Chapter 12 Basic Electricity 281

4A 3A -+------ 2A

Battery
(12V) -
t t t

__. Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher

Figure 12-16. These lightbulbs are wired in a parallel circuit. If one of the bulbs burns out, the rest of the bulbs will continue
emitting light. Note that each bulb receives the same voltage, regardless of its resistance.
I
12.4.4 Series-Parallel Circuits While knowledge of electrical circuits is important to
A circuit that has some electrical loads in series know, calculating all the variables of series-parallel cir-
and some in parallel is called a series-parallel circuit. cuits is not normally done in day-to-day HVACR work.
Electronic control boards are often wired using a
series-parallel circuit. It is rare that an HVACR tech- 12.4.5 Voltage Drop
nician will need to calculate expected voltages on a A voltage drop (VD) is the voltage applied across an
series-parallel circuit that has more than one electrical electrical load that is causing current to flow through it.
load in series. A theoretical example of a series-parallel Electrical loads are devices that offer some resistance to
circuit is shown in Figure 12-17. current passing through. Most electrical loads are inten-
The same principles of series and parallel circuits tional and perform some work or function, such as a motor
apply but in a complex combination. Start with the far- or a relay coil. Others are unintentional and may cause
thest combination of electrical loads and work back- a circuit to malfunction, such as dirty contacts, a poorly
ward to determine total resistance, so that total current made connection, or wire that is too small for its appli-
can be calculated. Then begin applying the principles cation. Some electrical loads are so small within a circuit
discussed. Electrical loads in series have the same cur- that they make virtually no difference. Examples would
rent. Electrical loads in parallel have the same voltage. be clean contacts, correctly sized wire, and a properly

Battery
(12 V) ~__,,.._

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 12-17. This diagram shows a series-parallel circuit. Two loads are wired in series with three loads that are wired in parallel.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

282 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

functioning switch. Such small electrical loads may not VDT= VDl + VD2 + VD3 + VD4
always be easily measurable, even with a multimeter. VDT = 0.5 V + 0.5 V + 0.5 V + 118.5 V
The value of most voltage drops can be read with VDT= 120.0V
a voltmeter connected across an electrical load. Voltage Measuring and calculating the current, resis-
drop (VD) is equal to the resistance of a load (RJ multi- tance, and voltage across the individual loads in a
plied by the current (IJ passing through that load: circuit is critical to troubleshooting and problem
VD= RLxIL solving. There is always some electrical resistance
The total voltage drop (VDT) of a circuit (the total across any electrical switch, relay contacts, or cir-
applied voltage, VT) in a series circuit equals the sum cuit wiring. However, most voltage drops across
of the voltage drops of the electrical loads in the circuit: such components are so low that they are usually
VDT or VT= Vm + VD2 + VD3 + ·· · negligible. When voltage drops across these compo-
Electrical loads in a parallel circuit will all have the nents become higher, problems with the rest of the
same voltage drop, which equals the total voltage drop circuit can develop. Voltage drops of importance are
(VDT) or the total applied voltage (VT) of that parallel circuit: those measured across motors, relay coils, and other
VDT or VT= Vm = VD2 = VD3 = . . . higher resistance loads. Important values for cur-
Using Figure 12-18 as an example, the total volt- rent are those measured through motors and other
age supplied by the power source is 120 V, and the significant loads.
ammeter indicates that the current is 5 A. This is a
series circuit, so current only has one path. This means
that each of the electrical loads will have an identical 12.5 Magnetism
current of 5 A flowing through it. Using this value for All magnets have a north pole and a south
current, we can multiply by the resistance of each load pole. Like poles repel each other (try to move apart).
to find each load's voltage drop. Unlike poles attract (pull toward each other). The
Resistance of circuit wiring is 0.1 Q: attraction and repulsion of magnetic poles is shown
V01 = 5 A x 0.1 Q = 0.5 V in Figure 12-19.
Resistance of thermostat switch is 0.1 Q: There are lines of magnetic force connecting the
VD2 = 5 AX 0.1 Q = 0.5 V
north and south poles of a magnet. These lines of
Resistance of starting relay contacts is 0.1 Q: force are called magnetic flux. The space in which a
VD3 = 5 AX 0.1 Q = 0.5 V magnetic force is operating is called a magnetic field.
Resistance of motor compressor is 23.7 Q: Magnetic flux will flow through most substances. It
VD4 = 5 AX 23.7 Q = 118.5 V
is not stopped by glass, mica, wood, air, or any other
By adding the individual voltage drops across material used for electrical insulation.
each load, we can confirm the total voltage drop, which Some substances, particularly soft iron, are
should equal the applied voltage. better conductors of magnetic flux than other sub-
stances. This is why certain parts of electric motors
Thermostat
and generators are made of soft iron. Instruments
switch (0.1 Q) Starting relay can be shielded from a magnetic field by placing
them inside a soft iron case. Because soft iron is a
i contacts (0.1 Q)
good conductor of magnetic flux, the magnetic field

r-l will pass around the instrument inside the soft iron
case and not through it.
rv
12.5.1 Permanent and Induced Magnetism
120V
Permanent magnets are usually made of hard-
ened steel. Once magnetized, they remain magnetized.
t A Some patented alloys of iron, aluminum, nickel, and
cobalt make strong permanent magnets.
Resistance
of circuit Magnetic lines (flux) tend to become as short as
wiring: 0.1 Q Ammeter (5 A) Compressor (23.7 Q) possible. This shortening force has many industrial
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher applications. Permanent magnets are used in some
Figure 12-18. To calculate voltage drop, measure the circuit's controls to provide a snap action for electrical contacts.
current and the resistance of each electrical load. These values They are also used in small control motors.
can then be used to calculate each component's voltage drop.

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 Chapter 12 Basic Electricity 283

Any material capable of being magnetized 12.5.2 Electromagnetism

becomes a magnet if it is placed in a magnetic field.
This is called induced magnetism. For example, if a If an electric current is passed through a conduc-
piece of soft iron, which is a good magnetic conductor, tor, the conductor becomes surrounded by a magnetic
is placed in a magnetic field, then the piece of soft iron field. If the current is turned off, the magnetic field will
becomes magnetized. Induced magnetism forms the disappear, Figure 12-20.
basis for how an electromagnet is constructed. If a conductor is wound around a piece of soft
iron and current is passed through the conductor,
the soft iron becomes a magnet. This is an exam-

I
ple of induced magnetism. Turning off the cur-
rent (opening the circuit) stops the magnetic effect.
This magnetic effect caused by current is called
electromagnetism. Magnets formed in this manner
are called electromagnets. Electromagnets are used
in motors, relays, solenoids, and in many other elec-
tromagnetic applications. The iron part is called the
core. The current-carrying conductor is called the
winding, Figure 12-21.
The strength of an electromagnet is based on four
factors:
• Number of turns in the winding.
• Strength of the current.
• Core material and construction.
• Length of the coil.
A The more coil turns there are in the winding and the
higher the current is, the stronger the electromagnetism.

Magnetic
-
Electron
field
t_....-- flow

Switch

C Battery
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 12-19. Attraction and repulsion of magnetic poles. A- Figure 12-20. A conductor is passed vertically through the
Looking at the end of a horseshoe magnet, the magnetic flux center of a sheet of cardboard with iron filings sprinkled over the
around each pole is shown. B-Magnetic flux provides a force cardboard's surface. When the ends of the vertical conductor
that pulls unlike poles of magnets together. C-Magnetic flux are connected to a battery, the iron filings form circular patterns,
provides a force that pushes like poles away from each other. demonstrating the magnetic field around the conductor.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

284 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Magnetic field Wire conductor 12.6.1 AC Generator

!
(winding)
When a loop rotates through a magnetic field, emf

---- -- l. is generated. The amount of emf generated is depen-

dent on the direction the legs of the loop are moving.
Refer to Figure 12-22. When the legs of the loop are
moving mostly perpendicular to the lines of magnetic

J) force, a greater amount of emf is generated, resulting

in more current in the loop. When the legs of the loop
are moving mostly parallel to the lines of magnetic

))' force, less emf is generated, resulting in less current in

the loop. The rise and fall of emf during the rotation of
the wire loop is represented by a sine wave of alternat-
ing current (ac), Figure 12-23.

Iron core
- Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
In order to maintain an electrical connection to
the rotating wire loop, ac generators have slip rings
and brushes. A slip ring is a cylindrical piece of elec-
trically conductive material that rotates with the wire
Figure 12-21. A simple electromagnet has several turns of loop. Brushes are electrically conductive materials
conductor (wire) placed around a soft iron core. When current that remain stationary as the slip rings rub against
is passed through the conductor, circular magnetic fields that them. Electricity flows from the wire loop, through
form around the wire are combined in the core to form a single the slip rings, across the brushes, and into the circuit,
magnetic field. Figure 12-24.

Since materials react to electricity and magnetic flux

differently, core material matters. A solid core results in Magnetic flux
fluctuations in the magnetic field that weaken the field.
Therefore, a laminate core is used to create a stronger
i ~
magnetic field than a solid core. The closer together a
given number of windings are, the more concentrated
(stronger) the magnetic field will be.
The number of turns in the coil and amount of cur- N
rent passing through them are the two most important
factors in determining electromagnetic strength. These
two factors determine the magnetomotive force (MMF),
Wire loop (conductor)
which is measured in ampere-turns. The magnetomotive
force is the amount of energy used to generate a mag- Less EMF
netic field. To calculate magnetomotive force, multiply
the number of turns in the winding by the amperes Magnetic flux
flowing through the winding. The magnetomotive force
is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field. However, the strength of a magnetic field can vary
for any given magnetomotive force depending on core
composition, style of coil winding, and other factors.

12.6 Electrical Generators

Just as electricity flowing through a conductor can Current flowing Wire loop (conductor)
be used to create electromagnetic force, magnets can More EMF
be used to generate electricity. If a conductor is moved Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
across a magnetic field, an electromotive force (emf) Figure 12-22. When a loop is rotated through a magnetic
will be generated that induces current in the conduc- field, current is induced in the loop. The amount of emf
tor. This can be done by forming a wire loop and rotat- generated is dependent on the position of the loop in the
ing the loop in a magnetic field. See Figure 12-22. magnetic field.

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 Chapter 12 Basic Electricity 285

AC Generator EMF

Angle of Rotation
Commutator
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 12-23. The graph of this sine wave illustrates how
the rise and fall of emf in the wire loop of an ac generator
produces ac current.

To circuit
12.6.2 DC Generator Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 12-25. While the wire loop rotates within the magnetic
A direct current generator creates electricity just as field, the commutator causes each half of the split ring to change
an ac generator does. Induced electricity in a generator the brush that it connects to at every half rotation of the loop.
is normally an alternating current, but a de generator This creates direct current.
rectifies the electricity, so the output does not reverse
its directional flow. To prevent the electricity from
reversing direction, de generators use a commutator. A rotation, each half of the split ring contacts the other
commutator is a split slip ring that forces the current brush. By constantly reversing which brush each half
to flow in one direction only, generating direct current of the split ring connects to, a commutator provides
(de). A commutator is a slip ring that is split in half by direct current to an external circuit. Electricity flows
an insulating material, with each end of the wire loop from the wire loop, through the commutator, across
(rotor) attached to one half of the ring, Figure 12-25. the brushes, and into the circuit.
Each half of a split ring commutator contacts one
of the brushes during a half rotation. For the next half
12.7 Transformer Basics
A transformer operates on the two basic principles
that electricity can be used to generate a magnetic field,
and a magnetic field can be used to induce electricity.
A transformer transfers an alternating current from
one coil of wire to another coil of wire through a mag-
netic field. The process of transferring electricity using
a magnetic field is called induction.
Two coils of wire are placed near each other with a
small gap of air between them. An ac electrical source is
connected to the first coil of wire called the primary coil.
The primary coil generates a magnetic field that is picked
up by the second coil of wire called the secondary coil.
The magnetic field generated by the primary coil grows
and shrinks repeatedly due to the alternating current
flowing through it. The secondary coil converts the
changes in the magnetic field into electricity.
To circuit The amount of voltage coming out of the secondary
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher coil of a transformer is dependent on the voltage entering
Figure 12-24. An ac generator has slip rings attached to each the primary coil and the same number of turns in each of
end of the wire loop. The slip rings rub against the brushes, the coils. If the primary coil has 100 turns and the second-
transferring electricity to the circuit. ary coil has 50 turns, the voltage exiting the transformer

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

286 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

will be half of the voltage entering the transformer. A VP = primary voltage

transformer with more turns in its primary coil than in its Vs = secondary voltage
secondary coil is a step-down transformer, Figure 12-26. NP = number of turns of wire in the primary coil
If the primary coil has 50 turns and the second- winding
ary coil has 100, the voltage coming out of the trans- N s = number of turns of wire in the secondary
former will be twice that of the voltage entering the coil winding
transformer. A transformer with more turns in its sec-
ondary coil than in its primary coil is a step-up trans- Example:
former. See Figure 12-27. How many turns of wire are required in a second-
The formula for calculating the number of turns ary coil if the desired output is 24 volts, the primary
required for a given voltage is as follows: voltage is 120 volts, and the primary coil has 100 turns
of wire?
vs= NS
VP Np Solution:
Solve for Ns (number of turns in the secondary
winding) by isolating that variable:
Transformer

Primary
core
~=~
coil VP Np
Begin by plugging in the values that are known.
~= NS
120 100
____.
120 volts in
____.
60 volts out
Isolate N s on one side of the equal sign. To do this,
multiply the fractions on each side of the equal sign by
100 (the value of Np)-
100 24 NS 100
--x-- = --x--
1 120 100 1
100 turns Magnetic
flux
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher 2400 = 100N5
Figure 12-26. This is a step-down transformer because there are 120 100
more turns in the primary coil than there are in the secondary coil.
After calculating these amounts, reduce to whole
numbers.
Transformer 2400 = 100 N 5
core
120 100
Primary 20 1
coil 120 I 2400 = 100 I 100 NS
-- 2400
-
- - 100
-
0 0
____,.
120 volts in
____.
240 volts out
20 =Ns
N s = 20 turns of wire in the
secondary coil
In later chapters, you will learn about the different
types, sizes, and uses of transformers. This informa-
50 turns 100 turns
tion is important when deciding which motor to use
Magnetic
flux
for a forced air system, what voltages to expect out of
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher a transformer, and most importantly, what safety pre-
Figure 12-27. This is a step-up transformer because there cautions to take.
are fewer wire turns in the primary coil than there are in the
secondary coil.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • A transformer transfers an alternating current
from one coil of wire to another coil of wire
• The three components of an atom are electrons, using the following two principles: electricity
protons, and neutrons. Electricity is the flow can be used to generate a magnetic field, and a
of electrons moving from one atom's orbit to magnetic field can be used to induce electricity.
another. The voltage coming out of the secondary coil of
a transformer is dependent on whether it has
• The interdependent relationship of voltage, more or less turns than the primary coil.
current, and resistance can be explained
mathematically using Ohm's law: E = I x R.
• In HVACR systems, capacitors are used to store
electrical energy to help start motors, increase
Review Questions

I
motor efficiency, and improve a circuit's power Answer the following questions using the information in
factor. this chapter.
• There are two types of electricity: static and
1. Which of the following is not a part of an
current. Static electricity is stored electricity,
atom?
like the charge in a capacitor. Current electricity
A. Electron
is electrons in motion and can be divided
B. Coulomb
into two types: direct current and alternating
C. Proton
current.
D. Neutron
• Electrical and electronic systems utilize three
types of materials: conductors, insulators, and 2. The potential difference of atomic charges
semiconductors. that forces electron flow is called _ _.
A. inductance
• A closed circuit provides a complete path B. voltage
for electrons to follow. An open circuit is an C. resistance
incomplete path in which current cannot flow. D. capacitance
A basic electrical circuit has three components:
a power source, a conductor, and a load. 3. Current is measured in
A. coulombs
• The total voltage drop in a series circuit equals B. amperes
the sum of the voltage drops of the electrical C. ohms
loads in the circuit. Electrical loads in a D. farads
parallel circuit will each have the same voltage
drop. Comparing applied voltage to the sum 4. The electrical property that resists the flow of
of the measured voltage drops can help in electrons is called
troubleshooting electrical circuits. A. inductance
B. voltage
• If an electric current is passed through a
C. resistance
conductor, the conductor becomes surrounded
D. capacitance
by a magnetic field. An electromagnet is made
by winding a conductor around an iron core 5. Resistance is measured in
and connecting it to a power source. A. coulombs
• The strength of an electromagnet is affected B. amperes
C. ohms
by the number of turns in the winding, the
D. farads
strength of the current, the core material and
construction, and the length of the coil. 6. According to Ohm's law, if a circuit's
• If a conductor is moved across a magnetic field, resistance is 5 Q and the voltage applied is
an electromotive force (emf) will be induced 100 V, what is the current?
that generates current in the conductor. A. 500 A
Electrical generators use this concept to create B. 0.05 A
electricity by rotating a wire loop in a magnetic C. 115A
field. Electricity flows from the wire loop, D. 20A
through the slip rings, across the brushes, and
into the circuit.

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288 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

7. According to Ohm's law, if a circuit's 15. A circuit that allows the current to flow along
resistance is 40 Q and the current is measured two or more electrical paths at the same time
at 4 A, what is the voltage? is called a circuit.
A. 160V A. open
B. lOV B. series
C. 44 V C. parallel
D. 0.1 V D. series-parallel
8. The ability of a material to store a charge of 16. A circuit having only a single path for current
free electrons or electrical energy is called is called a circuit.
A. open
A. inductance B. series
B. voltage C. parallel
C. resistance D. series-parallel
D. capacitance 17. A circuit in which parts of it have only a
9. Capacitors are used in HVACR systems to do single path for current and other parts have
all of the following except _ _. two or more electrical paths at the same time
A. increase motor efficiency is called a circuit.
B. induce an alternating current from a A. open
magnetic field B. series
C. improve a circuit's power factor C. parallel
D. help to start motors D. series-parallel
10. Electron flow along a conductor in one 18. Which of these devices has a north and a
direction describes south pole?
A. static electricity A. Conductor
B. current electricity B. Insulator
C. direct current C. Semiconductor
D. alternating current D. Magnet
11. Electricity that flows in one direction and 19. To construct an electromagnet, all of the
then in the other describes following are necessary except a(n) _ _.
A. static electricity A. current-carrying conductor
B. current electricity B. power source
C. direct current C. iron core
D. alternating current D. commutator
12. Which type of material resists electron flow? 20. Name the electrically conductive, cylindrical
A. Conductors part of an ac generator that rotates with the
B. Insulators wire loop.
C. Semiconductors A. Brush
D. Magnets B. Slip ring
13. Which type of material allows electrons to C. Commutator
flow easily? D. Primary coil
A. Conductors 21. Name the rotating part of a de generator that
B. Insulators is connected to the wire loop.
C. Semiconductors A. Brush
D. Magnets B. Slip ring
14. Which type of material can be designed to C. Commutator
manipulate by light, pressure, heat, or electricity D. Primary coil
to either conduct or resist electron flow? 22. Name the stationary part of a generator that
A. Conductors transfers electricity to the circuit.
B. Insulators A. Brush
C. Semiconductors B. Slip ring
D. Magnets C. Commutator
D. Primary coil

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 12 Basic Electricity 289

23. Alternating current is transferred between

primary and secondary transformer coils by
means of
A. capacitance
B. brushes
C. a closed circuit
D. induction
24. A transformer that has more turns in its
secondary coil than in its primary coil is a
transformer.
A. series
B. parallel

I
C. step-up
D. step-down
25. A transformer that has more turns in its
primary coil than in its secondary coil is a
transformer.
A. series
B. parallel
C. step-up
D. step-down

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 13 Electrical PovVer

Learning Objectives
; Information in this chapter will enable you to:
Chapter Outline =• Use mathematical formulas to calculate root mean
5
.
square values, apparent power, and power factor.
13.1 Electrical Power
13.1.1 Root Mean Square Values
=
~ Summarize how resistance, inductive reactance, and
ii capacitive reactance cause power loss and affect
13.1.2 Power Loss
power factor in electrical circuits.
13.1.3 Power Factor
13.2 Power Circuits • Understand the difference between single-phase and
13.2.1 Single-Phase and Three-Phase Power three-phase power.
13.2.2 Electrical Codes • Define a Class 2 circuit and identify the types of
13.2.3 Wire Sizes electrical connections an HVACR technician is
13.2.4 Connectors and Terminals permitted to make.
13.2.5 Receptacle and Plug Configurations • Recall wire size terminology and connect wires using
13.2.6 Circuit Protection wire terminals and crimping.
13.2.7 Grounding and Bonding
• Explain the importance of properly grounding and
13.3 Electrical Problems
bonding an electrical system.
13.3.1 Short Circuit
13.3.2 Ground Fault • Describe the purpose and operation of various
13.3.3 Overload overcurrent protection devices used in circuits.
13.3.4 Unintentional Voltage Drop • Identify the different types and causes of common
13.3.5 Open Circuit electrical problems.
 Chapter 13 Electrical Power 291

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

American Wire Gage inductance Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
(AWG) inductive reactance you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
apparent power overload • Voltage is electrical pressure that causes current
bonding power factor (electron flow) in a closed circuit. Voltage is
capacitive reactance root mean square (rms) measured in volts. Current is the flow of electrons
circuit breaker short circuit and is measured in amperes. (Chapter 12)
Class 2 circuit single-phase • Resistance is the name of the electrical property that
fuse three-phase measures how much a material resists the flow of
ground true power electrons through it. (Chapter 12)
ground fault ungrounded conductor
• Alternating current switches its direction of flow

I
ground fault circuit unintentional voltage drop
at regular intervals. The regular intervals at which
interrupter (GFCI) volt-amperes (VA)
an alternating current switches its direction can be
grounded conductor Watt's law
graphed to form a sine wave. (Chapter 12)
grounding wattmeter
• An electrical circuit has three main components: a
power source, conductors, and an electrical load.
(Chapter 12)

Introduction
To understand electrical power, a technician must
first understand how to calculate power in a circuit and
how factors such as resistance and capacitance affect a
circuit's power. A technician must also understand the
types of power supplied by utility companies, the types
and sizes of wire used in circuits, and the methods for
properly connecting, grounding, and bonding an elec-
trical system. In addition, being familiar with the differ-
ent types of overcurrent protection devices and common
electrical problems will make diagnosing electrical issues
much easier for an HVACR technician. Understanding
electrical power will enable a technician to install new
components and troubleshoot malfunctioning compo-
nents based on the power available in a given application.
292 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

13.1 Electrical Power

When current flows due to a potential difference
(emf or voltage), there is electrical power. Electrical
power is measured in watts (W), kilowatts (kW), and
megawatts (MW). A kilowatt is equal to one thousand
watts, and a megawatt is equal to one million watts. A
watt is the power produced when one ampere of cur-
rent flows through an electrical component due to a
potential difference of one volt. In other words, a load
uses 1 W of power if a current of 1 A flows through the
load when it is connected to a 1 V power source.
The following formula can be used to calculate
electrical power:
P =lxE
P = power (watts) P= P= Ix E
I = current (amperes)
E = electromotive force or voltage (volts)

Example:
Solving for Power
What is the power used by an electric motor that
draws a current of 20 A from a 120 V power source?

Solution:
P =lxE
P = 20Ax 120V E= E=~
P = 2400W I
or, expressed in kilowatts,
p = 2400W
1000 Solving for Voltage
P = 2.4kW
Much like Ohm's law, the power formula makes it
easy to solve for any three of these variables. This for-
mula has been called Watt's law, Figure 13-1.
I=
13.1.1 Root Mean Square Values
Alternating current fluctuates from positive to neg-
ative values within a cycle, which means the values for
Solving for Current
voltage and current are always changing. This poses a
problem when trying to calculate the power used by an Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

ac circuit because there is no constant value for voltage Figure 13-1. Similar to Ohm's law, Watt's law provides a
or current. Root mean square (rms) values are used to formula that can be used to solve for three variables.
equate the heat produced by alternating current to direct
current values that would produce the same amount of
heat. Thus, the root mean square voltage for an alternating voltage (V ). To calculate the rms voltage of an alter-
current equals the voltage of a direct current that would nating cu;;~nt, multiply the maximum voltage value
produce the same amount of heat, Figure 13-2. (VmaJ in the alternating current's cycle by 0.707.
Most voltmeters and ammeters measure the volt- Vrms = Vmax x0.707
age and current of an ac circuit in root mean square
values, so a technician does not always have to calcu- Example:
late them. The root mean square voltage of an alter- What is the effective voltage (rms voltage) of an ac
nating current is also called effective voltage or rms power source with a maximum voltage of 170 V?

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 13 Electrical Power 293

Root Mean Square Voltage are in phase when they both reach their positive and
+ Volts / Voltage peak negative peaks at the same time. This in phase condi-
tion only occurs in a resistive circuit, Figure 13-3.
Power loss for a purely resistive circuit can be cal-
culated using the following formula:
a, \ Root mean square
Cl voltage is constant P=FxR
S 0- - - -Voltage
- - - -.. . . . .- - - - - - -~ - - P = power loss (watts)
~ changes during I = current (amperes)

I
ac cycle R = resistance (ohms)

-Volts Time Example:

What is the power loss through a circuit that has a
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
5 A current and a 24 Q resistance?
Figure 13-2. An alternating current produces voltage that
rises and falls. Root mean square voltage equates the
Solution:
fluctuating voltage value to a direct current value that would
produce the same heating effect. P=PxR
p = 52 X 24
p = 25 X 24
Vrms = Vmax X 0.707 P = 600 W power loss
Vrms = 170 V x 0.707 This formula can also be used to calculate the
Vrms = 120.19 V power loss through individual components in a circuit.
To find a circuit's total power loss using this method,
The effective current, or rms current (I ;), of an
all the wattages of each component are added to get the
ac power source is calculated the same as r:rr{; voltage.
total power loss of the circuit.
The maximum current value (I ) in the alternating
Note that this formula (P = 12 x R) is equivalent to
current's cycle is multiplied by 0~707.
the Watt's law formula. This is because (12 x R) can be
I rms = I max x 0.707 reinterpreted as E x I. Remember that I x R = E and I x
E = P. Therefore, 12 x R = I x E.
Example:
If the maximum current of an ac power source Inductive Reactance
peaks at 5 A, what is the effective current (rms current)? Power loss can also occur due to inductance.
I rms= I max x 0.707 Inductance is an electrical property that opposes a change
Irms = 5 Ax 0.707 in current. Therefore, in an ac circuit where current is
changing constantly, inductance's opposition to current
Irms = 3.535 A change creates a noticeable power loss. The opposition

13.1.2 Power Loss

In Phase Resistive Circuit
Power loss is the difference between power output +
and power input. In some cases, the cause of power
loss is electrical resistance. Electrical resistance is com-
parable to mechanical resistance, much like brakes on -
C

~:::,
an automobile. As an automobile's mechanical brakes
use friction to slow or stop a wheel's motion, electri- ~ o----~---- ---~---~--
C)
cal resistance slows or stops the flow of current. As the s I
current pushes through the resistance, heat produced 0 I
> I
from the resistance is released, indicating a power
loss. Extra unintentional resistance may result from a I
I I I
bad connection, improperly sized conductors, or other 1/4 1/2 3/4
conditions. Voltage - - cycle cycle cycle cycle
A circuit that provides only resistance is called a Current - - Time
resistive circuit. Since resistance limits or resists the Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
flow of current, it creates a voltage drop, but it leaves Figure 13-3. In a purely resistive circuit, voltage and current
both voltage and current in phase. Voltage and current are in phase.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

294 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

of inductance to current change causes voltage and cur- Phase Shift in a Capacitive Circuit
rent to alternate out of phase. The alternating current lags - - - - + - Voltage lag
behind the alternating voltage. This opposition to alter- +
nating current that causes current to lag behind voltage is
called inductive reactance, Figure 13-4. c
Like resistance, inductive reactance causes power loss ~:::,
and is measured in ohms (Q). Examples of inductive com-
ponents include motors, relays, transformers, and speak- ~ 01'------,t-- - -- - - -- - - -....-- -
C)

ers. Inductors are generally devices with coils of wire. .19 I I

;g I I
Capacitive Reactance I I
I I I
Capacitance is the ability to store an electrical I I I
charge in an electrostatic field. See Chapter 12, Basic 1/4 1/2 3/4
Electricity. When ac voltage is applied to a capacitor, cycle cycle cycle cycle
Voltage - -
the plates of the capacitor charge and discharge repeat- Current - - Time
edly. As the voltage builds on one plate of the capaci- Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
tor, electrons discharge from (current flows from) the Figure 13-5. In a capacitive circuit, voltage and current are
other plate of the capacitor. As a result, a phase shift out of phase. Voltage lags behind current because as voltage
occurs in which alternating voltage lags behind alter- builds on one plate of a capacitor, current is peaking and
nating current. This opposition to alternating current being discharged from the other plate of the capacitor.
that causes voltage to lag behind current is called
capacitive reactance, Figure 13-5. or capacitive reactance. The value of apparent power
Like inductive reactance and resistance, capacitive is always calculated in volt-amperes (VA). To find the
reactance produces resistance to the flow of alternating actual power used by a circuit, which is called the cir-
current and is measured in ohms (Q). Capacitive reac- cuit's true power, take a reading with a wattmeter. A
tance also causes power loss in circuits. Most capaci- wattmeter is an instrument that measures a circuit's
tive components are capacitors. true power, and true power is always measured in
watts.
13.1.3 Power Factor The apparent power of a circuit can equal its true
power, but this only occurs if the circuit is purely resis-
As discussed earlier in this chapter, power can be tive. In other words, apparent power equals true power
calculated with the following formula: P = I x E. This when the circuit only has resistive components and
calculated value is called apparent power, as it does does not have inductive components (motors, relays,
not take into account the effects of inductive reactance etc.) or capacitive components (capacitors). Without the
influence of these two electrical properties, the volt-
age and current will alternate in phase and apparent
Phase Shift in an Inductive Circuit
power will equal true power. However, when induc-
1----+- Current lag
tive or capacitive components are in a circuit, two
results will occur:

-
C

~:::,
• Voltage and current will alternate out of phase.
• Apparent power and true power will differ.
~ o,____,,_____ _________ _ _ A circuit's power factor shows the relationship
C) between a circuit's true power and apparent power.
.19 Power factor is the ratio of true power (a wattmeter
;g reading) to apparent power (calculated power in volt-
amperes) and is given as a percentage.
I I I
1/4 1/2 3/4
cycle cycle cycle cycle Power factor = ( True power ) x 100
Voltage - - Apparent power
Current - - Time
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Example:
Figure 13-4. In an inductive circuit, voltage and current are Connected to an ac circuit, a voltmeter reads 120 V,
out of phase. Current lags behind voltage because inductance and an ammeter reads 10 A. Using the formula for
resists a change in current. power, we can calculate the apparent power:

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 13 Electrical Power 295

P =lxE Pro Tip

P = 120Vx lOA
P = 1200VA Electrical Equipment Variables
Connecting a wattmeter to the circuit measures its Check with the electric utility company before install-
true power value. It reads 1000 W. To calculate the cir- ing equipment of any sizable horsepower. Remember
cuit's power factor, divide the true power by the appar- that most of North America distributes electricity at
60 Hz, but many other countries distribute electricity
ent power, and multiply the result by 100.
at 50 Hz.
Power factor = ( True power ) x 100

I
Apparent power
13.2.1 Single-Phase and Three-Phase
Power factor = ( lOOO W ) x 100 Power
1200VA
Power factor = 0.83 x 100 The two most common voltage phase options used
Power factor = 83% in HVACR are single-phase and three-phase:
Because the true power and apparent power are not • 240 V single-phase power is usually supplied to
equal, the power factor of this circuit is below 100%. This residential homes.
means the circuit must have an inductive or capacitive • 480 V three-phase power is usually supplied to
component that is resisting the change in current. commercial buildings.
A single-phase voltage cycle has a single alternat-
Thinking Green ing current. The voltage starts at zero, rises to a posi-
Improving Power Factor tive maximum, falls to a negative maximum, and rises
To improve the power factor of inductive circuits, to zero again as the cycle repeats. There is no power
add capacitors to the circuit. In this way, the capacitive produced during the instant that the voltage is zero.
reactance of the capacitors will counteract the induc- Most power circuits in a residence operate on 120 V
tive reactance of the inductors. Based on the apparent single-phase power, Figure 13-7.
power calculation, a technician can install a capacitor More than one alternating current may be used in
and compare the true power readings of a wattmeter a single circuit. However, each alternating current is
with the apparent power to improve a circuit's power out of phase with the other alternating currents. Such
factor. The ideal power factor should be as close as an arrangement is called polyphase. The most widely
possible to 100%. This will result in the most efficient used polyphase option is three-phase voltage, which
and economical use of energy.
has three separate voltage signals alternating in three
separate phases, Figure 13-8.
The separate voltage signals in a three-phase
13.2 Power Circuits cycle are delayed so that they peak at different times.
Electrical loads and their circuits must be com-
patible with the power provided by an electric util-
ity company. Compatibility variables include voltage Residential and Commercial Electrical
level, current capacity, frequency (in Hertz), and volt- Service Options
age phase. Wires must be large enough to carry the
Voltage Frequency Phase
full or maximum current that electrical loads will use.
Electrical loads must be designed to operate using a 115 60 Single
circuit's frequency, which is 50 Hz or 60 Hz, depending
120 60 Single
on location. The most commonly used voltage phases
are single-phase and three-phase. Figure 13-6 shows 208 60 Single
some of the common voltage, frequency, and voltage 230 60 Single
phase options that electric utility companies supply. 230 60 Three

Caution 240 60 Single

AC/DC 240 60 Three

Never connect alternating current appliances or 480 60 Three
instruments into direct current circuits. Never connect Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
direct current appliances or instruments into alternating
Figure 13-6. This chart shows typical residential and
current circuits.
commercial voltages, frequencies, and phases.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

296 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Single-Phase Power used in installing electrical systems. In addition, many

170V I cities and communities have supplementary local
___ I ___ I ____ I __ codes. All electrical installations must be made in con-
I formity with national and local codes.
I For HVACR systems, most electrical circuits fall
~ I under the NEC definition of a Class 2 circuit. Class 2
c, I
;gs 0f-----.---------~---~--
I
circuits are defined as circuits supplied by a power
source that has an output no greater than 30 V and
I 1000 VA In addition, a Class 2 circuit is defined as the
I I portion of a wiring system between the power source
- - - -1- - - - t- - - -
and the connected equipment. Examples of Class 2
-170V I I I
1/4 1/2 3/4 circuits include remote-control circuits with a relay or
cycle cycle cycle cycle any other device that controls another circuit, such as
Time a circuit for a thermostat. Class 2 circuits also include
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
signal circuits, examples of which include circuits for a
Figure 13-7. This graph represents one complete cycle of
warning buzzer or signal light.
alternating current in a typical 120 V residential circuit. Note HVACR service technicians are permitted to
that for a 120 V circuit, the maximum voltage value is 170 V. make Class 2 connections and installations. Examples
By multiplying 170 V by 0.707, you can confirm that 120 Vis include connecting electrical devices used to control
the root mean square voltage of the circuit. furnaces or installing heat pumps and other HVACR
equipment in residences. In addition, service techni-
cians are allowed to install and service low-voltage
Three-Phase Power
components and wiring within HVACR equipment.
Any component that is integral to the proper operation
of HVACR equipment counts as being "within" the
equipment, even if it is not physically inside it.
~
C)
S 0t--"""<--- -+-----'.,_"T"""-+-- - > , , - -+---.----lr- - . -
Code Alert
;g
Wiring Power Circuits
Because Class 2 circuits only encompass the
-325 V I portion of a circuit between the power source and con-
1/2 nected equipment, HVACR technicians cannot install
cycle cycle branch circuits, power supply circuits, or service con-
Time ductors that supply a piece of HVACR equipment with
power. See NEC article 725 for more information on
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Class 2 circuits.
Figure 13-8. The separate alternating currents in a three-
phase voltage cycle are set off from each other by one-third of
a cycle. The separation of each voltage peak provides a more
stable flow of electricity without the wide variation in voltage of 13.2.3 Wire Sizes
a single-phase circuit.
The current-carrying capacity of a conductor
(wire) depends on its diameter and material. Larger
This delay creates the effect of giving constant power wires can carry a higher current than smaller wires,
because there is never an instant where all the voltages and copper can carry higher current than aluminum.
are zero. Three-phase power is often used by commer- The following information is based on copper con-
cial businesses that have a higher-voltage, three-phase ductors, as copper is the most widely used electrical
transformer. The advantage of using the higher-volt- conductor.
age, three-phase power source is that there is less Wire size is specified by the American Wire Gage
power loss at the transformer. (AWG). AWG is the designation most commonly used
on wires. The smallest commonly used wire size in
HVACR is 18 AWG. As the wire diameter increases,
13.2.2 Electrical Codes the AWG number decreases. In addition, the resistance
The National Electrical Code (NEC) establishes of the wire also decreases as diameter measurements
rules and regulations covering materials and methods increase, Figure 13-9.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 13 Electrical Power 297

wire, and 10 AWG wire should be used for 30-amp

Conductor Sizes and Resistance Properties
outlets. For 40-amp outlets, use 8 AWG stranded wire.
Direct Current Resistance These examples are just guidelines. There may be situ-
Size (AWG) Diameter at 75°C (167°F) ations where correction factors will require a larger
[Q/1,000 feet] wire. Always consult with an experienced electrician
18 0.040" 8.08Q when installing wire.
16 0.051" 5.08Q
14
13.2.4 Connectors and Terminals
0.064" 3.19Q

I
12
For easy troubleshooting, repair, and disassem-
0.081" 2.01 Q
bly, many wires and cables in an HVACR system
10 0.102" 1.26 Q are connected at terminals with a variety of connec-
8 0.128" 0.786Q tors, instead of soldering. Wrapping stranded wires
around a terminal screw does not make a good or
6 0.184" 0.510 Q permanent connection. Strands of wire may work
4 0.232" 0.321 Q loose and cause a ground fault or short circuit. Before
a wire is attached to a connector, one end of the wire
3 0.260" 0.254Q
must be stripped.
2 0.292" 0.201 Q Wiring stripping is generally done with an electri-
1
cal tool called a wire stripper. These are available in
0.332" 0.160 Q
different makes and models for different types of wire
1/0 0.372" 0.127 Q and different wire sizes, Figure 13-10.
2/0 0.418" 0.101 Q
Caution
3/0 0.470" 0.0797 Q
Wire Stripper Use
4/0 0.528" 0.0626 Q When stripping wires, be sure to use the proper
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher setting. A setting too large will cause difficulty in remov-
Figure 13-9. This chart shows AWG wire sizes and their ing the insulation. A setting too small could nick the wire
corresponding diameters in inches. Notice that as the values or even cut some of strands off a stranded wire. This
for diameter increase, the resistance in ohms decreases. could reduce the ampacity of the wire and may result in
overheating or other damage.

Many types of connectors have been developed to

Wires larger than 1 AWG have a slash zero (/0) make good electrical connections. For example, wire
added to the number. For example, the wire sizes larger
than 1 AWG are 1/0 AWG (pronounced one aught),
2/0 AWG, 3/0 AWG, and 4/0 AWG. Unlike standard
gage sizes, the numbers for aught sizes increase as the
wire size increases.

Pro Tip
Gage or Aught
If your supervisor tells you to bring a roll of four
to the site, would you know which size to bring?
Electricians will typically say "gage" or "aught" after the
number when specifying wire size. A 4 AWG (four gage)
wire can handle about 85 amps and is used for feed-
ers to heavy-duty equipment. A 4/0 AWG (four aught)
wire can handle 230 amps and is used for service to an
entire building. If you are not sure, always ask.

The electrical wire that is run to outlet recep- hi/mar

tacles must be adequately sized. For example, 15- and Figure 13-10. Various wire strippers. Often these can also
20-ampere outlets should be supplied with 12 AWG function as wire crimpers and cutters.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

298 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

terminals help service technicians remove and replace into a 240 V circuit. The appliance will very quickly
wire leads quickly, Figure 13-11. burn out. Likewise, an appliance with protection up to
15 A cannot be connected into a circuit of 30 A capac-
Crimping Wires to Wire Terminals ity. The appliance could burn out, or an overcurrent
Make sure to clean the terminal with clean protection device, such as a circuit breaker, could be
steel wool before connecting wires using the damaged.
following procedure: The National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) has developed standardized receptacle and
1. Strip wire to length of terminal. Make sure
plug configurations. Figure 13-12 shows receptacle
wire strands are still wrapped tightly.
and plug configurations commonly used with HVACR
2. Insert stripped wire into the terminal end, equipment.
called the barrel, at the manufacturer's pre-
scribed length.
13.2.6 Circuit Protection
3. Open the crimping tool and place it around
the barrel. Electric current flowing through a circuit produces
4. Squeeze down on the handle of the crimping heat and a magnetic field. A surge of current causes
tool until it bottoms out. the circuit to produce more heat and electromagnetic
interference than it produces normally. Appliances can
5. Check crimp for tightness.
be damaged or ruined by the heat, and instruments
can be damaged by the electromagnetic interference.
13.2.5 Receptacle and Plug Overcurrent protection devices are used to prevent the
Configurations problems caused by an accidental current surge. Two
of the most common overcurrent protection devices
It is sometimes necessary to connect electrical are circuit breakers and fuses.
devices using flexible cords and plugs. Most electri-
cal devices are designed for a particular power supply Circuit Breakers
specification. One of the most common protective devices is a
circuit breaker, Figure 13-13. Current flowing through
Code Alert a protected circuit passes through a solenoid in the cir-
Accessible Electrical Outlet cuit breaker. If the current in the circuit exceeds a pre-
Section 210.63 of the National Electrical Code
determined level, the increased magnetic effect of the
requires at least one 125-volt, 15- or 20-ampere-rated current surge causes a spring-loaded switch to open
receptacle outlet to be installed in an accessible loca- the circuit. When the current exceeds the set limit, the
tion for use when servicing HVACR equipment. This circuit is broken. A circuit breaker can be reset after it
requirement ensures that an electrical outlet is conve- has been tripped.
niently located for connecting various pieces of equip-
ment during service. Fuses
Another protective device is a fuse. A fuse con-
Connections to a power supply must match the tains a metal conductor in series with the circuit. The
electrical specifications of the equipment. For instance, metal conductor inside the fuse is specifically engi-
an appliance designed for 120 V cannot be connected neered to allow current up to a certain level to pass. If

0
' -

Ring
""Barrel
Spade ~
Flanged Spade
Hook ~
Flag
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 13-11. Some common types of wire terminals used to connect electrical wires to terminal posts.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 13 Electrical Power 299

Receptacle and Plug Configurations

15 Ampere 20 Ampere
Conductor Type Volts
Receptacle Plug Receptacle Plug
2 pole / 3 wire /
grounding type
125 V

-e - - e
250 V

- - I e
277V

- - - e
-8 - - -
3 pole / 3 wire / 250 V
3 phase

- -e -
3 pole / 4 wire / 250 V
3 phase/
grounding type

4 pole / 4 wire /
3 phase
120/208 V

e - - Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 13-12. NEMA-approved receptacle and plug configurations help to prevent technicians from placing the wrong-sized plug
into an outlet.

current exceeds that level, it will heat the fuse enough

to melt. This will cause the circuit to open, stopping the
current and protecting the circuit. Fuses are typically
available in either a plug or cartridge arrangement.
Fuses used in HVACR circuits are usually designed to
carry 5, 10, 15, 20, or 30 A, Figure 13-14.

Code Alert
Electrical Disconnect Box
Section 440.14 of the NEC requires that a discon-
necting means be readily accessible and within sight of
HVACR equipment. The disconnecting means cannot
be more than 50' away from the unit. Access to the dis-
connecting means cannot require ladder use, tools, or
moving obstacles in the way.
Most residential air conditioning units have an
outdoor electrical disconnect box nearby. The outdoor
box includes a disconnect and may include fuses to
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
protect the condensing unit, as shown in Figure 13-15.
Figure 13-13. A circuit breaker is designed to open (break) Disconnect boxes often include replaceable 30 A to
a circuit if the current passing through the circuit breaker
60 A fuses.
exceeds the set limit.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

300 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Thermistor
Another type of protection device is a therm-
istor. A thermistor regulates the flow of current
by changing its resistance based on heat. In some
cases, a thermistor may cause the current flow to
be reduced to a safe value. More information about
thermistors will be presented in Chapter 14, Basic
Electronics.
Thermistors are primarily used in low-voltage
electronic applications. Their ability to function as a
temperature sensing probe helps to prevent a motor
or circuit from overheating, making them useful
circuit protection devices.

Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter

Another form of circuit protection is the ground
fault circuit interrupter (GFCI). This device detects
current imbalances between the ungrounded (hot) and
grounded (neutral) conductors of a circuit and opens
the circuit, preventing or minimizing harm to both the
equipment and the technician. A ground fault circuit
interrupter opens when the equipment connected to
it is defective, misused, or improperly grounded. A
ground fault circuit interrupter opens when as little
as 6 milliamperes (0.006 amperes, 6 mA) of current
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher leaks out of the circuit and into the grounding system.
Figure 13-14. Some standard types of fuses. Unlike circuit Like a circuit breaker, a GFCI can be reset rather than
breakers, fuses can be used only once. If the conductor in a replaced. Figure 13-16 shows a ground fault circuit
fuse melts, it must be replaced by a new fuse. interrupter receptacle.

Normal operation
indicator light

A B
DiversiTech Corporation
Figure 13-15. A-This disconnect box is installed and operating properly, as indicated by its operation light. B-Disconnect
boxes are built to allow a technician to easily remove the disconnect. Not all include fuses.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 13 Electrical Power 301

electrode. The conductor that connects the electrical sys-

Testbutton Resetbutton
tem to that rod is a grounding electrode conductor.
Grounded conductors are connected to a grounded
transformer. These wires are often called the neutral wires.
These wires are most often white, though they can be grey
or be a color that is not green and having three continuous
.J. white or grey stripes along its length.

• •- Ungrounded conductors are connected to the

phase lines of a transformer. These wires are often
called the hot wires. These wires typically have black

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 13-16. The NEC requires that ground fault circuit
interrupter receptacles, such as the one shown here, be used
insulation, but they can be any color except green,
green with stripes, gray, or white.

Electrical components must be grounded. These

include compressors, condensers, evaporator fan motors,
defrost timers, temperature controls, and ice makers. They
are grounded by connecting an individual wire from the
I
in bathrooms, kitchens, and other places where moisture may
electrical component to a grounded part of the appliance.
be present.
Ground wires should not be removed from individual
components while servicing. The exception to this rule is
Code Alert if the component is to be removed and replaced.
GFCI Receptacles Safety Note
Section 210.8 of the NEC states that a GFCI is
required for outdoor outlets, garages, swimming pools,
Grounding Components
certain indoor applications where water is present, and Some service procedures may require removing
other locations. GFCI receptacles are required by code a component's ground wire temporarily. It is extremely
for kitchen and bath applications where water splashing important that the service technician replace any and all
may occur. Always refer to local codes and the National ground wires prior to completing the service call. Under no
Electrical Code when determining if a circuit should be conditions should a ground wire be left off. It is a potential
protected by a GFCI. hazard to the service technician and the customer.

In addition to grounding all electrical compo-

13.2.7 Grounding and Bonding nents, a technician must also create a continuous
An electrical system that is grounded has a proper electrical connection of all the metal parts in an electri-
connection to the earth. Most soil (ground) is a fairly cal system. This is called bonding. Bonding involves
good conductor of electricity. Moist ground is a better joining all metallic components of an electrical sys-
conductor than dry ground. There are many ways to tem, even those that do not normally carry current,
connect an electrical system to the earth (grounding such as metallic boxes and conduit. Bonding creates
rods, plates, copper water pipes), all of which should be a good metallic connection throughout an electrical
installed by a trained electrician and inspected by the system, which diverts current from a fault (such as an
local authority having jurisdiction. ungrounded conductor contacting metallic conduit)
through the metallic connections and back to the earth.
Pro Tip This prevents and protects people from electric shock
Grounding Terminology in the case of a fault. Figure 13-17 illustrates the proper
method of bonding a receptacle to an electrical box.
There are terms, such as hot, neutral, and ground,
that are often improperly used to describe the types of
Safety Note
conductors in an electrical system. The following should
help you understand the proper terminology as it is Grounding Prong
described in the National Electrical Code. Under no conditions is the grounding prong to be
Ground is the earth to which an electrical system cut off or removed from an electrical cord. Sometimes a
connects. When a technician says, "This box is a good grounded appliance must be installed where there is no
ground," the implication is that the box has an unswitched, grounded, three-prong wall receptacle. The customer is
continuous electrical connection to the earth. responsible for contacting a qualified electrician to install a
Grounding refers to the act of connecting some- grounded, three-prong wall receptacle in accordance with
thing to the earth or the equipment that connects something the appropriate electrical code. A temporary accommoda-
to earth. A metal rod driven into the earth is a grounding tion can be made by using a grounding adapter.

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302 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

typical ground connection for a residential air handler

cabinet.
Metallic
conduit
provides
grounding 13.3 Electrical Problems
There are times when electrical components do
not work as expected. The majority of problems can be
Wire narrowed down to the following common problems: a
nut short circuit, ground fault (a short to ground), an over-
load, an unintentional voltage drop, or an open circuit.
Box
ground
wire Bonding ----- 13.3.1 Short Circuit
jumper
A short circuit occurs when current is uninten-
Grounding _ ____.,c:..,, tionally routed around a component or electrical load,
screw instead of through it. This can happen because elec-
trons always follow the path of least resistance. In a
short circuit, electrons take a shortcut back to their
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
source, causing the load to stop working, Figure 13-19.
Figure 13-17. The receptacle is connected to the incoming
ground wire, the metallic electrical box, and the metallic
In a short circuit, the low resistance causes the cur-
conduit. By properly bonding and grounding an electrical rent to be extremely high. This high current may cause
system, a technician prevents the possibility of electric shock. the wires to overheat and will likely cause the overcur-
rent protection to react, such as a circuit breaker trip-
ping or a fuse blowing. A common example of a short
In all HVACR electrical circuits, the ground wire circuit is when noninsulated parts of conductors come
is green. This wire is never used as a current-carrying into contact with each other. When two conductors
conductor. Its main purpose is to provide protection come into contact with each other, most of the current
in the event of an accidental ground. To avoid any will go through the conductors and bypass the electri-
possibility of electric shock, all HVACR systems must cal load.
always be properly grounded. Figure 13-18 shows a
13.3.2 Ground Fault
Grounding A ground fault is a condition in which a device
or ungrounded metal part becomes electrically hot or
live. This is like a short circuit to ground that is waiting
to happen. This can occur when an unknowing person
touches the electrically live part and something that is
grounded. This normally results in a dangerous elec-
trical shock.

Caution
Ground Fault Shocks
For any service call, take note of the age of the
building and the age of the HVACR system. If it appears
to be built before 1970, the electrical wiring may be
constructed in a way that is prone to ground faults. In
such cases, exercise extreme caution. Do not touch
your hands to two different parts of a system (such as
a furnace casing and ductwork) without first using a
ClimateMaster
voltmeter to see if one is electrically live. If any such
measurements show voltage, lock out and tagout the
Figure 13-18. The green ground wire is attached to a grounding
power until finding the root cause. Note that this may
screw, which is connected to a metal surface that is bonding the
entire metal case. Another larger wire connected to the metal involve rewiring that some localities require to be done
case will act as the whole unit's equipment grounding conductor. by a licensed electrician.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 13 Electrical Power 303

Pro Tip
Overload vs. Short Circuit
Touching conductors There is a difference between overloads and short
Electrons provide alternate path
circuits. Both are overcurrent events. A short circuit
bypass lightbulb
occurs when current goes around an electrical load,
resulting in extremely high current. No resistance makes
for extremely high current. A short circuit will cause an
immediate tripping of a circuit breaker or blowing of a fuse.
An overload occurs when current is still following
its proper path, but too much current is flowing due to
some cause. An overload's higher than normal current

t draw may not cause overcurrent protection to react as

quickly or at all, depending on the level of overcurrent.

Battery
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 13-19. The touching conductors are shorting out the
13.3.4 Unintentional Voltage Drop
An unintentional voltage drop is a condition in
which the applied voltage from a power source is unin-
tentionally reduced in a circuit. This may be down to
I
lightbulb by redirecting electric current around it. a level that is too low for safe use on the electrical load
in the circuit. This condition may be caused by factors
such as the length of wires, wire gage size, wire mate-
A ground fault provides electrons with an alter- rial, temperature, impedance from magnetic fields,
nate path with less resistance. A ground fault poses a or poor electrical connections. All of these variables
serious hazard if all the metallic objects in an electrical can add resistance, creating a small electrical load
system are not joined through bonding. For example, if across which some of the applied voltage is dropped.
a current-carrying conductor contacts an electrical box Depending on where a voltage drop occurs, it may
that is not properly bonded to other metal equipment, make less voltage available for certain electrical loads.
then that box could become electrically energized. Any When installing HVACR equipment, follow the
person that touches the box could become the conduc- equipment manufacturer's guidelines and applicable
tor to ground. A circuit equipped with a GFCI helps electrical codes for recommended wire length and diam-
to prevent this potential hazard. The GFCI will detect eter. If the equipment must be located far from the volt-
that there is a loss of current to the ground and open age source, the wire diameter may be increased to prevent
the circuit to prevent a dangerous shock hazard. line losses and supply proper voltage to the unit.
Poor connections and excessively long wire
13.3.3 Overload lengths are common causes of unintentional voltage
drops. When installing wiring, use the following for-
An overload is a condition in which too much mula to calculate a conductor's voltage drop (V 0 ) and
current flows through a circuit. This condition often avoid such problems. For a single-phase, two- or three-
leads to excess heat generation and can result in fire or wire system, use this formula:
deterioration of electrical insulation. Overloads result
from an incorrect power supply, equipment failure, too V = (2 x L x R x I)
many loads connected in parallel, or electromechani- D 1000
cal equipment operating under strained conditions. V0 = voltage drop
A common example of too many parallel loads L = length of the conductor in feet
occurs when too many appliances or electrical devices R = resistance of the conductor (values found in a
are plugged into a single outlet using an outlet adapter. table or chart)
With all of these appliances trying to draw current I = current of the circuit in amps
from a single circuit, the total amperage required may
exceed the circuit's capability. Overcurrent protec- For example, if 120 V is applied to a 50' run of
tion devices, such as circuit breakers and fuses, are 10 AWG wire carrying 30 A, what is the voltage drop?
designed to open a circuit when the current in the cir- Already knowing the length and current of the wire, a
cuit exceeds a certain amperage. This prevents the risk technician need only refer to an NEC table listing con-
of excessive heat generation or insulation deterioration. ductor properties to find the resistance of the conductor.

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304 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

In this case, Figure 13-9 lists the resistance of 10 AWG 13.3.5 Open Circuit
wire as 1.26 Q. Therefore, the values for each variable
can be plugged in as follows: An open circuit means there is a break in the cur-
rent's path, stopping the flow of current through the
V = (2 x L x R x I) circuit. An open circuit can result from a poorly wired
D 1000 electrical connection, a broken wire, an open fuse or
V = (2 x 50' x 1.26 Q x 30 A) circuit breaker, or a burned-out component, such as a
D 1000 motor, Figure 13-20.
V = 3780 When checking a component as the cause of an
D 1000 open circuit, take a voltage reading across the com-
ponent's terminals. With power applied to the circuit,
VD= 3.78V the voltage measurement will read the applied voltage
value of the circuit. A measurement with a clamp-on
If the applied voltage is 120 V, and 3.78 V are
ammeter or ammeter will show no current because an
dropped, then the voltage that reaches the load at
open circuit will not allow current to flow.
the end of the 50' conductor will be 116.22 V. A motor
designed to operate at 120 V may lose speed if there is
a large amount of voltage drop in the circuit. The rotor Power source
(wire loop) will start slipping relative to the magnetic
field in the stator (stationary windings). The rotor will
slow down below its synchronous speed, causing the
magnetic fields to grow large at the wrong time. The
motor will heat up, and it may even burn up.
Most HVACR equipment is designed to operate in
a range of ±10% of its rated voltage. Continuous opera-
tion outside the 10% range may harm the equipment. It
is always a good practice to check voltage levels at the
Motor Blown fuse
power source (circuit breaker box) and at the unit to
determine how much voltage loss has occurred.

Pro Tip
Voltage Drop
It is important to calculate voltage drop, especially Open Circuit
with motors. Compare each motor's rated voltage on its Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
nameplate against a voltage reading on the motor's ter- Figure 13-20. The motor is not running because the blown
minals. A 120 V motor should be able to operate at a fuse has caused an open circuit.
voltage level from 108 V to 132 V.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Grounding and bonding all electrical and
metallic components help to prevent electric
• A circuit's electrical power is a product of shock. Bonding creates a good metallic
current multiplied by voltage. Watt's law is connection throughout an electrical system,
much like Ohm's law and can be arranged to which diverts current, in the case of a fault,
solve for any of the three variables. Power is through the metallic connections and back to
measured in watts (W), kilowatts (kW), and the earth.
megawatts (MW). • Electrical problems in circuits are commonly
• The voltage, current, and power of an the result of one of the following five problems:

I
alternating current are constantly changing a short circuit, a ground fault (short to ground),
within a cycle. Root mean square (rms) values an overload, an unintentional voltage drop, or
are used to calculate the equivalent de values of an open circuit. By calculating a conductor's
an ac sine wave. This provides constant values voltage drop, a technician can determine if a
for voltage and current that can be used to certain size conductor will deliver the proper
calculate the power used by an ac circuit. voltage to a load. If voltage drop is too great, it
can damage the load.
• Resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive
reactance all cause a loss of power. Both
inductive reactance and capacitive reactance
cause voltage and current to cycle out of phase Review Questions
with each other. Answer the following questions using the information in
• The apparent power of a circuit equals its true this chapter.
power only if the circuit is purely resistive.
The phase shift caused by inductive reactance 1. What is the power used by an electric motor
or capacitive reactance affects a circuit's true that draws a current of 15 A from a 240 V
power. Power factor is a ratio that shows the power source?
relationship between true power and apparent A. 16W
power expressed as a percentage. B. 255W
C. 1800W
• Electrical loads need to be compatible with the
D. 3600W
power supplied by the electric utility company.
Important variables to match include voltage level, 2. To calculate an alternating current's root
current capacity, frequency, and voltage phase. mean square voltage, multiply the maximum
• For HVACR purposes, most power is either voltage value by _ _.
A. 0.637
single-phase or three-phase. Single-phase
voltage has a single, alternating electrical B. 0.707
C. 1.57
signal. Three-phase voltage has three voltage
D. 3.14
signals alternating in three different phases.
• The National Electrical Code (NEC) establishes 3. Since resistance limits the flow of current, it
regulations and guidelines for materials causes
and methods used in electrical installation. A. a voltage drop
Most HVACR electrical work involves wiring B. an open circuit
Class 2 circuits. Wire size is designated by the C. voltage to lag behind current
American Wire Gage (AWG). D. current to lag behind voltage
• The main types of overcurrent protection 4. When voltage and current reach their positive
devices are the circuit breaker, fuse, thermistor, and negative peaks at the same time in an
and ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI). alternating current cycle, they are said to
Circuit breakers and fuses are current-sensing be
devices that open a circuit if the current A. out of phase
exceeds a predetermined level. A ground B. in phase
fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) opens a circuit C. root mean square values
if it detects an imbalance between a circuit's D. power factors
ungrounded (hot) and grounded (neutral) lines.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 305

306 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

5. Inductive reactance affects the true power of 13. A form of circuit protection that opens the
a circuit because it causes circuit if it detects an imbalance between the
A. a ground fault ungrounded and grounded wires of a circuit
B. an open circuit is a
C. voltage to lag behind current A. circuit breaker
D. current to lag behind voltage B. fuse
6. Capacitive reactance affects the true power of C. thermistor
a circuit because it causes D. ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI)
A. a ground fault 14. A form of circuit protection that employs a
B. an open circuit solenoid to open the circuit if current exceeds
C. voltage to lag behind current a predetermined level is a _ _.
D. current to lag behind voltage A. circuit breaker
7. Which of the following values is always B. fuse
calculated in volt-amperes? C. thermistor
A. Power factor D. ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI)
B. Apparent power 15. A form of circuit protection that contains a
C. True power metal conductor that melts to open a circuit
D. Reactive power when current is too high is a _ _.
8. Electricity distributed in North America has a A. circuit breaker
frequency of _ _ Hz. B. fuse
A. 50 C. thermistor
B. 60 D. ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI)
C. 120 16. A GFCI opens when as little as _ _ amperes
D. 240 leaks out of a circuit and into the grounding
9. The most widely used polyphase power system.
arrangement used in HVACR is _ _ power. A. 0.001
A. one-phase B. 0.002
B. three-phase C. 0.004
C. four-phase D 0.006
D. nine-phase 17. An ungrounded conductor is also sometimes
10. The power source that supplies power to a called a
Class 2 circuit cannot have an output greater A. neutral wire
than B. grounding rod
A. 30 V and 1000 VA C. hotwire
B. 5 V and 750 VA D. equipment grounding conductor
C. 24 V and 500 VA 18. Joining all the metallic components of an
D. 120 V and 250 VA electrical system, even those that do not
11. Electrical wire size is specified by the _ _. normally carry current, is defined as _ _.
A. National Electrical Code (NEC) A. grounding
B. National Electrical Manufacturers B. faulting
Association (NEMA) C. bonding
C. Refrigeration Service Engineers Society D. joining
(RSES) 19. The ground wire in an HVACR electrical
D. American Wire Gage (AWG) circuit is always _ _.
12. A form of circuit protection that only A. green
regulates current flow by changing its B. blue
resistance based on heat is a C. red
A. circuit breaker D. black
B. fuse
C. thermistor
D. ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI)

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 Chapter 13 Electrical Power 307

20. Which electrical problem involves extremely

high current going around an electrical load?
A. Open circuit
B. Voltage drop
C. Overload
D. Short circuit
21. Which electrical problem involves a circuit's
applied voltage being reduced along a
conductor to a level that is too low for safe
use on the electrical load?
A. Open circuit
B. Voltage drop

I
C. Overload
D. Short circuit
22. Which electrical problem creates a dangerous
electrical shock situation that involves a
device or ungrounded metal becoming
electrically hot or live?
A. Ground fault
B. Voltage drop
C. Overload
D. Open circuit
23. Which electrical problem involves
overcurrent due to an incorrect power supply,
equipment failure, too many loads connected,
or electromechanical equipment operating
under strain?
A. Ground fault
B. Voltage drop
C. Overload
D. Open circuit
24. Which electrical problem is a break in the
current's path resulting from a bad electrical
connection, broken wire, open fuse or circuit
breaker, or a burned out component?
A. Open circuit
B. Voltage drop
C. Overload
D. Short circuit
25. Which electrical problem is most likely
to blow a fuse or trip a circuit breaker
immediately as it occurs?
A. Open circuit
B. Voltage drop
C. Overload
D. Short circuit

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 14 Basic Electronics

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
Chapter Outline Discuss how electrons and holes move through a
14.1 Semiconductor Basics semiconductor based on the principle of hole flow.
14.1.1 P-Type and N-Type Materials • Explain how forward biased and reverse biased
14.1.2 Diodes diodes affect the flow of current in a circuit.
14.2 Control Circuits and Electronic Devices • Define a control circuit and distinguish between
14.2.1 Diacs electronic and electrical devices used in a control
14.2.2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers and Triacs circuit.
14.2.3 Transistors
• Summarize the operation of various electronic
14.2.4 Rectifiers and Inverters
semiconductor devices and how they are used in
14.2.5 Thermistors
HVACR systems.
14.2.6 Photoelectric Devices
14.3 Circuit Boards and Microprocessors • Understand the purpose of microprocessors and
14.4 Switches and Contacts computers in HVACR systems.
14.5 Relays • Contrast the operation of various electrical
14.6 Solenoids devices, such as switches, relays, solenoids, and
14.7 Thermocouples thermocou pies.
 Chapter 14 Basic Electronics 309

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

anode positive temperature Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
cathode coefficient (PTC) you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
contacts printed circuit board (PCB) • Unlike polarities attract or move toward each other.
control circuit P-type material Like polarities repel or move away from each other.
diac rectifier (Chapter 12)
diode relay • Semiconductor devices often serve as switching
doping reverse bias devices because their conductivity can be controlled
forward bias Seebeck effect by an electrical signal, light intensity, pressure,
hole flow sensor temperature, or other variable or device. (Chapter 12)
inverter silicon-controlled rectifier
• A thermistor regulates the flow of electric current

I
microprocessor (SCR)
by changing its resistance based on ambient heat.
negative temperature solenoid
(Chapter 13)
coefficient (NTC) solid-state device
normally closed (NC) switch • The magnetic effect caused by current
normally open (NO) thermistor passing through a coiled conductor is called
N-type material thermocouple electromagnetism. (Chapter 12)
ohmmeter throw
photoelectric device transducer
pole transistor Introduction
triac
The basis of all electronic devices is semiconductor
material. Having a good understanding of how semicon-
ductors can be used to conduct or block the flow of cur-
rent in a circuit will help a technician comprehend how
individual electronic devices function. Electronic devices
are used in control circuits to regulate an HVACR sys-
tem and maintain stable conditions. Electronic devices
help to prevent a system from operating outside of its
designed boundaries.
Some electronic devices monitor conditions outside
of an HVACR system and tell the system when to turn on
or off. Other devices are used to control or alter the flow
of electricity in a circuit, which can be useful for convert-
ing current from one form to another, varying the speed
of a motor, or turning a motor on or off. In addition, other
devices are used to control the flow of refrigerant or other
fluids in a system.
310 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

14.1 Semiconductor Basics Electron attracted

Semiconductors are substances, such as silicon

and germanium, that can be made to conduct electric-
ity under certain conditions. This is done by adding
impurities to pure silicon or germanium, which causes
~ ·
Subsequent
an excess or shortage of electrons in the semiconductor

~
material. Each time an electron moves from one atom
to another, it leaves a hole behind that is filled by an
electron from an adjacent atom. Semiconductors con-
duct electricity based on the principle of hole flow.

14.1.1 P-Type and N-Type Materials ____.

Electrons move in one direction

TTTTTTTTTT
When impurities are added to a pure semiconduc- - - + - - - - - - - -
............................................................
tor, such as silicon, it is called doping. Elements, such
as boron, aluminum, phosphorous, and antimony, are
.,__
Hole moves in opposite direction
just a few of the impurities that can be added to a pure
semiconductor to change its conduction traits. Doping Hole Flow
produces two different types of semiconductor mate- Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

rials depending on whether the impurity causes an Figure 14-1. Electricity flowing through a semiconductor is
excess or a shortage of electrons in the material. conducted by the movement of holes. Negatively charged
electrons move in one direction, while positively charged holes
N-type material has a surplus of electrons. The
move in the opposite direction.
N is for negative, meaning that it has gained electrons,
which have a negative (-) charge. P-type material has
holes, or positively charged (+) spaces, that are ready 14.1.2 Diodes
to receive electrons. The P is for positive because the
A diode is a simple solid-state device composed of a
lack of electrons means that P-type material has fewer
P-type material and an N-type material. At the junction
negative charges. Because opposite charges attract
of the two types of materials, called the P-N junction,
each other, surplus electrons in N-type material are
a natural insulator is formed. Some of the negatively
strongly attracted to positively charged holes in P-type
charged electrons at the junction fill the positively
material.
charged holes, which creates a barrier. The joined elec-
Hole flow is the principle that explains how elec-
trons and holes repel their like charges on each side
trons and holes move through a semiconductor. When
an electron fills up a positively charged hole, it leaves
a positive hole in its place. As a result, the positive hole Holes repelled P-N junction Electrons repelled
that it leaves behind is then filled by the next elec- by other holes acts as natural by other electrons
at junction barrier at junction
tron. A chain reaction occurs in which electrons flow
through a semiconductor in one direction, while holes I
move in the opposite direction, Figure 14-1. 00.,.
••
-+ ••
Semiconductor, or solid-state, devices are formed
from various combinations of P-type and N-type mate- 00
rials. Different types of semiconductor devices can be 00 P N ••
formed by altering how the materials are joined and
how they are connected to a power source.

Pro Tip
00
00 ... -+ ••
••

Solid-State Devices
Potential difference in
Semiconductor devices used in electronic circuits atomic charges exists
can also be called solid-state devices. This is because Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
there are no moving parts in a semiconductor. The
Figure 14-2. The P-N junction of a diode forms a natural
switch from insulator to conductor is done on the atomic
barrier between the P-type and N-type materials. A potential
level. Rather than switches moving between contacts,
voltage exists because there is a difference in atomic charges
electrons and holes realign to allow conduction.
between the two materials.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 14 Basic Electronics 311
Stripe indicates Anode side
cathode side(-) (+)
Battery's positive Battery's negative

\ I polarity repels holes

toward junction
p N
polarity repels electrons
toward junction

Current flows
through diode

Diodes

Cathode(-) ----~1-1111-------Anode (+) t

Schematic Symbol
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 14-3. Diodes have a stripe on one end indicating which
end is the cathode. The bottom image shows how the cathode
and anode are indentified in the schematic symbol for a diode.
Battery
I
Forward Bias
of the junction, preventing electrons from crossing the Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
barrier to fill more holes. This barrier creates a potential Figure 14-4. A forward bias setup allows current to flow through
difference, or potential voltage, between the positively a diode because the battery's polarities repel both the holes and
charged P-type material and negatively charged N-type electrons toward the junction. With enough voltage, the electrons
material, Figure 14-2. overcome the barrier, fill the holes, and flow through the circuit.
The positively charged side of a diode is called the
anode and contains the P-type material. The negatively
to the anode, current will not flow in the circuit. This
charged side of a diode is called the cathode and con-
setup is called reverse bias, Figure 14-5.
tains the N-type material. Typically, a diode is marked
Since opposite charges attract, electrons in the cath-
with a stripe at one end, which indicates the cathode
ode move away from the junction toward the battery's
end, Figure 14-3.
positive polarity, and the positively charged holes do
Electrons will flow through a diode in only one direc-
tion: from the cathode to the anode. Occasionally, techni-
cians will refer to a diode as a rectifier because that is the Battery's positive N p Battery's negative
function it performs in an ac circuit. A rectifier is used in polarity attracts polarity attracts
electrons 00 00 holes
a circuit to convert alternating current (flows in two direc- 00 00
tions) to direct current (flows in only one direction). 00 00
When a diode is connected in a circuit to a de 00 00
power source, the polarity of the power source deter- 00 00
mines whether electrons will flow through the diode
or not. If the negative terminal of a battery is connected
to the cathode, and the positive terminal is connected
to the anode, current will flow in the circuit. This setup
is called forward bias, Figure 14-4.
Since like charges repel each other, the battery's
negative polarity repels the negatively charged elec-
trons toward the P-N junction. Likewise, the battery's
positive polarity repels the positively charged holes
toward the junction as well. If the power source pro- Battery
vides enough voltage to overcome the junction's poten-
Reverse Bias
tial difference, then the electrons and holes join at the Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
barrier, allowing current to flow through the circuit. Figure 14-5. A reverse bias setup prevents current from
If the positive terminal of a battery is connected flowing through a diode because the battery's polarities attract
to the cathode, and the negative terminal is connected both the holes and electrons away from the junction.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

312 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

likewise on the anode side. As a result, current cannot L1 - - - - - - 230 Vac _ _ _ _ _.., L2
flow through the circuit. A reverse bias setup essentially Contactor _ _ _ _ _~
increases the potential voltage barrier at the P-N junction. contacts Compressor

m
II
Testing a Diode
To test a diode, use an ohmmeter. An
Power
Circuit
/

ohmmeter is an instrument that can be used

to measure the resistance of a circuit or an 230Vac
electronic device, such as a diode.
1. Set the range switch for the ohmmeter to its 24Vac
lowest setting (xl or xlO). Thermostat
Control{
2. Connect the negative probe of the ohmmeter Circuit switch
to the cathode and the positive probe to the
anode. This is a forward bias setup.
/
3. The ohmmeter should show a low resistance Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
reading, indicating continuity through the diode. Figure 14-6. A low-voltage control circuit is often used to
4. Reverse the ohmmeter's probe connections so operate a higher voltage power circuit as shown with this
the positive probe is connected to the cathode simple air-conditioning circuit.
and the negative probe to the anode. This is a
reverse bias setup.
An electrical device is any device that controls the
5. The ohmmeter should show a very high flow of current without the use of semiconductors or
resistance. solid-state components. Devices such as light switches,
6. If the ohmmeter shows a very high resistance which have moving parts, or transformers, which use
for both setups or a very low resistance for electromagnetism, are examples of electrical devices.
both setups, then the diode is defective. An electrical circuit is simply a circuit without electronic
(semiconductor) devices.

14.2 Control Circuits and Electronic In many control circuits, control signals are pro-
duced or modified by sensors. Sensors are devices that
Devices detect and respond to some kind of stimulus, such as
A control circuit is a circuit that uses electrical or changes in temperature or pressure. Many sensors are
electronic devices to control current flow, causing loads in electronic devices. Some typical HVACR variables that
the power circuit to be either energized or de-energized. sensors monitor include room temperature, outside
Control circuits for HVACR systems use a variety of (ambient) temperature, humidity, compressor tempera-
devices that enable the equipment to operate and respond ture, and refrigerant pressure.
quickly and efficiently to user instructions and program- Because they often respond to a stimulus other
ming. A simple example of a control circuit is the ther- than electricity, many sensors rely on transducers to
mostat in a home's central air conditioning system. The communicate with the control circuit. A transducer is
thermostat senses that the temperature inside has reached a device that converts an input signal from one form of
its setpoint, so it closes the 24 Vac control circuit to the energy to an output signal of another form of energy.
condensing unit's contactor coil. The contactor energizes Sensors that do not produce an electrical output must
to close its contacts on the 230 Vac power circuit to turn use a transducer to change the sensor's output into
on the condenser fan and compressor. The thermostat an electrical signal. In HVACR, many sensors are also
uses the low-voltage control circuit (24 Vac) to control the transducers because they produce an electrical output
higher voltage power circuit (230 Vac), Figure 14-6. signal while monitoring a different input signal.
The following sections describe the operation and
Pro Tip purpose of individual electronic devices used in HVACR
Electrical vs. Electronic control circuits. Many sensors and transducers include
the electronic devices described in these sections.
The terms electrical and electronic may appear to
indicate the same thing, but they are very different. An
electronic device is a semiconductor or solid-state device 14.2.1 Diacs
used to control the flow of current. The term electronic cir-
cuit indicates a circuit that has electronic devices. A diac @ode for illternating !,:;urrent) is a solid-state
device that allows current to flow in both directions. In

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 Chapter 14 Basic Electronics 313

order for current to flow through a diac, the applied volt--

age must reach or exceed a predetermined level, called Anode(+)
the breakover voltage. Applied voltage below the break-
over voltage will not be able to force current through a
diac, Figure 14-7.
After the breakover voltage has been exceeded, a diac SCR
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
will continue to conduct electricity until the current falls Figure 14-8. Schematic symbol for a silicon-controlled
below a certain threshold, called the holding current. rectifier. Note how the symbol looks like a diode symbol, but
A diac stays in conduction mode as long as the hold- with an additional lead called a gate.
ing current stays above the threshold value. If the cur-
rent falls below the holding current threshold, the diac
stops conducting electricity. A voltage that meets or
exceeds the breakover voltage must be applied to the
diac for it to begin conducting again.
Diacs are often used in HVACR as part of the con-
current as long as the current does not drop below the
holding current threshold. An SCR will also continue
to conduct current even if the gate circuit is opened.
Turning off an SCR can be done using either one of the
following two methods:
I
trol circuit in motors. A diac serves to protect the motor
from operating at low-voltage conditions because it will • The current in the circuit is lowered below
only allow a predetermined voltage to pass through the holding current threshold. This is often
it to the motor. If the start capacitor is not energized, accomplished by opening a switch.
there will not be enough voltage to power the start • Applying a reverse voltage to the cathode. In an
windings of the motor. Once the breakover voltage has ac circuit, this occurs every half cycle when the
been reached from the capacitor, the diac will allow the voltage and current switch direction.
current to flow to the motor and the motor will engage. SCRs are often used to convert de voltage to ac
voltage in a device called an inverter. Modern HVACR
14.2.2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers motors, such as blower motors and compressor motors,
and Triacs make use of inverters in variable frequency drives to
control the speed of a variable speed motor. The fre-
A silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) is a three- quency of the voltage supplied to a motor affects the
terminal semiconductor switching device. The three motor's speed. In a variable speed motor with a vari-
terminals are a cathode, an anode, and a gate. An SCR able frequency drive, a rectifier is used to change the
conducts current in only one direction: from cathode ac input voltage to de voltage. The de voltage is then
to anode, Figure 14-8. adjusted by an inverter to provide a variable frequency
SCR conduction can be triggered when either one signal that looks like ac voltage to the motor.
of the following conditions is met:
• A voltage value that reaches or exceeds the SCR's Thinking Green
forward breakover voltage is applied across the Variable Speed Motors
cathode and anode.
The advantage of a variable speed motor that
• A voltage is applied to the gate circuit causing uses a variable frequency drive is that it can be run at
current to flow from cathode to anode. specifically the amount of power required based on the
The signal from the gate that triggers the SCR does load. This provides smoother operation and significantly
not have to equal the breakover voltage and is usually reduces energy consumption.
relatively small. Similar to a diac, an SCR will conduct
A triac (mode for alternating ~urrent) is a solid-
state device used to control alternating current. It
has three terminals and operates much like an SCR.
Applying the proper electrical signal to the gate termi-
nal will begin conduction through the two main termi-
nals, Figure 14-9.
A triac will continue to conduct even if the gate
circuit is opened. Unlike an SCR, a triac can conduct
Diac current in both directions for alternating current. A
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher triac will stop conducting when current drops below
Figure 14-7. Schematic symbol for a diac. Note how the symbol the preset holding current threshold. Triacs are used in
looks like two diode symbols arranged in opposite directions. ac motors to control motor speed.

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314 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Gate
Triac
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 14-9. Schematic symbol for a triac. The symbol is
similar to the symbol for a diac, but with a gate terminal.

14.2.3 Transistors
A transistor is a layered, three-terminal semicon-
ductor device that is usually used to either switch or
amplify an electrical signal. The three layers are com-
posed of two different types of semiconductor materi-
als (N-type and P-type) and are arranged in one of two Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
ways: NPN or PNP, Figure 14-10. Figure 14-11. Since transistors are often very small, it is
The three layers of a transistor are assigned names. important to consult a data sheet with the part number to
The middle layer is called its base. One of the outer layers confirm a transistor's identity.
is called its emitter, and the other outer layer is called its
collector. The emitter and collector layers are made of the
same material, either N or P. The base material is made of 14.2.4 Rectifiers and Inverters
whatever material the emitter and collector are not made. A rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts
Transistors can function as electronic switches by alternating current to direct current. Rectifiers are com-
using a small electron flow through the base to control monly made from an arrangement of diodes. Because
a large electron flow between the emitter and the col- a diode allows current to flow in only one direction, it
lector. Think of a transistor as an electrically operated blocks alternating current from flowing in the opposite
valve. Transistors can also act as amplifiers by boost- direction, producing a direct current output.
ing a low-energy signal using a power supply and sur- A half-wave rectifier circuit, which has only one
rounding circuitry, Figure 14-11. diode, produces a direct current output for only one-
half of the ac sine wave, Figure 14-12A. To produce
Base a direct current with no gaps between the waves, a
full-wave rectifier circuit is needed. Many full-wave
L?\ollector rectifier circuits use a bridge rectifier, which is an
arrangement of four diodes in a circuit, to produce
Collector . Em;tter Base~ direct current output from both halves of the ac sine
Emitter wave. See Figure 14-12B.
PNP Transistor Rectifiers are often used in conjunction with
transformers to change 120 V alternating current into
Base
low-voltage direct current for control circuits, such as
24 Vdc or 12 Vdc. A transformer alone is used to step
L?\ollector
down 120 Vac to 24 Vac for many useful applications.
While a rectifier converts ac to de, an inverter
Collector . Em;tter Base~ converts de to ac. An inverter does the opposite of a
Emitter rectifier, though it is not as easily done as rectifying a
NPN Transistor signal. Solid-state inverters operate without any mov-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
ing mechanical parts. The basic elements used in a
Figure 14-10. The layers of a transistor are arranged as either
solid-state inverter are the following:
PNP or NPN. The schematic symbols for each arrangement • A crystal that oscillates at the frequency of the ac
are shown on the right. power required.

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 Chapter 14 Basic Electronics 315

AC power
Anode Cathode

--
--
--
~
source

Input signal
0-...A
Output signal
--
Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit
A

Transformer Bridge rectifier

source\!7
AC power

lnp~ nalLJI
\

000.
Output signal
I
with permission from Carel Industries - all right reserved
Resistor
Figure 14-13. An inverter driving a variable speed
Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit compressor can increase a system's coefficient of
performance to maximize energy usage.
B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 14-12. A-A half-wave rectifier circuit allows alternating
as temperature increases are negative temperature
current to pass in only one direction. As a result, a pulsating or
half-wave, de output is produced from the ac sine wave input.
coefficient (NTC) thermistors. For NTC thermis-
B-Full-wave rectifier circuits use a bridge rectifier to produce a tors, temperature and resistance are inversely related.
de output from both halves of an ac sine wave. This results in a Thermistors that increase their resistance as tempera-
de output signal with no gaps between the ac input waves. ture increases are positive temperature coefficient
(PTC) thermistors. For PTC thermistors, resistance
and temperature are directly related. Thermistors can
• A switching circuit that uses silicon-controlled be packaged in a variety of ways for different applica-
rectifiers to switch de power on and off. tions, Figure 14-14.
A common application of inverters is with solar
photovoltaic cells. The photovoltaic cells produce a
direct current that feeds into an arrangement of batter-
ies. Since typical electrical power in the US is in alter-
nating current, an inverter takes the de input from the
batteries and converts it into an ac signal.
The complicated circuitry inside inverters can be
used to produce very precisely controlled signals for
specific use. A common HVACR application of invert-
ers is to provide variable speed control of motors. These
can be applied to blowers for variable air volume con-
trol and to compressors for variable refrigerant flow,
Figure 14-13.

14.2.5 Thermistors
A thermistor is a solid-state device that changes
its resistance as the temperature of the thermistor Se/co Products Company
changes. There are two basic types of thermistors: NTC Figure 14-14. Thermistors may be manufactured in a variety
and PTC. Thermistors that decrease their resistance of different designs.

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316 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

A thermistor is used as a temperature-sensing Operational indicator LED

control device. Thermistors may be used to turn off
or stop electrical power from going to an overheat-
ing motor. For example, as the temperature of a motor
increases, the resistance of a PTC thermistor also
increases, which reduces current and stops the motor.
Thermistors are often used in large buildings as
remote temperature-sensing devices. They permit an
HVACR technician to monitor the temperature in a
remote location from an operating console. Thermistors
are also used in electronic circuit boards to make sure
that the circuitry does not exceed recommended oper-
ating temperatures.

14.2.6 Photoelectric Devices

Photoelectric devices are semiconductor devices
that react to light in some way. This may be a change Control Board
in their ability to conduct electricity, the production of
?-segment LEDs
an electrical signal in response to visible, infrared, or
ultraviolet light, or the emission of light in response to
an applied voltage. There are three types of photoelec-
tric devices:
• Photoconductor devices. These semiconductor
devices increase their conductivity when exposed
to electromagnetic radiation. They are used in
photocopiers and infrared camera devices.
• Photovoltaic (PV) devices. These semiconductor
devices produce electrical energy when they
absorb light. Another common name for a Temperature Display
photovoltaic devices is solar cell. The electrical
Dantoss; with permission from Carel Industries - all right reserved
energy produced by PV devices can provide de
Figure 14-15. LEDs are one of the most commonly used
power for a variety of applications.
photoelectric devices.
• Photoemissive devices. These semiconductor
devices give off light when electrical energy is
added. The semiconductor material in a light
emitting diode (LED) converts the voltage applied
to it into visible light. LEDs are used as indicators
and displays on control boards, Figure 14-15.

14.3 Circuit Boards and

Microprocessors
Many of the devices covered in the previous sec-
tions can be found on printed circuit boards. A printed
circuit board (PCB) is an insulated board with thin layers
of conductive metal, usually copper, placed in strips on
the board. These copper strips act as electrical pathways
to connect electronic devices. Typically, electronic devices
are soldered to the circuit board. See Figure 14-16.
When a specific electronic device does not work on Emerson Climate Technologies
a circuit board, the easiest and quickest option is often Figure 14-16. Electronic devices are soldered to the conductive
to replace the entire circuit board. Circuit boards help to pathways on this printed circuit board from a furnace.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 14 Basic Electronics 317

simplify the servicing of HVACR systems because a tech- The arrangement inside a switch is described in
nician does not have to take the time to test each individ- terms of poles and throws. A pole is the movable part of
ual electronic device. The malfunctioning circuit board the switch. The movement of a pole is throw. A switch
can then be repaired at a later time or discarded. may have a single pole with more than one throw.
With the advancement of semiconductor technol- Arrangements vary.
ogy, a single device can function as the control center A single-throw switch provides only one path that
of an entire system. Such a component is commonly can be turned on and off. A double-throw switch pro-
known as a microprocessor, Figure 14-17. vides two paths for electrons to follow. A single-throw
Microprocessors are capable of accepting infor- switch controls only one circuit, and a double-throw
mation, storing it, and reacting in some preset way. switch can control two circuits. Figure 14-18 shows the
They are the core around which computers are built. most common types of switches.
Computers use microprocessors as their "thinking"

I
component. In HVACR, microprocessors are provided
with input signals (from temperature sensors, pressure
sensors, thermostats) and then produce output signals
(to LEDs, solenoids, actuators, relays).
~ I
I
The small size and affordability of microproces-
sors has allowed computers to assume an important
~ ~
:~
role in the HVACR industry. They are an integral part
of many control systems. In most cases, a computer- Single-Pole Double-Pole
supported HVACR system can even provide a diagnos- Single-Throw Single-Throw
tic analysis for that system.

14.4 Switches and Contacts L..J L..J

A device used to open or close any part of an elec-
trical circuit by disconnecting and connecting contacts
is called a switch. Switches can be made from a vari- L..J L..J L..J L..J
ety of materials in numerous designs. Some are oper-
Single-Pole Double-Pole
ated manually, while some are operated automatically.
Single-Throw Single-Throw
Switches and switched devices, such as relays and con-
tacts, contain contacts. Contacts are the physical parts
that touch to complete an electrical circuit.

==
Single-Pole
== Double-Pole
==
Double-Throw Double-Throw

L..J L..J

~ ;9
L..J L..J

L..J L..J ~ ;9
Microprocessors
Single-Pole Double-Pole
ClimateMaster
Double-Throw Double-Throw
Figure 14-17. Though available in different designs,
microprocessors are often packaged as long chips with many Micro Switch, Div. of Honeywell, Inc.
terminal connections. These two microprocessors control the Figure 14-18. These are the most common switch
operation of a commercial heat pump. arrangements. Only the orange contacts are movable.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

318 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Most switches and contacts have two states: open The amount of current used to operate a relay's coil
and closed. An open switch has broken the circuit is usually very small; however, the contacts in the relay
and is not conducting electrons. A closed switch has can often carry much higher currents. The coil of a relay
completed the circuit and is conducting electrons. In is often connected to a low-voltage control circuit, and the
control circuitry, switches and sets of contacts are clas- relay contacts are connected to a separate higher voltage,
sified as normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). load circuit. When a low-voltage signal flows through the
Normally open (NO) means that the contacts are control circuit, it energizes the coil and creates an electro-
usually open. Normally open contacts are closed only magnetic field that draws the movable armature toward
when the switch is actuated. When it has not been the coil. This movement causes the armature to open the
actuated, the circuit is open. When an action occurs to NC contacts and close the NO contacts. This completes
close a NO switch, such as a call for heating, the switch the load circuit and energizes the load, Figure 14-20.
closes. Normally closed (NC) means that the contacts When there is no current through the coil, the spring
are usually closed. Normally closed contacts are open moves the armature back into position, which returns the
only when the switch is actuated. Each of these states NO and NC contacts to their normal state. Relays are com-
(NO and NC) is important in system operation and monly used to run fans, start single-phase motors, and
used for specific reasons. control power circuits. Not all relays use electromagnets
and moving parts. Some use solid-state circuitry, but they
14.5 Relays produce the same expected results.

A relay is an electrical switching device that oper-

ates under the control of an outside electrical signal. Their 14.6 Solenoids
enclosed electrical contacts are operated by an electromag- A solenoid is an electromagnetic device com-
net. The outside electrical signal energizes the relay's elec- posed of a coil of wire wrapped around a case with a
tromagnetic coil, which moves an armature to change the movable iron core, which is called a plunger. As cur-
contacts position. Normally, the armature is held in posi- rent passes through the coil, it creates an electromag-
tion by a spring. When power is applied across the coil, netic force that pulls the plunger into the center of the
NO contacts close, and NC contacts open, Figure 14-19. case (solenoid body). See Figure 14-21.

NC contacts

Coil

-+-Spring

Armature
Contacts
terminals

Normally
closed
Normally
open Coil terminals
~
(NC) terminal (NO) terminal

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 14-19. These are the parts of a relay: a coil with two terminals, at least one set of each type of contacts (NO and NC), a
spring to hold the armature in position to maintain NO and NC states when the coil is not energized.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 14 Basic Electronics 319

Armature pulled Windings

downward
;:______, Movable
Solenoid
iron core
body
(plunger)

'r--Open
I switch

NC NO Armature
terminal
I
!
l
Control
circuit
Low-voltage
power
source

Push
button
is closed __-L1
Closed
Power circuit
switch

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 14-20. When the control circuit is closed, current
flows through the coil creating an electromagnetic field. The Figure 14-21. A-A solenoid's iron core remains outside the
energized coil attracts the armature to close the NO contacts solenoid body when no electric current is flowing. B-With
and open the NC contacts, which closes the power circuit to current flowing, the electromagnetic field draws the iron core
energizes the load. into the solenoid body.

A solenoid's plunger typically has a spring

attached to it, which pulls the plunger out of the sole-
noid body when current is turned off. Other solenoids
simply use gravity. The plunger is allowed to fall when
the current is turned off. To function properly, a sole-
noid that uses gravity must be mounted upright.
Solenoids are an example of turning electrical
energy into mechanical motion. Solenoids are commonly
installed into a valve body to operate as an electrically
controlled valve. In this way, they can control refriger-
ant, gas, or water flow. The plunger opens and closes a
valve as current is applied to and removed from the coil,
Figure 14-22.
Solenoids can also be used to operate dampers,
actuate other switches (such as in some defrost time-
clocks), and make different desired movements in a Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
mechanism. Solenoids are available as either normally
Figure 14-22. The solenoid mounted on this fixture opens
open or normally closed. Different models can operate and closes the valve. Solenoid valves can be used in
on ac or de voltage. numerous applications throughout different systems.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

320 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

14.7 Thermocouples Pro Tip

A thermocouple is a pair of two dissimilar wires Seebeck Effect
joined at one end that can generate a voltage based on The Seebeck effect is the concept underlying the
the amount of heat applied to it. Each wire is made of conversion of thermal energy into electrical power. Heat
a different metal. The end of the wires that are welded applied to the junction of two dissimilar metals (the hot
together is called the hot junction. The other end of the junction of a thermocouple) creates a voltage called
wires (the cold junction) is connected into circuitry. thermoelectricity.
When the joined end is heated, a small voltage (poten- The opposite of the Seebeck effect is the Peltier
effect, which explains how electric current is used to
tial difference) develops between the two metals. This
transfer heat from one place to another. These concepts
voltage can be measured at the other ends of the two
and thermoelectric refrigeration are covered in Chapter 48,
wires with a sensitive voltmeter, Figure 14-23. Special Refrigeration Systems and Applications.
A thermocouple can be made from a variety of
metals. Different pairs of metals produce different
voltages. To produce a higher voltage signal, several
thermocouples may be connected in series. Such an Outdoor Thermocouple
arrangement is called a thermopile. A multiple ther- condensing unit temperature probe
mocouple installation can generate as much as 750 mV
(millivolts), allowing it to operate special solenoids.
Thermocouples and thermopiles are used exten-
sively as safety devices in gas furnaces to detect the
pilot light flame. If a pilot light flame goes out, the ther-
mocouple or thermopile will stop producing a voltage,
which closes a valve that shuts off the gas supply to the
furnace. Thermocouples are also commonly used to
get accurate temperature measurements of pipes and
controlled rooms where access is difficult.
Thermocouples and thermopiles vary by manu-
facturer and are often designed for use in a specific
application. Certain electronic instruments have con-
nections for thermocouple wires. This allows the ther-
mocouple probe to be mounted directly to the area in
question, and the temperature is displayed on the screen
of the temperature-sensing instruments, Figure 14-24.

Cold

Hot
junction

Multimeter with Measuring liquid line

thermocouple attachment temperature for subcooling
White-Rodgers Division, Emerson Climate Technologies Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 14-23. Thermocouples are used extensively in gas Figure 14-24. A common application of thermocouples
furnaces to turn off the gas supply if the pilot light flame in instruments is as temperature clamp attachments for
goes out. The hot junction is placed near the pilot light flame, multimeters. These allow technicians to measure the
creating an electrical signal that keeps the gas valve open as temperature of tubing, such as liquid lines for subcooling and
long as the flame continues to stay on. suction lines for superheat.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • A printed circuit board (PCB) provides
electrical pathways for connecting
• Adding impurities to a pure semiconductor electronic components. Microprocessors are
material causes an excess or shortage of semiconductor devices that can accept, store,
electrons in the semiconductor, creating N-type and process various information for controlling
and P-type materials. Semiconductors conduct a system according to a user's instructions.
electricity through the movement and aligning • A switch is any device used to open or
of electrons and holes. close any part of an electrical circuit by
• A diode is a semiconductor device that allows disconnecting and connecting contacts.

I
electrons to flow in only one direction. A diode Contacts are the physical parts of a switch or
allows electrons to flow depending on the switching device that touch to complete an
polarity of the connected power source. electrical circuit. Switches are either normally
closed (NC) or normally open (NO).
• Control circuits use electrical and electronic
devices to energize or de-energize a load in the • A relay is an electrical switch that is operated
power circuit. A sensor is a device that detects by an outside electrical signal. A solenoid is an
and responds to some kind of stimulus, such electromagnetically operated device that pulls a
as temperature or pressure. A transducer is a plunger into its core when current passes through
device that converts an input signal from one its windings. It is most often applied to valves, so
form of energy to an output signal of another they can be automatically opened or closed.
form of energy. • A thermocouple is an electrical device that
• A diac is an electronic device that allows produces a voltage when its hot junction is
current to pass in both directions. However, a heated. It is commonly used as a safety device
minimum voltage is required to cause current in furnaces or as a measuring element in
to flow through a diac, and a minimum amount instruments.
of current is needed to maintain a diac's
conductivity.
• Both silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) and Review Questions
triacs are three-terminal electronic switching Answer the following questions using information in this
devices. An SCR conducts current in only one chapter.
direction, but a triac can conduct current in both
directions. Both triacs and SCRs remain closed 1. Semiconductors conduct electricity through
until a minimum voltage is applied across their the movement of negatively charged electrons
anode and cathode terminals or an electrical and positively charged _ _.
signal is applied to their gate terminals. A. conductors
• A transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor B. holes
device used in electronic switching or signal C. insulators
amplification. Like SCRs and triacs, a transistor D. protons
conducts current between its collector and emitter 2. Adding impurities, such as boron or
terminals when an electrical signal is passed phosphorous, to a pure semiconductor
through its middle terminal, called its base. material to change its conduction traits is
• A rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts called
alternating current to direct current. An A. conducting
inverter is the opposite of a rectifier. An B. hole flow
inverter changes direct current into alternating C. relaying
current. D. doping
• A thermistor is a solid-state device that changes 3. A semiconductor material that has a surplus
its resistance based on temperature. A negative of electrons is referred to as a(n) _ _
temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor material.
decreases its resistance as temperature A. diode
increases. A positive temperature coefficient B. N-type
(PTC) thermistor increases its resistance as C. P-type
temperature increases. D. transistor

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322 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

4. Electrons will only flow through a diode 11. Which of the following methods cannot be
from the used to turn off a silicon-controlled rectifier?
A. cathode to the anode A. Opening the gate circuit
B. anode to the cathode B. Decreasing the current below the holding
C. emitter to the collector current threshold
D. forward bias to the reverse bias C. Applying a reverse voltage to the cathode
5. Which type of circuit uses electrical or D. Opening a switch to cut off all current
electronic devices to control the flow of 12. Which three-terminal semiconductor device
electric current, causing loads to be either is used to either switch or amplify an
energized or de-energized? electrical signal?
A. Sensor A. NTC thermistor
B. Branch B. PTC thermistor
C. Series C. Transistor
D. Control D. Thermocouple
6. Which device detects and responds to some 13. The middle layer of a transistor is called the
kind of stimulus, such as temperature,
pressure, or an electrical signal? A. collector
A. Inverter B. emitter
B. Relay C. rectifier
C. Amplifier D. base
D. Sensor 14. A circuit that changes alternating current
7. Which device converts an input signal from to direct current, but only produces a direct
one form of energy to an output signal of current output for one-half of the ac sine
another form of energy? wave is a(n) _ _ circuit.
A. Transducer A. half-wave rectifier
B. Thermistor B. full-wave rectifier
C. Transistor C. bridge rectifier
D. Relay D. inverter
8. Which solid-state device allows electrons to 15. An arrangement of four diodes in a circuit,
flow in both directions? which is called a ___J is used to produce a
A. Silicon-controlled rectifier direct current output from both halves of a
B. Diac sine wave.
C. Diode A. half-wave rectifier
D. Rectifier B. bridge rectifier
9. The minimum voltage required for current to C. full-wave inverter
flow through a diac is called the _ _. D. half-wave inverter
A. holding voltage 16. An electronic circuit that changes direct
B. exceeding voltage current to alternating current is called a(n)
C. breakover voltage
D. diac voltage A. microprocessor
10. Which three-terminal switching device only B. rectifier
conducts current from cathode to anode? C. inverter
A. Silicon-controlled rectifier D. relay
B. Diac 17. Which of the following solid-state devices
C. Diode increases its resistance as temperature
D. Triac increases?
A. NTC thermistor
B. PTC thermistor
C. Transistor
D. Thermocouple

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 14 Basic Electronics 323

18. Which type of semiconductor device 25. Which electrical device consists of a pair
produces electrical energy when it absorbs of two wires that are welded together to
light? generate a voltage when heat is applied to the
A. Thermocouple fastened end?
B. Photoconductor A. NTC thermistor
C. Photovoltaic device B. PTC thermistor
D. Photoemissive device C. Transistor
19. The device that functions as the control center D. Thermocouple
of a computer by accepting information,
storing it, and reacting in a preset way is a(n)

A. microprocessor

I
B. rectifier
C. inverter
D. relay
20. A switch is one that must be actuated to
provide power to a circuit.
A. normally closed
B. normally open
C. closed contact
D. normally reversed
21. Switches are arranged and operate based on
their
A. anodes and cathodes
B. hole flow and doping
C. NTC and PTC
D. poles and throws
22. An electrical switch that operates under the
control of an outside electrical signal is a

A. relay
B. solenoid
C. microprocessor
D. thermopile
23. When current passes through the coil of a
relay, the movable armature moves toward
the coil due to
A. vacuum
B. reverse biasing
C. hole flow
D. electromagnetism
24. A solenoid is an electromagnetic device that
is commonly used to _ _.
A. produce a voltage based on applied heat
B. produce a voltage based on applied light
C. accept, store, and respond to information
D. operate valves

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 15 Electric Motors

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Identify the basic parts of a motor.
Explain how a motor operates based on the
codependent relationship of magnetism and
electricity.
Chapter Outline Calculate a motor's synchronous speed and explain
15.1 The Elementary Electric Motor how it is different than the motor's full-load speed.
15.1.1 Motor Structure • Compare how motor windings and capacitors are
15.1.2 Motor Operation Basics used to start single-phase motors.
15.1.3 Counter Electromotive Force • Summarize the different starting and running
15.1.4 Motor Speed characteristics of various single-phase motors.
15.1.5 Motor Efficiency • Understand the structure and basic operation of a
15.2 AC Induction Motors three-phase motor.
15.2.1 Single-Phase Motors
• Identify the differences between electronically
15.2.2 Three-Phase Motors
commutated motors and ac motors.
15.2.3 Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
15.3 Electronically Commutated Motors (ECMs) • Select the proper motor for an application by
15.4 Standard Motor Data analyzing standard motor data found on motor
15.5 Motor Applications in HVACR Systems nameplates.
15.5.1 Compressor Motors • Identify the different applications of motors in
15.5.2 Fan Motors HVACR systems.
 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 325

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

ac motor permanent split capacitor Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
built-up terminal (PSC) motor you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
capacitor-start, capacitor- phase splitting • The process of generating electromotive force using
run (CSCR) motor rated full-load speed a magnetic field is called induction. (Chapter 12)
capacitor-start, induction- rated voltage • Just as a magnetic field can be used to induce
run (CSIR) motor rotor electricity, electricity can be used to generate an
centrifugal switch run capacitor electromagnetic field. (Chapter 12)
common terminal run winding
• Inductive reactance and capacitive reactance resist
continuous duty running terminal
the flow of alternating current in a circuit, causing
counter electromotive shaded-pole motor
an alternating current and its voltage to cycle out of
force (cemf) single-phase motor
phase. (Chapter 13)
dual-voltage motor slip
electronically commutated split-phase motor • Three-phase power has three separate voltage signals
motor (ECM) squirrel cage rotor alternating in three separate phases. (Chapter 13)
end bell start capacitor • A variable frequency drive controls the speed of &
field pole start winding a motor by using inverter and rectifier circuits to
field winding starting terminal change the frequency of the current supplied to the
full-load amperage (FLA) stator motor. (Chapter 14)
induction motor synchronous speed
intermittent duty three-phase motor
locked rotor amperage torque Introduction
(LRA) variable frequency drive
motor nameplate (VFD) Motors play a major part in HVACR systems. By con-
motor terminal box verting electrical energy to mechanical energy, motors
drive the compressor that compresses refrigerant, cir-
culate hot and cold air around the evaporator and con-
denser, and perform many other essential tasks. Although
most motors operate on similar principles, not all motors
are identical. Because they are used in different appli-
cations, motors starting and running characteristics vary,
along with the amounts of torque and speed they pro-
duce. Understanding how electric motors operate is
essential for a technician to be able to troubleshoot a
malfunctioning motor or replace a motor with the proper
type. Understanding a motor's application within a sys-
tem is key to properly diagnosing a problematic HVACR
system.
326 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

15.1 The Elementary Electric Motor Metal bars Motor shaft

All motors operate based on the principles of electric-

ity and magnetism. Variations in design and construction
allow for a variety of motors, but all electric motors share
two primary components: the rotor and the stator. All the
other individual parts are extensions of these two primary
components and support overall motor operation.
Iron core

15.1.1 Motor Structure

All motors have a similar basic construction. The
stator is the stationary part of a motor that is attached
to the inside of the motor housing. The stator is some-
times called the frame. Parts of the stator also include
field poles and field windings. Field poles are electro-
magnets whose polarities change as the flow of current
alternates in the field windings. Field windings are
the wires wrapped around the field poles of the stator.
When current from a power source flows through the Field windings
field windings, it creates a magnetic field around the
DiversiTech Corporation
field poles, Figure 15-1.
Figure 15-2. A squirrel cage rotor is composed of metal bars
The rotor is the axle-mounted unit that rotates as surrounding an iron core. The metal bars are connected at
the polarities of the stator's field poles change. The rotor, each end to form a complete circuit.
which can also be called the armature, is composed of
coils of wire surrounding an iron core. Instead of coils
of wire, rotors can also be made of metal bars mounted
on an iron core. The bars connect at each end of the The rotor is mounted on a motor shaft that has two
rotor to form a complete circuit. This type of rotor is bearings, one at each end. The bearings are accurately
called a squirrel cage rotor, Figure 15-2. machined to provide the proper amount of endplay
for the rotor. End bells, or plates, close the openings
Stator's field at either end of the motor frame. The end bells hold
End bell Bearing windings Rotor the bearings. When the motor shaft is mounted in the
bearings, the end bells support the rotor.

Pro Tip
Motor Terminology
Various terms are used for motor components. The
rotor may be referred to as an armature. Field poles and
field windings are often simply referred to as motor wind-
ings or stator windings. When speaking with customers,
sales personnel, and others about specific parts, make
sure that you understand each other correctly.

Mounted on the outside of the frame is the motor

nameplate, which displays essential motor informa-
tion. Also mounted on the outside of the frame is the
motor terminal box where electrical connections are
made to control and power the motor, Figure 15-3.

15.1.2 Motor Operation Basics

Photo courtesy of A. 0. Smith
Figure 15-1. This cutaway view of an electric motor shows the Unlike the stator, the rotor is not connected to a
motor's major internal parts. power source. When current from a power source is

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 327

Motor Bar magnet Horseshoe magnet

Motor terminal box represents rotor represents stator

Shaft

./(~>
Like poles
repel each other

Figure 15-4. When a bar magnet mounted on a shaft is put

Milwaukee Electric Taal Carp. in the magnetic field of a horseshoe magnet, the bar turns till
Figure 15-3. An electrician using a voltage detector on a magnetically aligned because unlike poles attract each other
conductor in a motor terminal box. and like poles repel each other.

applied to the field windings in the stator, it creates current in the windings induces alternating current
an electromagnetic field. This magnetic field induces in the rotor. The alternating current flowing through
current in the coils of wire or metal bars in the rotor. the rotor generates its own magnetic field that has a
The current induced in the rotor also creates an polarity opposite of the polarity in the stator windings.
electromagnetic field that interacts with the electro- As the polarities of the stator's poles change due to the
magnetic field created by the stator. The interaction flow of alternating current, the polarity of the rotor
between the magnetic fields of the stator and the rotor also changes. The attraction of unlike poles and repul-
causes the rotor to rotate. sion of like poles causes the rotor to rotate as it tries to
To better understand how a motor operates, pic- "catch up" to the changing magnetic polarities of the
ture a bar magnet centered on a shaft and a larger stator, Figure 15-5.
horseshoe magnet mounted in a fixed, stationary posi-
tion around the bar magnet. The stationary horse-
shoe magnet represents the stator, and the bar magnet
15.1.3 Counter Electromotive Force
mounted on a shaft represents the rotor, Figure 15-4. In a running motor, the induced current flowing
Because unlike poles attract each other, the rotor in the rotor generates a magnetic field. The rotor's mag-
will rotate until its S pole is near the stator's N pole. This netic field induces a voltage with a polarity opposite of
movement places the rotor's N pole near the stator's S the voltage applied to the stator. This oppositely polar-
pole. The rotor will stay in its current position with the ized voltage is called counter electromotive force
stator until the polarity of the stator is reversed. When (cemf). Counter electromotive force opposes the flow
the polarity is reversed, the two N poles and S poles of current in the rotor.
are near each other. Because like poles repel each other, Counter emf depends on the speed of the rotor.
the rotor will rotate another half turn to align magneti- The relationship among applied voltage, counter emf,
cally with the stator again. and current tends to maintain the rotor at a constant
The stator's poles switch polarity because an alter- speed. However, if a motor is slowed considerably by a
nating current is applied to the windings in the sta- heavy load, the current induced in the rotor increases
tor. The stator's poles switch as the alternating current greatly. Current flow increases because the rotor
switches directions. The magnetic field created by the turns more slowly, which means counter emf and its

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

328 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Coil represents Magnet represents

field windings stator
Caution
Unlike poles
---4----------r---+ Motor Frequency
attracted to
Motors designed to operate on a certain frequency
each other
will only operate at that frequency. This is because the
t N number of turns of wire required on the field poles is dif-

fr- ferent for each frequency.

(ii..J Synchronous Speed

Motor speed is initially calculated as synchronous
Magnet
speed. Synchronous speed refers to the speed of the
represents
rotor rotating magnetic field in the stator. If the rotor rotates
Poles ...,.._ >Current at the same speed as the stator's rotating magnetic
switch switches field, then the motor runs at synchronous speed. To
sides ...,.._ directions
calculate a motor's synchronous speed (Ns) in revolu-
tions per minute (RPM), use the following formula:

NS 120 x t
f frequency (Hz)
P number of poles

Example:
Like poles
What is the synchronous speed of a two-pole
repel each '--------------- + motor that operates at a frequency of 60 Hz?
other ~

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Solution:

Figure 15-5. The magnetic polarity in the field po~es is .
reversed as the direction of the current alternates in the field
windings. This causes the rotor to turn as the polarities of the
NS 120 x t
field poles change. 6
NS 120 x ;
Ns 120x30
NS 3600RPM
resistance to current drops. With such high current,
The rotor in a two-pole motor rotates once with
the motor will then overheat. Continuous operation
each cycle of alternating current (one half turn for
with too great a load is likely to burn out a motor.
each change of polarity), which means it turns 60 revo-
If the rotor is locked so it cannot turn and volt-
lutions per second if the frequency is 60 Hz. Thus, a
age is applied, current will be very high. A motor wi_ll
two-pole motor has a synchronous speed of 3600 RPM
quickly burn out when the rotor cannot turn o~ 1s
(60 revolutions x 60 seconds = 3600 RPM), Figure 15-6.
locked. Locked rotors may occur due to a motor havmg
If four poles are used in the stator, a motor's syn-
to start under a heavy load or mechanical interference.
chronous speed is 1800 RPM. The rotor only turns one-
Examples include motors connected to fans with worn
half of a rotation for each cycle of alternating current. At
bearings, which cause excessive strain on the motor,
a frequency of 60 Hz, the rotor completes 30 revolutions
and compressors pumping against excessively high
per second, which means it makes 1800 revolutions per
head pressure.
minute (30 revolutions x 60 seconds = 1800 RPM). Most
open-drive compressors and some hermetic compres-
15.1.4 Motor Speed sors use four-pole motors, Figure 15-7.
Two-pole motors are about two-thirds the size
The speed of an ac electric motor is determined by
of four-pole motors that have the same power. The
two variables:
number of poles used in a motor is dependent on the
• The alternating current's frequency (measured in application. For example, a high-speed blower will use
Hz). a two-pole motor, while a much slower condenser fan
• Number of magnetic field poles in the stator. will likely use a four-pole motor. It is also possible to

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 329

build motors having six, eight, or more poles. Many under a full load, which is called rated full-load speed.
direct-drive compressors use a six-pole motor that The difference between synchronous speed and rated
operates at 1200 RPM. full-load speed is called slip. Figure 15-8 shows the
operating speeds for two-, four-, and six-pole motors
Rated Full-Load Speed operating at different frequencies.
Because electric motors do not operate at exactly Under actual conditions, a 3600 RPM motor oper-
synchronous speed, they are not rated at synchronous ates at approximately 3450 RPM. An 1800 RPM motor
speed. Instead, they are rated at their operating speed operates at approximately 1750 RPM. This reduction

Stator Stator
Field windings Rotor

+
+ Motor shaft Field pole
I
Four-Pole Motor
Two-Pole Motor

Stator poles
switch

Current
switches
Current
direction
switches direction

~+ Rotor makes
half turn \ Rotor makes
quarter turn
Half Cycle
Half Cycle

Rotor makes
half turn
+
+ Full Cycle Full Cycle
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 15-6. In a two-pole motor, the rotor completes one full Figure 15-7. With a four-pole motor, the rotor makes only one-
turn with each cycle (Hertz) of alternating current. half of a rotation as alternating current completes one cycle.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

330 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Motor Speed
60 Hz 50 Hz
Poles
Synchronous Operational Synchronous Operational

2 3600 RPM 3450 RPM 3000 RPM 2850 RPM

4 1800 RPM 1750 RPM 1500 RPM 1450 RPM
6 1200 RPM 1150 RPM 1000 RPM 950 RPM

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 15-8. Synchronous and operational speeds for two-, four-, and six-pole motors at 60 and 50 Hz. Note that operational
speed is approximate.

in speed is due to the slight magnetic slippage, which motors are used in many residential applications
varies depending on the load. Generally, motor slip is because the power supplied by utility companies to
between 4% and 5% of synchronous speed. residential homes is single-phase power. Most single-
phase motors are rated for 120 V, 208 V, or 240 V power.
15.1.5 Motor Efficiency Many single-phase motors can run either clockwise or
counterclockwise. For many of these motors, the rota-
Motor efficiency is the mechanical energy pro- tion direction can be changed by reversing the connec-
duced by the motor shaft divided by the power input tions to the start winding.
to the motor. Motors are not 100% efficient because of There are many different designs of single-phase
clearances, bearing friction, and imperfect windings. motors. These motors differ based on the applications
For a given voltage input, larger motors produce more they are used in and the methods that are used to start
mechanical energy at the shaft. While larger motors and run them. The following single-phase motors are
operating at a certain voltage may be up to 97% effi- the most common, and each type is discussed in detail
cient, the efficiency of smaller motors at the same volt- later in this chapter:
age is often only 50% to 60%.
• Split-phase motor.
• Capacitor-start, induction-run (CSIR) motor.
15.2 AC Induction Motors • Capacitor-start, capacitor-run (CSCR) motor.
Alternating current is the most commonly used • Permanent split-capacitor (PSC) motor.
operating current for HVACR motors. An ac motor is • Shaded-pole motor.
a motor that runs on alternating current. An ac motor
can be further classified as either an induction motor Start and Run Windings
or a synchronous motor. Induction motors, which are Most single-phase induction motors have two
the type discussed earlier in this chapter, are ac motors types of stator windings: a start winding and a run
that operate by using the magnetic field generated in winding. Remember that induction motors transfer
the stator to induce current in the rotor. electricity from the stator (start and run windings) to
Induction motors are categorized in a number of the rotor through induction, which is the same way a
ways. Motors differ from each other by the amount of transformer transfers electricity between primary and
starting torque and running torque that they generate. secondary coils. Remember also that induction causes
Torque is the work performed by a twisting or turning inductive reactance, which is the opposition to the flow
action, such as a rotating motor shaft. Induction motors of current that causes current to lag behind voltage in
can also be differentiated by their required input an ac cycle.
power: single-phase, two-phase, three-phase, and four- Run windings are stator windings that are ener-
phase. Many small ac motors are single-phase, while gized during the entire operation of the motor. They
many of the larger ac motors are three-phase. provide the bulk of the magnetic force for driving the
rotor. Start windings are stator windings that are used
for motor starting and additional torque. For each run
15.2.1 Single-Phase Motors winding there is a start winding. Start winding coil is
A single-phase motor is an ac motor that runs made of a smaller diameter wire and has more turns
on a single phase of alternating current. Single-phase than a run winding coil, Figure 15-9.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 331

The start winding may be of smaller diameter When power is applied to the motor, electricity
than the run winding because it is only energized for flows through the start and run windings. In the run
a short time and is not required to handle a continu- winding, current lags behind voltage due to inductive
ous current as the run winding must do. Being made reactance. In the start winding with a capacitor wired
of a smaller gage wire, the start winding has a higher in series, voltage lags behind current due to capacitive
resistance than the running winding. Having more reactance. This causes phase splitting, but with a much
coil turns, the start winding will also have a higher larger displacement between the phases than can be
inductance than the run winding. caused by just the start and run windings alone. A
Since the start and run windings have different larger phase displacement leads to a higher starting
inductance values, the current flowing through the torque, which means motors that use capacitors can
start winding is out of phase with the current flowing start under heavier loads, Figure 15-12.
through the run winding, Figure 15-10. This is called There are two types of capacitors used with ac
phase splitting. Phase splitting is the means by which motors: start capacitors and run capacitors. A capac-
single-phase motors are started. The split phases create itor used only during motor start-up to provide ini-
a rotating magnetic field in the stator, causing the rotor tial starting torque is called a start capacitor. Start
to start turning.
Most of the current in a single-phase induction
motor is conducted through the run winding. When
the motor is starting, however, current goes through
both the start and run windings. When the motor
reaches 60% to 75% of its rated full-load speed, the start
winding circuit is opened by a centrifugal switch or a
starting relay. See Figure 15-11. The motor then oper-
+
Phase Splitting

--1 1-- Phase splitting caused by inductance

Current in run winding
Current in start winding
I
ates on the run winding only. If the start winding is
left in the circuit, it may overheat.
-~o~~------~ ~ - - - - - - - - -
C

:::,
0
Motor Capacitors
In some cases, single-phase induction motors use
capacitors to create a much larger phase displacement
to help start the motor. Capacitors cause capacitive
Time
reactance in a circuit, which is the opposition to the
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
flow of current that causes voltage to lag behind cur-
Figure 15-10. Phase splitting occurs in a single-phase motor
rent in an ac cycle. In a motor with both start and run
because the run winding has less inductance than the start
windings, capacitors are added in series with the start winding so current flows through the run winding ahead of the
winding. start winding.

Centrifugal switch

Start Run
windings windings Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Photo courtesy of A. 0. Smith Figure 15-11. A centrifugal switch is used to disconnect
Figure 15-9. Start windings in a single-phase motor are made power to the start winding. The circuit for the run winding
of smaller gage wire than run windings. remains complete so power is still provided to the run winding.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

332 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Capacitive Phase Splitting Start capacitor Centrifugal switch

Larger phase shift caused

17 by capacitive reactance ~-------1i(1-----o ~">---+-- Input

power
+ Current in run winding
/Current in start winding
..
C

~o~-- - - - -~ - ~~- - - -~ - ~ -
:::,
(.)

Run winding
Time
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 15-12. With a capacitor wired in series with the start Figure 15-13. A start capacitor is wired in series with the
winding, current leads voltage due to capacitive reactance, start winding and a centrifugal switch. The centrifugal switch
while current lags voltage in the run winding due to inductive disconnects both the start winding and the capacitor after the
reactance. This causes a larger phase shift than in motors that motor starts running.
do not have capacitors.

capacitors are only used for a fraction of a second. A

centrifugal switch or relay drops the start winding
and start capacitor out of the motor circuit after the
motor starts running, Figure 15-13. A start capacitor
is never used in a stator's run winding circuit. Start
capacitors are usually dry electrolytic capacitors. A
typical start capacitor is shown in Figure 15-14.

Caution
Start Capacitor Duty
Start capacitors are built to specifications for cycli-
cal duty. They are only meant to operate for short peri-
ods of time. If a start capacitor is left in a circuit too long
(due to a faulty centrifugal switch or relay), it may dam-
age the motor windings.

A run capacitor operates in the same way as a DiversiTech Corporation

start capacitor, except it remains in the start wind- Figure 15-14. Start capacitors are used to increase a motor's
ing circuit while the motor is running. It provides starting torque.
a signal that is out of phase for added torque dur-
ing the motor's entire operation. Run capacitors are
filled with oil and are designed to dissipate the heat Split-Phase Motors
generated by the high current used to run a motor, A split-phase motor is a single-phase induc-
Figure 15-15. tion motor used in applications that operate in the
fractional horsepower range. Small condensing units
Caution and fans that require up to 1/3 hp are often driven by
split-phase motors. A split-phase motor uses the dif-
Defective Run Capacitors ferent inductance values of its start winding and run
Be sure that any run capacitors you encounter winding to produce phase splitting and achieve initial
on service calls are operating properly. Defective run rotation. As a result, the starting torque is lower than
capacitors can cause a motor to draw higher than nor- motors that use capacitors, which means split-phase
mal current. This could trip the overload protection
motors must be used on systems with an easily starting
device or damage the motor.
load. Split-phase motors are very popular in HVACR

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 333

on the end of a motor shaft that disconnects the start

windings from the circuit. See Figure 15-16.
A centrifugal switch consists of weights that are
held close to the motor shaft by the force of a spring.
These weights hold a plate against a set of electri-
cal contacts to keep them closed. As the motor shaft
approaches its running speed, the weights overcome
the spring's force and move away from the shaft due
to centrifugal force. This pulls the plate away from the
electrical contacts and opens the circuit.

Capacitor-Start, Induction-Run Motors

A capacitor-start, induction-run (CSIR) motor
is a single-phase induction motor that has a start
capacitor wired in series with the start winding. The
start capacitor puts the current in the start winding
out of phase with the current in the run winding. The &
electromagnetic flux of the two out-of-phase windings
provides very high starting torque. The capacitor is
usually placed on top of the motor in a metal or plastic
cylinder, Figure 15-17.
During start-up, current passes through both the
start winding and the run winding. At about 75% of
the motor's rated speed, a centrifugal switch or a relay
in series with the start winding opens. This discon-
nects the start winding and start capacitor. The motor
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
continues to run as an induction motor using only the
Figure 15-15. Run capacitors are used to increase a motor's
running torque.
run winding. Capacitor-start, induction-run motors

systems that use a capillary tube metering device. In Electrical

these systems, low-side and high-side pressures bal- Spring
ance when the system cycles off. Thus, the split-phase Weights
attached
motor is not required to start the compressor under to spring
full-load conditions.

Pro Tip
Unloaders
Split-phase motors can also be used in systems
with an electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic unloader.
An unloader is a device that can be used to reduce a
compressor's load on start-up or for capacity control. Motor shaft
If a system is equipped with an unloader, a split-phase
motor can be used regardless of the type of meter-
ing device in the system. Unloaders will be covered in
greater depth in later chapters. Weights move
outward as
shaft rotates Plate Motor
Split-phase motors are typically built using a frame
squirrel cage rotor and are available in either 120 V Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
or 240 V. A split-phase motor's start windings are dis- Figure 15-16. A centrifugal switch is mounted on the end of a
connected by a centrifugal switch or relay when the motor shaft. As the shaft approaches its full rotational speed,
motor reaches approximately 75% of its running speed. the weights on the switch move outward, pulling the spring
A centrifugal switch is an electrical device mounted and disconnecting the start windings from the motor circuit.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

334 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Start capacitor Run capacitor

enclosed in cylinder
Start
capacitor
j Centrifugal
switch

_ ____.,____, 1-----o ~'.)---<........,.___ Input

Start
power

Motor shaft

Dial Manufacturing, Inc.

Run winding
Figure 15-17. The start capacitor is located in the housing on
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
top of this capacitor-start, induction -run motor.
Figure 15-18. All the capacitors in a capacitor-start,
capacitor-run motor are in the start winding circuit. The run
capacitor, however, is wired in parallel with the start capacitor
are available in either 120 V or 240 V and can produce and centrifugal switch so it is not disconnected when the
up to 3 hp. CSIR motors are commonly used in her- centrifugal switch opens.
metic compressors for refrigeration units.

Capacitor-Start, Capacitor-Run Motors After a capacitor-start, capacitor-run motor reaches

A capacitor-start, capacitor-run (CSCR) motor
60% to 75% of its rated speed, a centrifugal switch or
is a single-phase induction motor that has a start
relay opens the circuit between the start capacitor and
capacitor and a run capacitor wired in series with the
the start winding. This drops the start capacitor out
start winding, but the run capacitor is wired in parallel
of the circuit, but leaves the run capacitor in. A phase
with the start capacitor, Figure 15-18.
difference continues to exist between the run winding
Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motors use at least
and the start winding as the rotor continues to spin.
two capacitors. However, more can be used depending
As a result, a run capacitor improves a motor's power
on capacity and motor characteristic ratings. All capac-
factor, making CSCR motors very efficient.
itors are in the start winding circuit, but only the start
Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motors have enough
capacitor is controlled by a centrifugal switch or relay.
starting torque to start heavy loads. They generally
When a CSCR motor starts, alternating current
come in 1/6 hp and larger and are often used in large
flows through the whole stator circuit, which includes
hermetic compressors in commercial systems and on
the run winding, the start winding, the start capaci-
belt-driven blowers.
tor, and the run capacitor. The current through the run
winding is out of phase with the current in the start Permanent Split Capacitor Motors
winding due to the start and run capacitors. This pro- A permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor is a sin-
duces a high starting torque. gle-phase induction motor that uses a single run capac-
itor in series with the start winding for the motor's
Pro Tip entire operation. It does not use a centrifugal switch or
Single-Phase or Two-Phase relay to switch off any capacitors or windings. Current
Although phase splitting produces two separate flows through the run winding, the start winding, and
ac sine waves that are out of phase with each other, the run capacitor during the motor's entire operation,
CSIR and CSCR motors are still considered to be sin- Figure 15-19.
gle-phase motors because they run on a single-phase There is no difference between a permanent split
power supply. It is only within the motor circuit that the capacitor motor's starting and running modes. It oper-
alternating current splits into two phases due to the ates the same way as a CSCR motor operates in its run-
capacitors. ning mode. However, PSC motors often have multiple

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 335

Run capacitor Motor shaft

.--------1+1------------- Input
power

Run winding
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 15-19. In a permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor,
current flows through the start winding and run capacitor

I
throughout the motor's entire operation.

wire connections because they are capable of multiple

speeds, Figure 15-20.
The additional wires connect at different points
in the run winding. To change the speed of a motor, Multiple wire connections
switch the wire connections to the motor circuit. The DiversiTech Corporation
shorter the winding is that the current must pass Figure 15-20. This PSC motor is capable of producing
through, the faster the motor speed. More winding more than one speed, which is done by switching the wire
means less speed. Fewer windings means more speed. connections to the motor winding.
Permanent split capacitor motors are sensitive to
changes in applied voltage because they do not have a
start capacitor. A 5% to 10% drop in applied voltage will
Stator Field pole
cause starting difficulty and overheating. To prevent dam-
age, a thermal overload protector is used to open the cir-
cuit. Though PSC motors are very efficient, they have low
starting torque. Thus, if a PSC motor tries to start a com-
Rotor
pressor when a system's low-side and high-side pressures
are not balanced, the motor will overheat. PSC motor
applications are limited to easily started loads and low-
horsepower applications. Operating voltages are either
120 V or 240 V. PSC motors are commonly used in blowers
and fans where variable speeds are desirable.

Shaded-Pole Motors
A shaded-pole motor is a low-torque, single-phase
motor that uses shaded field poles, instead of a start
winding, to produce starting torque. Its construction is
different than the other motors previously described.
Each stator field pole has one-third of its pole surface
split off from the rest of the pole and wrapped with Copper
a copper band or copper wire. These copper-wrapped Motor shaft Shaded pole band
areas are the shaded poles of the motor. Each copper Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
band generates its own magnetic field that combines Figure 15-21. A shaded-pole motor has field poles that are
with and competes against the magnetic field pro- split. One part of each field pole is shaded, which means it is
duced by the rest of the pole, Figure 15-21. wrapped in a copper band.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

336 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

As the voltage level of the alternating cur-

rent in the field windings moves farther from 0 V,
it generates an increasing electromagnetic field in
the center of each field pole. This electromagnetism
induces a current in the copper band on the shaded
pole. As the field winding voltage decreases, current
induced in the copper band generates an increas-
ing electromagnetic field in the center of the shaded
area. In this way, the electromagnetism of each field
pole shifts from the center area of the pole to the
shaded area of the pole. This shifting magnetic field
creates an effect similar to phase splitting, causing
the rotor to start rotating, Figure 15-22.
Shaded-pole motors have less starting torque
than other types of motors. Nevertheless, the
shaded-pole motor is a popular small motor, espe-
cially for small fans. Shaded-pole motors are avail- Dial Manufacturing, Inc.
able from 1/100 hp to 1/6 hp. Figure 15-23 shows a Figure 15-23. A shaded-pole motor showing the copper
shaded-pole motor. bands that form each shaded pole.

Magnetic field Magnetic field

centered over Lines of centered over
15.2.2 Three-Phase Motors
field pole magnetic flux shaded pole A three-phase motor is an induction motor that

~ ~
has three sets of stator windings energized by a three-
phase power signal. In many cases, each set has two
windings. Each set of windings is connected to one phase
of the three-phase power source. This is comparable to
having three single-phase power supplies for each set
of stator windings, Figure 15-24.
Shaded Shaded The phases of a three-phase power supply are
pole pole already out of phase, or split, with each other. Within
the time of one cycle, the three separate current sig-
nals reach peak voltage at separate times. As a result,
Shifting Field Creates Torque
a three-phase motor generates the necessary torque
Voltage increasing Voltage decreasing from its rotating magnetic field in the stator without
requiring capacitors or start windings to create phase
+ + splitting.
.,,~ Three-phase motors are commonly dual-voltage
;
/

/
/ motors. A dual-voltage motor is a motor that has its
Q) Q) /
0) 0) / stator windings arranged in pairs so that it can be used
.!!l Q f--- - - - - - - .!!l O f--- - - - -~ -
with two different voltages. Some single-phase motors
~ ~ can also function as dual-voltage motors, depending
on how the stator windings are arranged. Typically, a
three-phase motor can be used with a 240 V or a 480 V
power supply. The three sets of windings in a three-
A B
phase motor are wired either in series for high voltage
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher or in parallel for low voltage. A motor operating on a
Figure 15-22. The shifting magnetic field in a shaded-pole higher voltage draws less current and is more efficient
motor is what causes the rotor to start turning. A-As the to operate.
voltage in the winding increases, the electromagnetic field it
Like other three-phase devices, such as three-phase
generates is concentrated over the center of the field pole.
B-As the voltage in the winding decreases, the copper band
transformers, three-phase motors can be wired in either
generates an electromagnetic field that is centered over the a delta (Ll) or a wye (Y) configuration, Figure 15-25. In
shaded pole. both of these configurations, the windings in the motor

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 337

Each set of windings

connected to separate phase

Stator

Three-
phase
input Stator
terminals windings
arranged
in pairs

terminal box

Diagram for connecting terminals

Emerson Climate Technologies &
Figure 15-26. Motor terminals can be accessed in the motor
Common
terminal box.
terminal Motor shaft Rotor
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 15-24. A three-phase motor has stator windings that
are connected in pairs. Each pair is supplied its own single Safety Note
phase of alternating current from the three-phase power Three-Phase Voltage
source.
The high voltages of three-phase power are very
dangerous. Before beginning service to a three-phase
motor, be sure to disconnect the power and secure the
are connected to nine terminals in the motor terminal power switch in the open position using a lock.
box, Figure 15-26.
Using jumper wires in the terminal box, a techni-
cian can wire a three-phase motor in series to use a Reversing the Rotation of a Three-Phase
480 V power supply or in parallel for a 240 V power
Motor
supply, depending on the electrical service available.
All other connections are internal and cannot be To reverse the direction of rotation of a
accessed or changed. three-phase motor, follow these steps:
1. Turn off power to the motor.
2. To be safe, take a few readings across the
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3 motor terminals with a voltmeter to ensure
that power is turned off.
3. Disconnect any two power leads from their
T2 T2 terminals.
4. Connect each power lead to the other power
lead's terminal.

Three-phase motors are generally more efficient

than single-phase motors. Three-phase motor sizes
range from 1 hp upward. They are often used for high-
torque applications because single-phase motors are
Wye Configuration Delta Configuration not commonly used above 1 hp. Three-phase power
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher is available in most industrial and some commercial
Figure 15-25. Three-phase motors are manufactured in either buildings. It is rarely supplied to homes. In HVACR,
a delta (11) or wye (Y) configuration. The terminals (T1, T2, T3) three-phase motors are mostly found in commercial
are connected to power leads (L1, L2, L3) to supply each set and industrial compressors, such as large hermetic
of windings with one phase of the three-phase power supply. compressors.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

338 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

15.2.3 Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) Rectifies and inverts using

solid-state circuitry
Generally all ac induction motors (single-phase
and three-phase) are designed to operate at 100%
full speed all the time. They are either fully on or
fully off. When on, they pull full load current. This
is regardless of whether operating at full speed is
---
_,-

--
---
required for the system's capacity based on ambient ()
()
temperature and other variables. Over time, this can
cause premature wear and tear from stopping and
starting more than necessary, and it can also waste
energy and the money needed to pay for that wasted
electrical power. The solution is to control the motor ower
to operate at the ideal level based on the system's
needs at that specific time.
An ac motor's speed is determined by the num-
ber of turns in the stator winding, the applied volt-
age, and frequency. The most common type of speed
control is done by changing the number of stator
poles. This is done by switching the wiring to the sta-
tor windings for speed control. However, the number
of available speeds is limited based on the number
of stators in the motor. Most often this is only two with permission from Carel Industries - all right reserved

different speeds, low and high. The other option Figure 15-27. A variable frequency drive rectifies a standard
60 Hz ac signal and inverts it into an ac signal at the desired
is speed control by changing the frequency of the
frequency for speed control.
motor's electrical signal. Control circuits that modify
the frequency of signals to ac motors are called vari-
able frequency drives.
Typical ac motors take a standard 60 Hz incoming control module to control voltage to the stator windings.
signal. A variable frequency drive (VFD) uses a recti- An ECM is the combination of a brushless de motor and
fier circuit to convert applied ac voltage to de. It then its electronic control module, Figure 15-29.
uses an inverter with solid-state switching circuitry to An ECM's rotor is made of permanent magnets
convert the de signal back into an ac sine wave that instead of coils of wire or metal bars. No power is
oscillates at the desired frequency, Figure 15-27. applied to the rotor, and no voltage is induced in the
Standard motors are usually limited to only a few rotor. With no need to energize the rotor, ECMs do not
speed settings based on stator windings. Unlike sta- have a commutator or brushes, as are found in stan-
tor winding speed control, using a variable frequency dard de motors.
drive allows the motor to be run at nearly any speed The stator in an ECM usually consists of three
along a continuous scale. A VFD can control a motor's coils of wire, like in a three-phase motor. An ECM's
torque, acceleration, and deceleration. This allows controller produces precise signals that energize the
for more efficient operation of an HVACR system. stator windings in sequence, much like a three-phase
Controllers can be programmed to operate motors at motor. This produces a rotating magnetic field. Torque
specific speeds, depending on the application. VFDs is the result of the rotor's permanent magnets react-
provide motor operation at the precise time and speed ing with the rotating electromagnetic field generated
to optimize system efficiency. Variable frequency by the stator windings. An ECM's controller is usually
drives are used to control blowers and also some com- supplied with standard 120 V or 240 V ac power and
pressors, Figure 15-28. additional control inputs based on different system
variables and measurements.
Electronically commutated motors are versatile
15.3 Electronically Commutated because they can be programmed. ECMs powering
fans can be set to maintain a constant airflow that will
Motors (ECMs) adjust the speed of the motor to account for partially
An electronically commutated motor (ECM) is a closed dampers, airway obstructions, or higher than
programmable, brushless de motor that uses an electronic normal external static pressure (ESP). Both speed and

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 339

Variable Blower VFD-controlled

frequency drive fan (within) motor
- Motor shaft

} Motor hous;ng

Controller wiring receptacle

Emerson Climate Technologies
Figure 15-29. An electronically commutated motor (ECM)
can generally be visually identified by its control module with a
wiring receptacle having multiple wires.

begins slowly and ramps up to full speed. This places

less stress on the fan and other mechanical parts than
is exerted by a PSC motor, which begins operation at
full speed.

Scroll compressors Variable frequency drives 15.4 Standard Motor Data

NexRev Inc.; Dantoss
Figure 15-28. An efficiency upgrade to a commercial
When selecting a motor for a certain purpose,
rooftop unit (RTU) is to install a VFD in the blower section. By knowing the motor's specifications is necessary for
matching fan speed to the cooling load required for a given selecting the right motor. Motor specifications can be
period of time, a variable frequency drive controls a system found on a motor's nameplate, Figure 15-30.
to perform its job while consuming less energy. This same
technology can be used to control the amount of refrigerant Code Alert
pumped by a compressor.
NEC Motor Nameplates
The NEC requires a minimum amount of informa-
torque characteristics can be set for an ECM's specific tion to be provided by a motor's manufacturer. Additional
application in an HVACR system. information may also be included, but the following data
Advantages of ECMs include variable speed, com- is required by the National Electrical Code (NEC) to be
on motor nameplates.
pact design, efficient performance, and durability. They
are free of the normal maintenance associated with de
motors, such as brush replacement due to wear. They • Rated voltage. This is the voltage level (or levels
can also outperform several types of ac motors. for dual-voltage motors) where the motor will
ECMs usually operate quietly. If there are any perform at its best. Rated voltage is sometimes
loud noises other than at start-up, it may indicate a called nameplate voltage.
problem. ECMs can be soft started, so that the motor

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

340 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Rated horsepower

Type of motor
protection -
Insulation
class

Locked rotor code letter Rated ambient temperature

Dial Manufacturing, Inc.
Figure 15-30. The NEC requires motor manufacturers to include certain motor specifications on the motor nameplate.

motor must match the phase type of the supplied

Caution
power.
Motor Voltage
• Rated full-load speed (RPM). This is the motor's
The sizes of conductors used in electrical systems
speed under a full-load when both the rated
are very important. If a conductor is too small or too
voltage and frequency are supplied.
long, it may heat up enough to deteriorate its insulation
and cause an electrical short or a fire. Excessively long • Rated horsepower (hp). This value indicates the
conductors add resistance, which can cause an uninten- amount of mechanical work that a motor can
tional voltage drop. The voltage to the motor should not perform based on both motor speed and torque.
be less than 90% of the rated voltage. If it is less, there
is danger of the motor overheating and becoming ruined.
Pro Tip

• Manufacturer's name. This usually also includes Motor Horsepower

the address and other information that is useful One horsepower is equal to lifting 33,000 ft-lb
for ordering replacement parts or requesting per minute or 550 ft-lb per second. At 100% efficiency,
additional equipment information. 746 W of electrical power equals one horsepower (hp).
Refrigeration motors can range from 1/100 hp to several
• Rated volts. This is the recommended voltage to hundred hp. When a load requires a horsepower value
supply to the motor. between two standard horsepower ratings, choose a
• Full-load amperage (FLA). This is the current motor with the higher horsepower value.
level at which the full-load torque and horsepower
are reached. This information is necessary to • Insulation class. Insulation class refers to the
consider when selecting the wire size, the type of maximum temperature that the insulation on the
motor starter, and any overload protection for a wires of the motor windings can withstand before
motor. breaking down. Figure 15-31 lists the different
• Frequency (Hz). The motor's frequency must match insulation classifications and their corresponding
the frequency of the supplied power. In North maximum temperatures.
America, the frequency is almost always 60 Hz. • Rated ambient temperature. This is the maximum
• Phase. In most cases in North America, the supplied ambient temperature at which the motor can
power is either single-phase or three-phase. A operate.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 341

Insulation Temperature Classifications Locked Rotor Code Letters

Maximum Temperature
Class Code kVA/hp with Code kVA/hp with
OF ·c Letter Locked Rotor Letter Locked Rotor
A 221 105
A 0-3.14 L 9.0-9.99
B 266 130
B 3.15-3.54 M 10.0-11.19
F 311 155
C 3.55-3.99 N 11 .2-12.49
H 356 180
D 4.0-4.49 p 12.5-13.99
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
E 4.5-4.99 R 14.0-15.99
Figure 15-31. A motor's insulation class identifies the
maximum temperature that the insulation on the motor F 5.0-5.59 s 16.0-17.99
windings can withstand.
G 5.6-6.29 T 18.0-19.99
H 6.3-7.09 u 20.0-22.39
• Time rating. Motors are classified as either J 7.1-7.99 V 22.4 and up
continuous duty or intermittent duty. The NEC K 8.0-8.99
defines continuous duty as "operation at a
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
6
substantially constant load for an indefinitely
long time." The NEC defines intermittent duty Figure 15-32. Locked rotor code letters indicate a motor's
locked rotor amperage in terms of the power the motor draws
as "operation for alternate intervals of (1) load and on start-up, which is expressed in kilovolt-amperes per
no load; or (2) load and rest; or (3) load, no load, horsepower.
and rest." Intermittent duty motors do not have
to operate continuously and have ratings for how
long they can safely run with a full load within • NEMA design letter. Due to the wide variety of
9°F (5°C) of their rated ambient temperature. applications, motor performance specifications
These ratings are 5, 15, 30, or 60 minutes. vary. The National Electrical Manufacturer's
Association (NEMA) uses a letter designation
Thinking Green that classifies motors based on their locked
Motor Duty Rating rotor amperage, torque, and slip. This allows
For applications that do not require continuous technicians to compare motors made by different
duty, an intermittent duty motor can be used. In general, manufacturers on an equal basis.
intermittent duty motors are substantially more econom- • Inherent motor protection. Some motors are
ical than continuous duty motors. Examples of intermit-
manufactured with built-in protection. If a motor
tent duty motors are condensate pumps and actuator
has this, it must state which type of protection on
motors that do not run continuously.
its nameplate. The two most prominent forms of
protection are thermally protected and impedance
• Locked rotor code letter. This letter indicates a protected.
motor's locked rotor amperage (LRA), which is
the current that the motor draws as power is first • Condensation prevention heater specifications. If
applied to start turning the rotor. Typically, the a motor has a condensation prevention heater, its
locked rotor amperage is between two and six nameplate must include the heater's rated voltage,
times the full-load amperage. Figure 15-32 shows number of phases, and its rated power in watts.
the assigned value ranges for each letter according Manufacturers may also include the following
to the NEC's Table 430.7(B). additional information on nameplates:
• Service factor. This indicates the overload capacity,
Caution or overload horsepower, at which a motor can
operate without overheating or being damaged.
Locked Rotor Current
Multiply the motor's horsepower by the service
It is important to select motors with the correct locked
factor number to determine the motor's overload
rotor code letter. The high initial current draw of locked rotor
horsepower.
amperage can cause a voltage dip that can damage volt-
age-sensitive equipment on the same circuit. • Frame size. This letter and number designation
refers to the physical dimensions of the motor.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

342 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Capacitor-start, induction-run (ac).

Premium Efficiency Levels for Electric
Motors • Capacitor-start, capacitor-run (ac).
Two-Pole Four-Pole Six-Pole • Permanent split capacitor (ac).
Horsepower
Motor Motor Motor • Three-phase (ac).
1 77.0% 85.5% 82.5% Some motors commonly used to turn fans include
1.5 84.0% 86.5% 86.5%
the following:
• Split-phase (ac).
2 85.5% 86.5% 87.5%
• Shaded-pole (ac).
3 85.5% 89.5% 88.5%
• Permanent split capacitor (ac).
5 86.5% 89.5% 89.5%
• Electronically commutated motor (de).
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 15-33. This chart shows the full-load efficiency
requirements that a motor must meet in order to be certified as 15.5.1 Compressor Motors
a NEMA Premium ®motor.
The basic operation of ac motors is the same
regardless of whether they are used to drive a hermetic
• Full-load efficiency. This percentage represents compressor or an open-drive compressor. An open-
how efficiently a motor converts electrical power drive compressor is a compressor that is driven by an
into mechanical power. A motor with a rating of external means. The compressor's crankshaft is either
100% would have no power loss. The higher the directly coupled to the motor shaft or is connected by
percentage is, the more efficient the motor. means of a belt and pulley system. Electric motors are
often used in open-drive applications to drive acces-
• Guaranteed minimum efficiency. The guaranteed sory devices as well. A hermetic compressor consists
m1mmum efficiency represents the lowest of a motor sealed inside a compressor dome along with
efficiency to expect from a particular model of a the compressor. The motor shaft serves as the com-
motor. pressor's crankshaft.
The design characteristics of electric motors
Thinking Green
depend on their purpose in a system. For compres-
NEMA Premium Efficiency sor motors, a technician must determine whether the
N EMA has set standards for the energy efficiency of motor needs to start under load, under no load, or
electric motors based on horsepower. Motors that meet under a balanced pressure condition. Motors that start
these efficiency standards have a NEMA Premium ® under load need a higher starting torque. Usually,
label. Figure 15-33 shows a partial list of the efficiency manufacturers try to provide starting power equal
requirements that a motor must meet or exceed. to twice the running power. In other words, a 1/6 hp
motor is designed to produce 1/3 hp during starting.
• Power factor. This is a ratio of apparent power to Higher starting torque also requires larger conductors
true power under full-load conditions. for higher current in the starting circuit.
When selecting a motor for a specific purpose,
important information may not be found on the motor Open-Drive Compressor Motors
nameplate. This may include the motor's operating The main types of motors used for open-drive
position (horizontal, vertical, angled), direction of rota- compressors are capacitor-start motors, PSC motors,
tion, and recommended operating environment (heat, and three-phase motors. There are two main methods
humidity, etc.). of connecting an open-drive compressor and its motor:
belt-driven and direct drive.
On a belt-driven compressor, the motor crankshaft
15.5 Motor Applications in HVACR drives a wheel connected to the compressor's pulley
wheel by means of a belt. The speed reduction for belt
Systems drives is usually about 3:1 (three to one). This means
Electric motors are used in HVACR for a variety that the compressor wheel diameter is three times
of purposes. The main applications are for operating larger than the motor pulley diameter. Compressor
compressors, fans, pumps, and dampers. The follow- speed on an open-drive system can be controlled by
ing motors are typically used to drive compressors: changing pulley sizes, Figure 15-34.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 343

Service
valve
Refrigerant
outlet

Belt-driven
pulley wheel
Motor
terminal
box
Lubricant
sight glass
Refrigerant
inlet

Blissfield Manufacturing
Figure 15-34. This open-drive compressor would be driven
by a motor with a pulley and belt.

Motor Shielded coupling Direct drive compressor

Tecumseh Products Company

Figure 15-36. This cutaway view of a hermetic compressor
I
shows the motor's location inside the compressor dome. Note
that the motor and its windings are exposed to the refrigerant
and oil inside the compressor.

Figure 15-36 illustrates a typical hermetic compres-

sor. These motors have some problems not found with
open-drive setups.
Special cooling provisions must be made for her-
metic and semi-hermetic compressor motors using one
of several methods. One way is pressing the stator into
a dome that has cooling fins. Heat from the motor trav-
Bitzer els along the enlarged surface area of the cooling fins
Figure 15-35. This open-drive compressor is directly coupled and dissipates quickly, Figure 15-37.
to its motor's shaft. Another cooling method uses water flowing
through a coil around the motor to dissipate heat while
the unit is running. Some designs pass partly cooled
On a direct drive compressor, the motor shaft and refrigerant from the condenser around the motor hous-
compressor crankshaft are directly connected together ing. However, systems will more often pass cool suc-
using a coupling, Figure 15-35. Direct-drive compres- tion line vapor and oil over the motor windings.
sors must operate at the motor speed. If the speed of A hermetic design also requires leakproof elec-
the compressor must increase or decrease, the motor trical connections because the motor is subjected to
will have to change speeds. Depending on the type of the refrigerant and oil inside the compressor dome.
motor used, this might be accomplished using a vari- Wiring insulation must be resistant to oil and chem-
able frequency drive. icals in the refrigerant. This is particularly true in
the presence of moisture or high temperatures.
Hermetic Compressor Motors Most manufacturers have developed special syn-
As mentioned previously, a hermetic compres- thetic wire coatings (usually synthetic enamels) that
sor consists of a motor sealed inside a compressor insulate well. They are also safe to use with most of
dome along with the compressor's mechanical parts. the popular refrigerants.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

344 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Terminals may come in

different sizes or styles

Bitzer
Figure 15-37. Semihermetic reciprocating compressors
commonly use cooling fins as a method of dissipating heat
from the motor.

Metal disk welded to

For hermetic units, the motor terminals that compressor dome
connect the motor windings to the power source are Fusite
always located outside of the compressor dome. These Figure 15-38. The metal disk holding these electrical
electrical terminals would quickly fail inside the dome terminals is welded to a hermetic compressor dome.
due to the oil and refrigerant mist. Most motor termi-
nals are fused to glass. The glass, in turn, is fused to
a metal disk. This assembly is welded to the hermetic
dome or housing, Figure 15-38. Wires are connected to
the motor terminals with spring-loaded clips.
Other hermetic compressors use what are called
built-up terminals. These bolt to the compressor
dome. Gaskets of synthetic material are used to make
a leak-proof joint. The advantage of built-up terminals
is that it is easier for technicians to install replacement
terminals if needed. See Figure 15-39.
The three motor terminals on a single-phase her-
metic compressor are common (C), starting (S), and
running (R). The common terminal connects to a sin-
gle line that joins one end of the start winding to one
end of the run winding. The starting terminal con- Gasket
nects to the other end of the start winding, and the washer
running terminal connects to the other end of the run
winding. These terminals may be identified by their 1------f---Threaded
capitalized first letter on the motor, Figure 15-40. terminal
If a hermetic compressor with an intact motor but Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
does not identify the terminals by letter, take resistance Figure 15-39. This cross section of a built-up terminal shows
measurements of the windings using an ohmmeter. each side of the installation, including the gasket material
Terminal identification can be determined by compar- used to make the joint leakproof. Wires are connected on the
ing ohmmeter readings taken between the terminals. outside of the compressor between the washers.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 345

Identifying Unmarked Compressor

Terminals
Before beginning this procedure, make sure
no power is applied to the compressor. Open any
power switches before disconnecting any wiring.
Take voltmeter readings to make sure the power
is off.
1. Set your multimeter or ohmmeter to its low-
est resistance or ohm setting. Take a reading
of the first two terminals and write down the
resistance value: Q.
2. Next, take a reading of the first and third ter-
minals and write down the resistance value:
Q.

3. Next, take a reading of the second and third

terminals and write down the resistance
value: n.
4. The highest resistance value is between the
starting and running terminals because each
terminal is connected to opposite ends of start-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 15-40. Note the different arrangements of terminals
on hermetic compressors. The lower-left image resembles the
terminal arrangement most often used.
I
ing and running windings. This is measuring
the resistance of those two coils connected
together in series. This means that the terminal
that was not included in the highest resistance the indoor air handler (evaporator). Fans force air
measurement is the common (C) terminal. across a condenser to help dissipate heat from high-
5. The middle resistance value is between the side refrigerant. In an evaporator, fans are used to
starting and common terminals, which is a circulate cooled air throughout a conditioned space.
measurement of just the start winding resis- To create efficient air movement, the fan assembly
tance. The start winding in a single-phase is typically housed in sheet metal or plastic so that
motor is made of smaller gage wire than the it draws air from a specific area and moves it to a
run winding so it has a higher resistance. specific area.
This means that the terminal that was not Fans are carefully balanced and should run
included in the middle resistance measure- with little noise. A fan is usually connected to a
ment is the running (R) terminal. motor shaft with setscrews. The fan motor may
be attached to brackets and mounted with rubber
6. The lowest value is between the running and
grommets. Generally, motor leads for a condenser
common terminals, which is a measurement
fan are connected to the common terminal and
of the run winding resistance. The run wind-
the running terminal of a compressor motor. This
ing in a single-phase motor is made of larger
connection puts the fan motor in parallel with the
gage wire than the start winding so it has a
compressor motor and allows it to be controlled by
lower resistance. This means that the terminal
the thermostat. When the compressor runs, the con-
that was not included in the lowest resistance
denser fan also runs.
measurement is the starting (S) terminal.
Many fan motors have two or three speed set-
7. By using the measured resistance values and tings. Different speeds are possible by using dif-
process of elimination, an HVACR technician ferent numbers of poles in the stator or by using
can identify the unmarked motor terminals solid-state controls. The speed of fan motors is quite
on a single-phase hermetic compressor. sensitive to the applied voltage. As the applied volt-
age drops, so will the fan speed. It should be noted
that varying the applied voltage of induction motors
15.5.2 Fan Motors
is not a safe or accepted method of controlling fan
Motor-driven fans are used in two main parts of speed. Speed control is better done using a variable
an HVACR system: the outdoor unit (condenser) and frequency drive.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

346 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

As with compressor motors, fan motors can be frays and cracking. Poorly aligned pulley and wheel
set up to directly drive a fan using a coupling or use can cause premature wearing of a fan's belt. With regu-
a belt and pulley assembly. A technician should reg- lar maintenance, a belt-driven fan and its motor should
ularly check the condition of a fan's belt. Check for provide years of good service, Figure 15-41.

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 15-41. This rooftop unit (RTU) has a belt-driven blower and motor.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Variable frequency drives (VFDs) are control
modules that can vary the frequency of the
• Motors have two main parts: a stator and a rotor. electrical signals produced to change the speed
The stator is composed of field windings and at which an ac induction motor's rotor turns.
field poles. The rotor is composed of coils of wire When used to control a compressor or blower,
or metal bars surrounding an iron core. The a VFD can vary the amount of refrigerant
interaction between the magnetic fields of the pumped or the amount of air moved. This
stator and the rotor causes the rotor to rotate. allows an HVACR system to operate efficiently
based on the load applied to the system.
• Counter electromotive force (cemf) is the
voltage generated in the rotor that has a • An electronically commutated motor (ECM)
polarity opposite of the stator's polarity. If is a type of brushless de motor that uses an
a motor's rotor is slowed by a heavy load or electronic control module to energize the stator
seized bearings or lack of lubrication, current windings in sequence. Unlike most motors, an
flow will increase and could cause overheating ECM's rotor is made of permanent magnets.
and motor burnout if overcurrent protection ECMs are energy efficient and also versatile
does not open the circuit. for their numerous programmable options and

I
ability to operate at different speeds. They are
• In ac induction motors, rotational speed is primarily used to drive fans.
determined by two factors: the frequency of
the alternating current and the number of field • In order to select the right motor for a certain
poles in the stator. Due to magnetic slippage, ac application, a technician has to refer to a
motors run slightly slower than their calculated motor's nameplate. Motor nameplates contain
synchronous speed. information about a motor's rated voltage,
full-load amperage, frequency, phase, full-
• In order to start, many single-phase ac motors use load speed, horsepower, insulation class, time
start and run windings to create phase splitting rating, locked rotor amperage, service factor,
to create starting torque. Because the start and and many other characteristics.
run windings have different inductance values,
the current flowing through one winding is out • Motors can be used to power open-drive and
of phase with the other winding, which creates a hermetic compressors. Open-drive compressors
rotating magnetic field that provides the torque use a belt or coupling to connect to the motor
necessary to turn the rotor. shaft. The motor in a hermetic compressor is
sealed in the compressor dome and drives the
• Capacitors provide more torque than start compressor directly. A hermetic compressor has
and run windings alone because they cause electrical terminals on the outside of its dome.
a larger phase displacement. A start capacitor
is added to a start winding circuit to provide • Motors are widely used in HVACR systems
more torque during motor start-up, while a run to power fans that circulate air around the
capacitor provides additional torque during the condenser or evaporator. For condenser fans,
motor's entire operation. the motor is often wired so that when the
compressor motor runs, the condenser fan also
• Types of single-phase ac motors used in runs. Fan motors can use a coupling to directly
HVACR include split-phase; capacitor-start, drive a fan or use a belt with pulley and wheel
induction-run (CSIR); capacitor-start, capacitor- to drive a fan.
run (CSCR); permanent split capacitor (PSC);
and shaded-pole motors. Each type of motor
varies in its amount of starting and running
torque, depending on how it is designed. Review Questions
• Three-phase motors are induction motors that Answer the following questions using the information in
operate using three signals of alternating current this chapter.
to power three sets of stator windings. Each signal
reaches its peak voltage level at different times, 1. The two main parts of a motor are the _ _.
which creates high starting torque without the A. stator and field poles
need for capacitors or start windings. Many three- B. field poles and field windings
phase motors are dual-voltage motors and can run C. end bells and rotor
on 240 V or 480 V power. D. rotor and stator

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 347

348 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

2. Instead of coils of wire, a squirrel cage rotor 9. Capacitors are used to generate higher
has mounted on an iron core. starting _ _ because they cause larger
A. field poles phase displacement between the start and
B. metal bars run windings.
C. field windings A. loads
D. bearings B. voltage
3. Which of the following best explains the C. amperage
relationship between the rotor and the stator D. torque
in an ac induction motor? 10. Start capacitors and run capacitors are added
A. The alternating current flowing through the to the circuit of an induction motor for
rotor causes the stator's polarity to change. additional torque.
B. The voltage applied to the rotor generates A. start winding
counter electromotive force in the stator. B. run winding
C. The magnetic field generated by the stator C. low-voltage control
induces current in the rotor, which causes D. ECM
the rotor to generate its own magnetic field. 11. Split-phase motors use a(n) _ _ to
D. The stator is a horseshoe magnet, and the disconnect the start windings as the motor
rotor is a bar magnet. approaches running speed.
4. The magnetic field generated in the rotor A. unloader
induces a voltage called _ _ that has a B. VFD
polarity opposite of the applied voltage's C. squirrel cage rotor
polarity. D. centrifugal switch
A. counter current 12. On a capacitor-start, induction-run motor, a
B. counter emf centrifugal switch or relay disconnects the
C. counter pressure when the motor reaches about 75% of
D. counter power its rated speed.
5. The speed of ac motors is primarily A. start winding only
determined by which two factors? B. start capacitor only
A. Voltage and current C. both the start winding and start capacitor
B. Frequency and current D. both the start capacitor and run capacitor
C. Voltage and number of field poles 13. Which type of single-phase induction motor has
D. Frequency and number of field poles the starting torque to start under heavy loads?
6. Slip is the difference between a motor's A. Split-phase motor
synchronous speed and its rated _ _ speed. B. Permanent split capacitor motor
A. frequency C. Shaded-pole motor
B. four-pole D. Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motor
C. full-load 14. Although permanent split capacitor motors
D. slippage have low starting torque, they operate the
7. A motor's start winding has a higher same as a _ _ motor operates in running
inductance value than the run winding mode, but not starting mode.
because it is made of A. capacitor-start, induction-run
A. larger gage wire B. capacitor-start, capacitor-run
B. permanent magnets C. split-phase
C. fewer coil turns D. shaded-pole
D. more coil turns 15. As the voltage level decreases in a
8. Start and run windings cause ___Jwhich is shaded-pole motor's field windings, the
when the current in the start winding is out electromagnetic field becomes centered over
of phase with the run winding. the
A. capacitance A. field pole
B. phase splitting B. shaded pole
C. single-phase induction C. rotor
D. three-phase power D. motor shaft

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 15 Electric Motors 349

16. Three-phase motors are commonly _ _ 23. The current that a motor draws as power is
motors because of the way their stator first applied at start-up is the motor's _ _.
windings are arranged in pairs. A. rated full-load amperage
A. dual-voltage B. rated voltage
B. shaded-pole C. locked rotor amperage
C. capacitor-start, induction-run D. low-load amperage
D. capacitor-start, capacitor-run 24. Which of the following are the three motor
17. To reverse a three-phase motor's direction of terminals found on a single-phase hermetic
rotation, a technician must disconnect two compressor?
power leads and connect each one to the A. Common, starting, and reversing
B. Common, running, and stator
A. common terminal C. Common, starting, and running
B. other lead's terminal D. Common, starting, and rotor
C. ground screw 25. In which two parts of an HVACR system are
D. rotor motor-driven fans typically used?
18. A dual voltage, three-phase motor can be A. The condenser and evaporator.
wired for high voltage by connecting the field
windings in _ _.
A. series
B. parallel
C. series-parallel
D. reverse
B. The condenser and metering device.
C. The evaporator and metering device.
D. The metering device and compressor.
I
19. A VFD controls an induction motor's speed
by changing _ _.
A. frequency
B. number of field poles
C. phase splitting
D. voltage level
20. In an electronically commutated motor, the
rotor is made of
A. coils of wire
B. field poles
C. metal bars
D. permanent magnets
21. Advantages of ECMs include the following,
except _ _.
A. ability to maintain constant airflow
B. easily replaceable brushes
C. efficient performance
D. variable speed
22. Important motor information such as
rated voltage, time rating, insulation class,
frequency, phase, and horsepower can be
found on the
A. motor frame
B. motor nameplate
C. bearings
D. shaft

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 16 Electrical Control
Systetns

Chapter Outline
16.1 Circuit Diagrams 5 Learning Objectives
16.1.1 Pictorial Diagrams 5 Information in this chapter will enable you to:
=
16.1.2 Ladder Diagrams
16.2 Control System Fundamentals
§ • Understand the difference between pictorial and
i ladder circuit diagrams.
16.2.1 Range Adjustment
• Describe how range and differential adjustments are
16.2.2 Differential Adjustment
used to calibrate temperature and pressure controls.
16.3 Motor Controls
16.3.1 Temperature Motor Control • Identify the various types of temperature-sensing
16.3.2 Bimetal Devices devices used in motor controls.
16.3.3 Electronic Temperature Sensors • Compare the operation of various electromagnetic
16.3.4 Pressure Motor Controls and electronic motor starting relays.
16.3.5 Motor Starting Relays • Test and evaluate various starting relays for proper
16.4 Motor Protection Devices operation.
16.4.1 Fuses
• Explain how motor protection devices protect motors
16.4.2 Circuit Breakers
from current overloads and overheating.
16.4.3 Bimetal Protection Devices
16.4.4 Thermistor-Based Protection Devices • Introduce direct digital control (DOC) system basics.
16.5 Direct Digital Controls (DOC) • Summarize how a control system uses sensors,
16.5.1 Control Loops controllers, and actuators to maintain a conditioned
16.5.2 DOC System Components space.
 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 351

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

above-atmospheric- high-pressure motor Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
pressure element control you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
actuator impedance • Series circuits provide current with a single path to
below-atmospheric- ladder diagram follow, whereas parallel circuits allow current to flow
pressure element lockout relay along two or more electrical paths. (Chapter 12)
bimetal coil low-pressure motor • Control systems use sensors to detect and respond
bimetal device control to a stimulus, such as a change in temperature or
bimetal disc low-pressure safety control pressure. (Chapter 14)
bimetal strip motor starter
• A relay is an electrical switch that opens or closes
blown fuse multipurpose fuse
a circuit when its coil is energized by an electrical
circuit breaker offset
signal. (Chapter 14)
closed-loop control system open-loop control system
conditioned space pickup voltage • Single-phase ac motors use start and run windings
contactor pictorial diagram and start capacitors or a combination of these
to produce the torque needed to begin running.

I
control point positive temperature
control system coefficient (PTC) relay (Chapter 15)
controlled device potential relay • Devices, such as fuses, circuit breakers, and
controller pressure motor control thermistors, are used to protect circuits from current
current relay range overloads and overheating. (Chapter 13)
current-limiting fuse range adjustment
cut-in remote temperature-
cut-out sensing element Introduction
differential sensing bulb
differential adjustment set point Electrical control systems are used to regulate the
direct digital control solid-state relay (SSR) operation of an HVACR system and protect its com-
(DOC) temperature motor control ponents from operating outside of their designed
fast-acting fuse time-delay fuse boundaries. From controlling a compressor's On and Off
feedback tripped circuit breaker cycles to modifying the position of a damper in an air
fuse volatile fluid duct, electrical controls help an HVACR system automat-
Wheatstone bridge ically produce the desired condition in a space. In addi-
tion, control system components can be used as safety
devices to detect unsafe operating conditions and shut
down a system before any damage occurs. This chapter
focuses on the fundamental operation of control systems
and explains how the components used in those systems
function. More detailed information about application-
specific controls, such as defrost controls, is presented in
the chapters dealing with those systems.
352 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

16.1 Circuit Diagrams they may not be familiar with. In addition, pictorial
diagrams may give the colors of wires running to and
Electrical circuit diagrams come in a variety of from devices, which further aids a technician in veri-
forms and styles. Each type of diagram has a specific fying the devices in a circuit.
purpose. There are two main styles of diagrams that
HVACR technicians will encounter:
16.1.2 Ladder Diagrams
• Pictorial diagrams.
Ladder diagrams, or ladder logic wiring diagrams,
• Ladder diagrams.
are arranged with two parallel power wires that have
rungs between them, like a ladder. They are set up to reflect
16.1.1 Pictorial Diagrams the order of component operation in a system. Devices near
the top will be energized and started before devices fur-
A pictorial diagram, or pictorial wiring diagram,
ther down. In a ladder diagram, the vertical lines are the
is primarily used in service or installation manuals to
power supply, and the horizontal lines contain the various
illustrate how to connect electrical devices in a unit.
controls and loads located in the circuit. Schematic symbols
A technician can use a pictorial diagram to trace wire
show the devices and their connections in the order that
connections between devices. This is useful for locat-
they activate during circuit operation.
ing a loose or omitted connection. Pictorial diagrams
A ladder diagram is often provided with each unit by
not only show all the connections among a circuit's
the manufacturer to help with troubleshooting electrical
devices, but they also show the approximate physical
problems. HVACR units usually have a ladder diagram
location of devices in a unit. For example, if a picto-
glued to the back of the unit's access door. To effectively
rial diagram shows a contactor in the upper-right cor-
troubleshoot a system, a technician should know the
ner and a three-phase motor in the lower-left corner, a
sequence in which devices activate. A ladder diagram
technician can open up the service panel and expect to
shows this information. A ladder diagram of a domestic
find these parts in the locations specified, Figure 16-1.
refrigerator's defrost cycle is shown in Figure 16-2.
By illustrating a device's physical location, a pic-
To a beginner, ladder diagrams may appear to be
torial diagram helps technicians identify devices that
rather complicated. However, the various circuits and
controls can be broken down into several individual
A B circuits. Each horizontal line, or rung, on a ladder dia-
C 12-16AWG gram represents an individual circuit that has a l~ad.
Stranded Wire
The circuit may also contain switches, relays, or devices
used to control that load. Each line in a ladder diagram
is usually numbered to keep everything organized.

16.2 Control System Fundamentals

An HVACR control system is a collection of inter-
acting components that work together to achieve a com-
mon purpose, such as controlling temperature or an
enclosed environment. These control systems regulate
conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and humid-
ity, within specified areas, called conditioned spaces.
Components used in control systems include
sensors, controllers, and controlled devices. Control
systems are often described based on the way they
transmit signals from the sensor to the controller and
from the controller to the controlled device. The com-
30 mon modes of communication include the following:
Motor
• Mechanical.
0

© • Electrical.
• Pneumatic.
SSAC, LLC
• Electronic.
Figure 16-1. This pictorial diagram shows the wiring connections
and the positions of devices in relation to each other. • Hydraulic.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 353

L1 L2 • Direct digital control (DDC) .

Defrost timer • Combinations of the above .
When dealing with controlled devices, at least two
values must be known. The devices cut-in and cut-out.
Cut-in is the condition value at which a device begins
Motor operation. This is typically a temperature or pressure
value, but it could be another type of value, based on
Switch 3 the device in question. Cut-out is the condition value at
(thermostat) which a device ceases operation. Measuring these two
Light values and observing when a device begins and ends
\ I operation allows a technician to verify proper operation.
Many controls can be adjusted in two ways: range
Switch 4 I \ adjustment and differential adjustment. If calibrated

I
A and set properly, these adjustments alone are suffi-
dent to maintain a properly controlled environment.
Understanding the function of these adjustments is
L1 L2 key to keeping a space suitably conditioned.
Defrost timer
16.2.1 Range Adjustment
Range adjustment regulates the nurumum and
Motor maximum temperature or pressure in automatic control
systems. For example, range adjustment will keep a con-
Switch 3 ditioned space between certain temperatures or certain
(thermostat) pressures. A control system's range is the set of numbers
Light between and including the cut-in and cut-out values. The
\ I range encompasses the values during which the system
Switch 4 operates after reaching the cut-in value. Thus, if a heating
I \ system has a cut-in temperature of 72°F (22.2°C) and a cut-
B out temperature of 77°F (25°C), it has a range from 72°F
to 77°F. Figure 16-3 shows how adjusting the range also
changes the cut-in and cut-out values.
L1 L2
It is very difficult to keep any device or space at
Defrost timer one particular temperature or pressure for a length of
time. However, temperatures and pressure within a
close range of values are often nearly as good as one
set value. This is why range adjustment can be satisfac-
torily used to regulate a conditioned space. Figure 16-4
shows a range adjustment.

Heating System Range Adjustment

Switch 4 Cut-In Cut-Out
I \ Temperature Temperature
C Original setting 72°F 77°F
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 16-2. Ladder diagram showing the sequence of -3°F range adjustment 69°F 74°F
device activation for a domestic refrigerator's defrost cycle. +3°F range adjustment 75°F 80°F
A-The cycle begins with the motor and light switched off,
and the defrost heater switched on. B-After defrosting, the Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
compressor motor is switched on for the refrigeration cycle. Figure 16-3. When range adjustment is used to modify a
C-After the cabinet reaches the desired temperature, the thermostat's range, both the cut-in and cut-out values move
thermostat switches off the compressor motor, and the light equally in the same direction. This means the difference
turns on. between the two values stays the same.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

354 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

A range adjustment can be made to modify the

temperature of the conditioned space to make it warmer.
Original Range Adjusted Range With range adjustment, the cut-in and cut-out tempera-
tures are both raised higher, but the difference between
Cut-in = 27°F the two temperatures does not change. Range adjust-
Cut-in = 25°F ments work the same way when decreasing the tem-
perature or pressure range as when increasing it. For
example, if the range is lowered one degree, the cut-in
Average temperature and cut-out temperatures are both lowered one degree.
Average temperature In some controls, range adjustment is accom-
plished by an adjustable force pressing directly on the
bellows or diaphragm that operates the switch. This
force is exerted on the bellows or diaphragm regard-
Cut-out= 15°F less of whether the switch is in the cut-out or cut-in
position. The adjustable force may be an adjustable
weight that always presses against the bellows. More
commonly, however, it is a spiral spring with an adjust-
able screw. Turning the screw changes the pressure or
the tension on the spring. The spring may press or pull
directly on the bellows or diaphragm, or on a lever
attached to the bellows. See Figure 16-5.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Most range adjustment screws have a calibrated
Figure 16-4. The original range setting on the left and the
dial or a pointer connected to them. This indicates
adjusted range setting on the right. Note that the average
temperature changes, but the difference between the cut-in the direction the screw should be turned to provide
and cut-out temperatures does not change. There is still 10°F a higher or lower setting. In bimetal temperature con-
difference between cut-in and cut-out. trols, the range is often adjusted by changing the posi-
tion of the bimetallic element in relation to the contacts.

Adjustable
screw

Compression
spring - -irn----1..J:::::._~ Bellows

-Bellows

Adjustable
screw
Compression Spring Tension Spring
Range Adjustment Range Adjustment
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 16-5. Two types of range adjustments: one with a compression spring and one with a tension spring. The compression
spring pushes outward against both the bellows and the screw. The tension spring pulls inward, compressing the bellows.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 355

In electronic controls, range adjustment is a function of This control is built into the temperature or pressure
the processor, Figure 16-6. control. Differential adjustment should only be made
by a service technician who understands how the dif-
ferential adjustment affects the system. For example,
16.2.2 Differential Adjustment the thermostat differential for systems with a capillary
A system's differential is the number of units (the tube metering device must be large enough to allow
difference) between the cut-out value and the cut-in the pressures to equalize, which results in a longer Off
value. Subtract the two values to get the differential. cycle. However, the cut-in should not be too high. If it
For a cooling system, subtract the cut-out from the cut- is too high, the temperature in the conditioned space
in: cut-in - cut-out = differential. For a heating system, will also rise too high. The following are the types of
subtract the cut-in from the cut-out: cut-out - cut-in= differential adjustment controls:
differential. Always subtract the lower value from the • Cut-in control-allows adjustment of only the cut-
higher value. in value without changing the cut-out value.
For example, if a cooling system's cut-in tempera-
• Cut-out control-allows adjustment of only the
ture is 25°F (-3.9°C) and its cut-out temperature is 15°F
cut-out value without changing the cut-in value.
(-9.4°C), the differential is calculated by subtracting
15°F from 25°F. This results in a differential of 10°F. In • Combination control-allows adjustment of &
this example, the range is from 15°F to 25°F. both the cut-in and cut-out values. This type of
adjustment allows both values to be brought closer
Pro Tip together or moved further apart, Figure 16-7.
Differential or Range Adjustment Using Range and Differential Adjustments
When the range is adjusted, both cut-in and cut-out Adjusting the range affects the average tem-
value move equally the same distance. This changes perature of a conditioned space. Consider the earlier
the range and average set point, but the differential is example of a system with a cut-in temperature of 25°F
not affected. Whenever the differential is adjusted, the
(-3.9°C) and a cut-out temperature of 15°F (-9.4°C).
range and average set point are also changed.
Under the current range settings, the average tem-
perature of the conditioned space is 20°F (-6.7°C). If
Differential adjustment increases or decreases
the difference between the cut-in and cut-out values.

Heating System Differential Adjustment

Range or cut-in
adjustment screw Cut-In Cut-Out
Differential
Temperature Temperature
i Original setting 72°F 77°F 5°F
+3°F cut-out 72°F 80°F 8°F
adjustment
-3°F cut-out 72°F 74°F 2°F
adjustment

Range +3°F cut-in 75°F 77°F 2°F

or cut-in - -:=::-?---:-- --11 adjustment
setting -3°F cut-in 69°F 77°F 8°F
adjustment

+2°F combination 70°F 79°F goF

adjustment

-2°F combination 74°F 75°F 1°F

adjustment

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 16-7. Using differential adjustment, a technician can
Emerson Climate Technologies change a control's cut-in temperature, cut-out temperature,
Figure 16-6. The range setting for this pressure control can or both temperatures. These adjustments either increase or
be adjusted by turning the screw on top of the device. decrease the control's differential.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

356 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

the range is increased by 5°F, so that it is from 20°F to A combination differential adjustment can also
30°F, the average temperature also increases by 5°F to be made to reduce the differential while maintaining
25°F. Note that the differential in all these range adjust- the average temperature. For example, if the control's
ments stays at 10°F. cut-in temperature is decreased to 24°F (-4.4°C) and its
Increasing the range in a cooling system leads cut-out temperature is increased to 16°F (-8.9°C) the
to a decrease in the run time of the unit because the conditioned space maintains the same average tem-
desired condition is not as cold and requires less perature of 20°F (-6.7°C), Figure 16-8B.
refrigeration to reach that the cut-out value. The Since the differential is now 8°F, the compressor
opposite is true if the range is decreased: the average runs for less time and the conditioned space's
temperature of the conditioned space also decreases,
which means the run time of the unit increases
because the desired condition is colder and requires
Initial Adjusted
more refrigeration. A range adjustment affects a con-
ditioned space's average temperature and alters a Cut-in = 26°F
cooling system's run time. Cut-in = 25°F

Thinking Green
Range Adjustment
Adjusting a system's range can be an effective
method of reducing energy consumption. Decreasing
the average temperature in a cooling system means
the compressor does not have to do as much work. As Cut-out= 15°F
a result, there is a decrease in compressor motor cur-
rent as well as a decrease in running time, which saves
energy. Differential = 10°F Differential = 12°F

To maintain the same average temperature in

A
a conditioned space but alter the cycle interval and
run time, it is necessary to adjust both the range and
differential. Remember that when the differential is
adjusted, the range also changes. A combination differ- Initial Adjusted
ential adjustment that changes both cut-in and cut-out
equally in opposite directions can be used to affect the Cut-in = 25°F
cycle interval and run time without changing the aver- Cut-in= 24°F
age temperature in a conditioned space. In addition,
cut-in control and cut-out control differential adjust-
ments can be used to change the average temperature
along with the run time and cycle interval.
To understand how a differential adjustment
can affect run time without affecting average tem-
perature, consider again the earlier example of a
system with a cut-in temperature of 25°F (-3.9°C)
and a cut-out temperature of 15°F (-9.4°C). A com- Differential = 10°F Differential = 8°F
bination differential adjustment can be made to
reduce the cut-out temperature by l°F to 14°F (-10°C)
and increase the cut-in temperature by 1°F to 26°F B
(-3.3°C). See Figure 16-8A. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
With this adjustment, the average temperature Figure 16-8. Adjusting a combination differential changes
stays at 20°F (-6.7°C), but the compressor runs longer the cut-in and cut-out temperatures by equal amounts and
because the differential has increased from 10°F to maintains the same average temperature. A-Increasing the
l2°F. On the other hand, there is also a longer interval cut-out and decreasing the cut-in leads to a larger differential,
which means the compressor will run longer but less
between compressor cycles because the differential is frequently. B-Decreasing the cut-out and increasing the cut-
larger. This means more time is required for the tem- in leads to a smaller differential, which means the compressor
perature to rise from the cut-out to the cut-in. will run more often but for shorter periods of time.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 357

temperature varies less than before. In addition, the and range to achieve higher or lower average tempera-
interval between the compressor's On and Off cycles is tures and longer or shorter run times and cycle inter-
shorter because the differential is smaller, so less time vals as needed.
is required for the temperature to change rise and fall
between the cut-out and the cut-in values.
In each of the previous examples, the differential 16.3 Motor Controls
adjustments were combination, which changed both Most refrigeration and air-conditioning systems
the cut-in and cut-out temperatures equally in order are designed with more cooling capacity than needed.
to maintain the same average temperature. However, Therefore, under normal use, they do not run all of the
not all differential controls are combination. Some are time. To maintain the correct temperature in a condi-
just cut-in or just cut-out differential controls. Cut-in tioned space, the compressor motor must be turned
differential control and a cut-out differential control off when the space reaches the desired temperature.
affect the average temperature, the run time, and the It is turned on again when the conditioned space has
cycle interval. Using the previous examples, if the cut- warmed to a certain temperature. Motor operating
in temperature stays at 25°F (-3.9°C), but the cut-out controls measure two principal variables:
temperature is reduced to 13°F (-10.6°C), the differen-
• Temperature (thermostatic motor control).
tial increases from 10°F to l2°F, Figure 16-9.
This cut-out differential adjustment changed the • Pressure (pressure motor control). &
range from 15°F to 25°F to 13°F to 25°F. As a result, the These controls have differential and range adjust-
conditioned space's average temperature decreased to ments that change the values that operate the motor. Many
19°F, which means the compressor has to run longer to of these controls also have a manual switch. This switch
achieve a lower average temperature. However, there permits the system to be turned on or off as desired.
is also a longer interval between the compressor's On The controls may also include an overload protector. An
and Off cycles, because the differential has increased. overload protector opens the circuit if the motor draws
So far every differential adjustment has followed a too much current. Thermostatic motor controls can also
pattern regardless of how the average temperature has include timers for automatic defrosting or executing pre-
changed: increasing a control's differential leads to a programmed heating or cooling schedules.
longer run time and a greater interval between cycles, There are three common types of temperature
while decreasing the differential leads to a shorter run sensors used with thermostatic motor controls:
time and a shorter interval between cycles. Using this • Sensing bulbs.
principle, a technician can adjust a control's differential • Bimetal devices.
• Electronic sensors.

Initial Adjusted 16.3.1 Temperature Motor Control

A temperature motor control is a device that
Cut-in = 25°F Cut-in = 25°F reacts to the heat it senses by closing or opening an
electric switch to start or stop the operation of a motor.
It is similar to low-pressure motor control in design.
However, a temperature motor control uses a sensing
bulb to react to heat instead of pressure. Figure 16-10
shows a control with the cover removed. A tempera-
ture motor control is often referred to as a thermostat. A
Cut-out= 15°F temperature motor control often has a fixed tempera-
ture differential.
Thermostats are generally used in large single
Differential = 10°F Differential= 12°F evaporator installations. When used in multiple-evap-
orator systems, the thermostat is used to sense the
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
warmest evaporator case. The system is sized so that
Figure 16-9. Altering just the cut-out or cut-in affects the when the unit shuts off the compressor (upon reaching
average temperature and the system's run time and cycle the desired temperature in the warmest conditioned
interval. This cut-out differential control lowered just the cut- space), there is sufficient cooling achieved in the colder
out value, leaving the cut-in alone but increasing the range conditioned spaces. This permits each separate cabinet
and lowering the average set point. in a multiple-evaporator installation to be controlled.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

358 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Range Differential
scale scale
Controls
Sensing
\ / bulb

Sensing
bulb

Grounding
Electrical
wire screw
wiring port Capillary
tube

Dantoss
Figure 16-11. A thermostatic motor control that uses a
sensing bulb to detect temperature.
Johnson Controls. Inc.
Figure 16-10. Thermostatic motor control with cover removed
to reveal inner components. Note temperature range dial The sensing bulb and capillary tube are charged
(Fahrenheit scale) and electrical terminals. with a volatile fluid. A volatile fluid is a fluid that
vaporizes into a gas at a low temperature. As the bulb
becomes warmer, the volatile fluid vaporizes and
Some thermostats are made with a very close dif- expands into a gas. By expanding as a gas, the fluid
ferential, such as 1°F (0.5°C). These are used for certain increases the pressure inside the bulb and expands the
display cases, such as bulk milk coolers, frost alarms, bellows or diaphragm, Figure 16-12.
liquid chillers, and refrigerated trucks.
Some thermostats are wall mounted in walk-in
coolers, meat storage rooms, warehouses, and florist
cabinets. Some have double-throw contacts (SPDT).
Capillary tube Vapor Liquid
With these, the control may also operate other devices,
such as evaporator blower fans, along with the t
compressor.

Temperature-Sensing Bulbs
Bulb
Thermostatic control is a form of motor control t
commonly used in HVACR systems. A sensing bulb is Bellows
often used to detect temperature. A sensing bulb is a Ranco, Invensys Climate Controls Americas
device that reacts to heat by changing its internal pres- Figure 16-12. The fluid inside a temperature-sensing bulb
sure. The sensing bulb is connected by a capillary tube expands when it vaporizes and contracts when it condenses,
to a diaphragm or bellows, Figure 16-11. which causes the bellows to expand and contract as well.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 359

As a sensing bulb cools, the fluid condenses back Switching Devices Used with Sensing Bulbs
into a liquid. Since the liquid form takes up less space, As previously described, a thermostatic motor
the pressure decreases, and the bellows or diaphragm control with a sensing bulb usually has a bellows or
contracts. The sensing bulb is typically positioned in diaphragm that opens and closes a set of contact points.
the system so it is in contact with the evaporator and These contact points must open and close rapidly. If the
can react to temperature changes there. contact points were to open very slowly, there would be
electric arcing as the current jumps across the tiny gap.
Remote Temperature-Sensing Elements
This arcing action would very quickly burn the contact
Remote temperature-sensing elements are devices
points, ruining their ability to make a good electrical
that react to temperature change and send a signal to
connection. There are two primary ways to get the con-
control devices. Among the fluid-filled elements that
tact points to snap open and closed rapidly. One way
translate a change in temperature to a change in pres-
is to use a spring toggle mechanism. The second is to
sure, there are two common types:
include a permanent magnet in the contact assembly.
• Above-atmospheric-pressure element-controls refri- See Figure 16-13.
geration temperatures. In a toggle mechanism, the fulcrum points are
• Below-atmospheric-pressure element-controls heat- under pressure from a spring. This tends to pull them
ing units. together. As the sensing bulb warms, the bellows
An above-atmospheric-pressure element is used expands. This moves the toggle point downward. The
for controls that close the electrical circuit on tem- instant the toggle point passes the center position, it 6
perature rise. According to the combined gas law, will snap into the lower position. When the toggle point
in a fixed volume, a rising temperature causes pres- is in the lower position, the spring force acts to push
sure to rise. When the pressure inside the element the contacts together rather than hold them apart. This
moves the diaphragm or bellows far enough, it closes the contact points quickly, preventing arcing.
turns the switch on. As it cools, it turns the switch As the sensing bulb cools, its pressure reduces, so
off. If an above-atmospheric-pressure element loses the bellows contracts. This lowers the lever and moves
its charge, it will not be able to activate the switch the toggle point upward again. As soon as the toggle
due to its lack of pressure. Therefore, the refrigera- point passes the center point, the spring snaps open
tion unit is unable to start. If all of the volatile fluid the contact points very quickly. An adjusting screw
has leaked from the element, it cannot exceed atmo- controls the spring pressure that pulls the fulcrum
spheric pressure, which means it will not be able points together. Increasing this pressure will lengthen
to move the diaphragm or bellows to turn on the the motor's run time.
switch. In a system with magnet snap action, the contact
A below-atmospheric-pressure element is used points are mounted on a bar made of a magnetic metal,
for controls that open the electrical circuit on tem- such as iron. As the sensing bulb warms, increas-
perature rise. Below-atmospheric-pressure elements ing pressure in the bellows moves the contacts closer
are found on electric heating and electric defrost together. The permanent magnet also tries to draw the
units. These elements contain volatile fluid in a iron bar toward it. The magnetic effect increases as the
partial vacuum. As the temperature around the ele- iron bar approaches the magnet. When the bar is close
ment increases, the bellows or diaphragm expands enough, the magnet pulls the bar in with a snap action,
and opens the circuit. At a certain temperature, the which quickly closes the contact points.
controls turn off the circuit. Pulling the contact points apart takes enough
A below-atmospheric pressure element is designed force to overcome the magnet's strength. As the sens-
to open as temperature rises. This prevents heating ing bulb cools and the bellows contracts, the decreas-
coils from overheating and acts as a safety device. ing pressure of the bellows must exert enough force
In a refrigeration system, a below-atmospheric- to pull the iron bar away from the magnet. Because
pressure element can be used to stop the motor the bellows are flexible, they can build up enough
if the condensing temperature rises too high. If a potential energy to overcome the magnetic force. As
below-atmospheric-pressure element is damaged the bellows pulls down, the magnetic pull between
and becomes open to atmospheric pressure, the bel- the iron bar and magnet decreases rapidly, causing
lows or diaphragm will be unable to contract due the contacts to snap open quickly. With this type of
to loss of vacuum. Since the element is in a partial snap action, a motor's run time can be shortened by
vacuum, atmosphere will leak into the element, rais- moving the magnet away from the iron bar. It can
ing its pressure. This higher pressure will keep the be lengthened by bringing the magnet closer to the
circuit open. iron bar.

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360 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Range
- - - adjustment
Fulcrum
points

Toggle point

Adjusting Spring
screw
Toggle Snap Action

Permanent
magnet

Toggle point
n Contact
points

Bellows

Magnet Snap Action

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 16-13. These detail drawings show how a bellows can be connected to a snap-action motor control switch.

16.3.2 Bimetal Devices as shown in Figure 16-14. With contacts added to the
ends, a bimetal strip can act as a heat-activated switch.
Many thermostatic motor controls are composed As the bimetal strip reacts to temperature, it opens and
of bimetal devices. A bimetal device consists of two closes the contact points of an electrical circuit.
different metals bonded together and formed into a
particular shape. Two metals that are commonly used Bimetal Coil
are copper and steel. Copper has a greater coefficient of Another type of element commonly used in tem-
expansion than steel. This means that as temperature perature controls is the bimetal coil. These are often
increases, copper expands more than steel expands. mounted with a mercury switch on one end to open
This causes a bimetal device to bend as temperature and close a circuit when certain set points are reached,
rises. As temperature drops, the bimetal device returns Figure 16-15.
to its original shape. If it is cooled further, the bimetal Thermostats with bimetal coils and mercury
device begins to bend in the opposite direction. switches are being replaced with electronic controls due
to the hazardous nature of mercury. As the air surround-
Bimetal Strip ing the coil gets warmer, the coil expands so that it bends
A popular form of bimetal device is the bimetal outward. The bending coil tilts the mercury switch to one
strip. This strip reacts to different heat conditions, side, and the mercury slides to the lower end of the bulb.

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 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 361

The mercury serves as the electrical contact between the Pro Tip
middle wire (common) and the air-conditioning contact.
This turns on the air conditioning. If the conditioned Heating and Cooling Modes
space becomes too cold, the coil contracts, tilting the Many heating and cooling thermostats have a func-
bulb in the other direction. The mercury then forms an tion that allows the user to select either cooling mode or
electrical contact between the common and the furnace heating mode. This prevents the system from switch-
ing between the two modes of operation. For example,
contact. This turns on the heating.
when in cooling mode, the air conditioning will run until
the bimetal coil contracts. However, the heating will not
Copper turn on, because the thermostat is only set for cooling
mode. The user would need to select heating mode
before the thermostat would turn on the heating.

Bimetal Disc
Another common bimetal device, called the
Steel
bimetal disc, consists of a dished (concave) disc com-
Controlled Temperature posed of two metals. Its construction is such that the &
disc is dished in one direction when it is cold. As it
warms, it suddenly snaps into a dished position in the
other direction, Figure 16-16.

Heated
Contacts closed

Cooled
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 16-14. A bimetal strip bends or warps with
temperature change.

To Bimetal disc
heating
Heated
Commo~
------ --ec;T"
Contacts open
To/
cooling

Heated Cooled
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 16-15. A bimetal coil contracts and expands
depending on the temperature. The attached mercury switch
engages the furnace or cooling unit when tilted. Bimetal disc
Cooled
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 16-16. A bimetal disc can be used to open or close
a set of contacts as it snaps from one position to another,
depending on whether it is heated or cooled.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

362 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Bimetal discs are often used as safety switches, are often used in HVACR units to provide temperature
such as in furnaces as a high-limit switch or a flame feedback to the system controller and to remotely mon-
rollout switch. Bimetal discs provide fast snap action itor temperature in a system. Changes in a thermistor's
switching, may have adjustable calibration, and can resistance are detected by an electronic circuit called
operate with a small, effective temperature differen- a Wheatstone bridge. As the resistance changes due
tial, Figure 16-17. to temperature change, the resistances in the bridge
become unbalanced. This causes the output voltage of
the bridge to change. The output voltage can be ampli-
16.3.3 Electronic Temperature Sensors fied to signal the controller. The signal to the controller
Electronic temperature sensors have several indicates the action that needs to be taken.
advantages over other sensors, including their com-
pact size, reliable performance, rapid response, and
absence of moving parts. Electronic sensors gener-
16.3.4 Pressure Motor Controls
ally operate at a lower voltage (5 V to 15 V) provided A low pressure must be maintained within an
by a step-down transformer and rectifier or batteries, evaporator so that refrigerant can evaporate at a low
Figure 16-18. temperature. This principal shows how a pressure
The sensing device in an electronic temperature motor control may be used to regulate compressor
sensor is usually a thermistor. The thermistor probe motor operation based on pressure measurements in
can be placed in an airstream to measure air tempera- the system. A pressure motor control is often used on
ture or strapped to tubing to read the outside of the commercial systems. It connects into the suction side of
tubing's temperature. Remember that a thermistor is the compressor to monitor evaporator suction pressure.
a device in which the resistance varies as the tempera- A low-pressure motor control is shown in Figure 16-19.
ture varies. If a thermistor's resistance decreases as the With the system off, the evaporator warms, and
temperature increases, the thermistor has a negative the low-side pressure increases, which expands the
temperature coefficient (NTC). If a thermistor's resis- bellows. Eventually, this causes the contacts to close
tance increases as temperature increases, it has a posi- and the compressor's motor to start. When low-side
tive temperature coefficient (PTC). pressure drops low enough, the bellows contracts, and
Electronic thermistors have the ability to accu- the contacts open, turning off the motor.
rately sense extremely high and low temperatures. Cut-out and cut-in settings determine both differ-
These devices are useful for measuring temperatures ential and range. The spring inside the control is under
where conventional methods do not work. Thermistors compression and presses on the bellows at all times.

Data readout

Temperature sensors
Mounting tabs
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
Se/co Products Company
Figure 16-18. This datalogger uses multiple electronic
Figure 16-17. A bimetal disc packaged as a safety switch. temperature sensors to collect data over a period of time.

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 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 363

Range adjustment lowers both the cut-in and the cut- • Low-pressure motor control.
out an equal distance if the screw is turned out (coun- • Oil pressure motor control.
terclockwise). Cut-in and cut-out pressures are both
raised if the screw is turned in (clockwise). Differential • Low-pressure safety control.
adjustment affects only the cut-out. Differential adjust-
ment raises the cut-out pressure when the screw is High-Pressure Motor Controls
turned in (clockwise). The increased spring tension One of the most harmful things that can happen to
makes it harder for the bellows to reach its cut-out set- a hermetic system is to have high head pressure. High
ting. Turning the screw counterclockwise decreases head pressure raises the temperature of the refriger-
spring tension, lowering the cut-out pressure. The ant vapor and oil moving past the compressor exhaust
spring has no effect on the cut-in setting. valve. When too hot, this may cause oil and refrigerant
Some models of pressure control are also equipped breakdown. This condition is worsened if moisture or
to act as a safety device for the motor. For example, a dirt is present, which can result in carbon, acids, and
bellows construction with a pressure tap to the high- sludge forming.
pressure side of the compressor may be used. If head A high-pressure motor control is a safety control
pressure or high-side pressure rises too high, the bel- device used to turn off the compressor before dan-
lows will expand. This movement opens the motor cir- gerously high pressure is reached. The high-pressure
cuit and stops the motor. Such a control is especially motor control is connected to the compressor outlet, &
necessary when the system has a water-cooled con- before the condenser. If the pressure exceeds a certain
denser. The following forms of pressure motor control set point, the control shuts off current to the motor.
are the most common: This is most often achieved using an electric switch
• High-pressure motor control.

Range or cut-in
adjustment screw

Differential
i
adjustment screw
Line voltage (hot)
wire terminal

Spring

Grounding screw
Pressure element - -- i
(inside)

t
Capillary tube
Johnson Controls, Inc.
Figure 16-19. The internal construction of a pressure motor control. The bellows connects to the low-side of the system through
the control's capillary tube.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

364 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

operated by a pressure element sensing head pressure

High-Pressure Safety Cut-Out Pressures
at the compressor's head or discharge, Figure 16-20.
for Common Refrigerants
A high-pressure motor control is used for safety,
not for normal system operation. For normal operation, Refrigerant Pressure Setting (psi)
a thermostat or low-pressure control should normally R-12 150-160
cycle the compressor on and off. A high-pressure
R-22 260-270
motor control protects the compressor from the dan-
gers of high pressure and high temperature, but it also R-134a 36-110
protects the compressor's motor from overheating and R-500 190-200
overloading, as higher head pressure requires a higher R-502 280-290
current draw for the compressor to pump against. This
safety control is usually set to cut out at 20% above nor- Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

mal head pressure, Figure 16-21. Figure 16-21. Table of high-pressure safety cut-out pressures
The following are several conditions that can for different refrigerants.
cause high head pressure and may result in compres-
sor shutdown:
• Lack of air circulation through an air-cooled Setting a High-Pressure Safety Cut-Out
condenser (burned out fan motor, frozen relay, for a Pressure Motor Control
blocked airway, etc.). 1. Locate the high-side cut-out (typically on the
• Lack of water flow through a water-cooled right side of switch controls).
condenser. 2. Adjust the high-side cut-out by turning clock-
• Dirty condenser coils. wise to raise the cut-out set point.
• Increased refrigeration load.

High-pressure
safety cut-out
Cut-in adjustment
adjustment screw
Cut-in

Differential
adjustment screw

Cut-out
indicator

Electrical wire High-pressure capillary tube

access

Low_-pressure ___
capillary tube

Connects to
low side
Johnson Controls, Inc.
Figure 16-20. The internal construction of a pressure motor control. The bellows connects to the low-side of the system through
the control's capillary tube.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 365

3. Cycle the equipment at least three times at restricted refrigerant flow, or a refrigerant leak.
normal operational conditions and monitor When evaporator pressure drops, a low-pressure
with a pressure gauge to verify correct set- motor control opens the motor circuit and shuts off
tings and correct operation. the compressor motor before it is damaged. The pro-
tection pressure setting should be below the normal
cut-out setting to avoid a disruption in normal oper-
Low-Pressure Motor Controls ation, and it should be above atmospheric pressure
A low-pressure motor control is a control device to avoid allowing the evaporator to go into a vac-
that reacts to the low-side pressure it senses by clos- uum. A diagram for a low-pressure motor control is
ing an electric switch on a rise to a preset pressure shown in Figure 16-22.
(cut-in setting) and opening that switch on a drop to a Low-pressure motor controls have range and
preset pressure (cut-out setting). It measures compres- differential adjustments. The range is determined
sor suction pressure. The cut-out and cut-in pressures by the cut-in and differential settings. These set-
are set to maintain proper evaporator temperature. tings vary depending on the application. Cut-out
The low-pressure motor control regulates compres- pressure should be a pressure that corresponds
sor operation to maintain a specific low-side pressure with a temperature that is about 10°F (6°C) below
that corresponds to the desired evaporator tempera- the desired evaporator outside surface temperature. &
ture. Remember that the temperature of a refrigerant Cut-in pressure should correspond with a tempera-
inside an evaporator or condenser can be determined ture that is about the same as the highest allowable
by taking a pressure measurement and finding its cor- evaporator temperature. Figure 16-23 shows some
responding temperature value on a P/T chart for the common low-pressure motor control settings for
type of refrigerant in the system. different applications.
A low-pressure motor control can also function Below are procedures for setting the range on
as a safety device. The cooling of a hermetic com- a pressure motor control. Note the manufacturer's
pressor depends on the pressure and temperature instructions should be followed, as some units
of the suction vapor. Low vapor pressure is indica- require turning the screw in the opposite direc-
tive of not enough vapor flowing, so the compressor tion rather than as noted here. Also, newer units
may overheat and burn out. Low pressure can be may have an automatic reset control with a simple
caused by a low refrigerant charge in the system, button.

Evaporator Metering device

Low-pressure t
motor control

Condenser

Motor terminal box

Compressor

Liquid receiver
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 16-22. This diagram shows a low-pressure motor control installed on the low side of a refrigeration system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

366 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Low-Pressure Control Settings

Evap R-22 R-134a R-404A R-507
Temp
Application Temp
range Out In Out In Out In Out In
Difference

Beverage cooler 35°F to 38°F 15°F 41 psi 66 psi 17 psi 33 psi 53 psi 82 psi 56 psi 86 psi

Floral cooler

Produce cooler

Smoked meat 32°F to 35°F 15°F 38 psi 62 psi 15 psi 30 psi 49 psi 77 psi 52 psi 81 psi
cooler

Meat reach thru

Service deli

Seafood

Multi-deck fresh 26°F to 29°F 15°F 32 psi 54 psi 11 psi 25 psi 42 psi 68 psi 44 psi 71 psi
meat

Frozen glass door -10°F to 0°F 10°F 9 psi 24 psi - - 15 psi 33 psi 16 psi 35 psi

Frozen walk-in

Frozen ice cream -30° F to -20° F 10°F o psi 10 psi - - 3 psi 16 psi 4 psi 18 psi

Frozen food -
open type
Tecumseh Products Company
Figure 16-23. Table showing low-pressure motor control settings for some typical refrigeration applications.

A low-pressure motor control's differential set-

Setting the Range on a Dual Pressure
ting will vary, depending on the temperature accuracy
Motor Control required. A wide pressure difference allows some vari-
1. Identify the low-side range screw (typically ation in the cabinet temperature. It also lengthens the
on the left side of a switch control). operating cycle interval of the condenser. This means
2. Turn the low-side range screw clockwise to the compressor does not run as often. A smaller dif-
raise the cut-in set point. ferential setting maintains a more uniform cabinet
temperature. The unit then runs more often. Pressure
3. Adjust the differential screw. Note turning difference between cut-in and cut-out point varies with
clockwise raises the cut-in set point. the refrigerant used. Common pressure difference
4. Identify the high-side cut-out screw (typically is about 22 psi for R-22, 20 psi for R-401A, 20 psi for
on the right side of a switch control). R-404A, and 16 psi for R-134a.
5. Adjust the high-side cut-out by turning clock- In multiple-evaporator commercial systems, low-
wise to raise the cut-out set point. pressure motor controls are used quite often for two
6. Cycle the equipment at least three times at reasons:
normal operational conditions. Monitor with • The low-side pressure is an indication of the
a pressure gauge to confirm correct settings temperature in the evaporators.
and correct operation. • One control works well regardless of the number
of evaporators connected to it.

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 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 367

Oil Pressure Motor Controls Low-Pressure Safety Control

Some larger units use a safety control connected to A low-pressure safety control consists of a pressure-
the compressor's lubrication system. This control shuts sensitive element, such as a diaphragm or bellows, used to
off the compressor motor if the oil pressure decreases operate a switch. Unlike a low-pressure motor control, a
or if the oil pressure falls below a predetermined safe low-pressure safety control is not set to maintain a spe-
pressure above the low-side pressure. cific evaporator temperature. Rather, it is set to shut down
Oil pressure motor control units are similar in or lock out the compressor in the event of refrigerant loss
construction to low-pressure motor controls, but usu- (suction pressure dropping too low) or an evaporator
ally have a fixed or nonadjustable differential. There freeze-up. This safety control may include a low-pressure
are two types of oil pressure motor controls. One type line connected to a mechanical switch (much like a low-
operates on a mechanical differential that has one pressure motor control), or it may be a pressure transducer
connection to the oil pump and one connection to the electrical switch that is connected into the suction line, as
low-pressure side, Figure 16-24. The second type is a shown in Figure 16-25.
pressure-sensing electronic unit. It is connected to the When low-side pressure drops below the desired
lubrication system at the oil pump outlet. limit, the low-pressure safety control opens the electri-
Below is a list of factors that may cause an oil pres- cal circuit, which switches off the compressor motor.
sure motor control to trip open: Some low-pressure safety controls operate a relay, &
• Incorrect oil level in the compressor. which controls the electrical circuit.
• Improper tubing size.
• Unbalanced system. 16.3.5 Motor Starting Relays
• Low refrigerant charge. Many of the motor controls described in this chap-
• Refrigerant migration. ter start and stop motors by sending a signal to ener-
gize a relay. When the relay is energized, it responds
• Control is set improperly.
by opening or closing contacts. Aside from providing
• Electrical problems. power directly to motors, relays can also be used to
• Compressor malfunctions. open and close contacts that add start windings, start
capacitors, or both start windings and start capacitors
to the motor circuit, providing more torque for start-
ing. After start-up, these additions are often dropped
out of the circuit. To operate correctly, a relay must
Low-pressure have the right characteristics. When replacing a relay,
connection

Low-pressure
safety control Suction line

Oil pump
connection

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Dantoss Figure 16-25. This low-pressure safety control contains a
Figure 16-24. This differential oil pressure control shows its switch that opens the compressor circuit if low-side pressure
two connections: low-pressure and oil pump. drops below the pressure set point.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

368 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

a technician must use a new relay that has the same A current relay is an electromagnet, much like a
electrical specifications as the original. solenoid. Either a weight or a spring holds the start
There are several different kinds of motor starting winding contact points open when the system is idle.
relays divided into two different categories: When the motor control (thermostat or pressurestat)
Electromagnetic: contacts close, high current flows through the motor's
• Current. run winding. Because the current relay's coil is wired
in series with the run winding, it becomes heavily
• Potential.
magnetized. This lifts the weight or overcomes the
• Contactors (or motor starters). spring force and closes the contacts to the start wind-
Electronic: ing circuit, Figure 16-27.
• Solid-state.
• Positive temperature coefficient (PTC).
Common Run winding
Current Relays terminal terminal
Current relays are relays that are activated by Current
a single-phase motor's high starting current run- relay
ning directly through a current relay's coil winding.
Current relays are usually found on low-torque, low-
horsepower motors and are used to close and open
the start winding circuit. They are typically wired in
series with the run windings of single-phase induction
motors. The change in current flow through the run
winding operates the current relay, Figure 16-26.
A current relay energizes and actuates its contacts Start winding
when the high inrush of current at the beginning of 1- .,....-----1 1------' terminal
motor operation flows through both the relay coil and
Start capacitor
the motor's run windings. Energized current relays
close their normally open (NO) contacts, which brings Weight
additional components (motor windings or capacitors)
A
into the circuit to provide more starting torque for the
motor.
Common Run winding
terminal terminal
Current
relay

Start winding
,....__J.· -~ -----t 1------' terminal
.....______,___~
Contacts Start capacitor
Weight (closed)

B
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 16-27. A current relay controls the start winding circuit,
but its coil is wired in series with the run winding circuit. A-
Relay coil
When power is applied, the relay coil is energized, drawing
Dantass the shaft upward to close the start winding circuit. B-With the
Figure 16-26. Current relays are often identified by their relay contacts closed, current flows through both the run and
prominent relay coil. start windings, providing the motor with more starting torque.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 369

During starting, the motor will quickly acceler- Start Run

ate to two-thirds or three-fourths of its rated speed. As
it does so, the current draw of the motor's run wind-
ing decreases. This reduces the magnetic strength of
the current relay. The decrease is enough to allow the
weight or the spring to open the start winding contact
points. Figure 16-28 shows a current relay in the closed
(starting) position and in the open (running) position.
Current relays are sometimes called amperage relays
and are available in a number of capacities (amperage
range). It is the ampere draw on the circuit that oper-
ates the relay. The difference between closing amper-
age and opening amperage settings is small. One type
of current relay uses a rotary solenoid. This type can
be mounted in any position, whereas a weight-oper-
ated relay must be mounted in a level position. A com-
mon method of mounting a current relay is shown in Frigidaire &
Figure 16-29. Figure 16-29. Connecting a current relay to a compressor
Current relays have three main terminals, marked terminal.
L (line voltage), M (main winding), and S (start wind-
ing). Between L and S is a normally open (NO) contact. Start Current relay
Between L and M is the relay coil. A current relay is
wired by connecting an ungrounded (hot) wire to the
L terminal. Terminal M is connected to the run wind-
winding
terminal
Start
capacitor S terminal t NO contacts

ing (R) terminal of a motor. The type of motor being

wired determines the next wire connection. Terminal L terminal
S can be connected to either the start winding terminal
of a motor or a capacitor that is wired to the start wind-
ing terminal. Figure 16-30 shows a wiring diagram for
a motor with a current relay.

Pro Tip terminal

Relay Terminals
winding
Always check wiring diagrams for relays. Some terminal
relays may have additional terminals to control more terminal
than one motor or other components. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 16-30. Wiring diagram of a motor using a current relay.

Spring

Movable contacts Motor Starting Motor Running

Frigidaire
Figure 16-28. A current relay is in the closed position during motor start-up and the open position during full-speed operation.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

370 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

IT.J Checking a Current Relay

II An HVACR technician must be able to tell if
a current relay is operating properly. With a few
measurements, a technician can test for proper
relay operation. These tests can be done on a new
or used current relay.
1. If the relay is installed in a system, disconnect
it from the system. No power can be applied
to the relay when it is being tested with an
ohmmeter.
2. Check to see if the relay is weight oper-
ated. If so, be sure that it is right-side up in
a level position. It cannot be upside-down or
sideways.
3. Set the range switch for the ohmmeter to its
lowest setting (xl or xlO).
4. If possible, review the relay's wiring diagram
and manufacturer data sheet to verify the ter-
minal locations for the coil and contacts.
5. Measure the resistance of the coil by clipping Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
the ohmmeter leads to terminals L and M. It Figure 16-31. A potential relay is shown here.
should read a very low resistance. A measure-
ment of O Q or close to O Q means that the
coil is fine. A reading of infinity ( means
00 ) Figure 16-32 is a wiring diagram for a potential
that the coil is open, and the relay must be relay. It shows that a potential relay's coil is wired in
replaced. parallel with a motor's start winding. Because a poten-
tial relay has normally closed (NC) contacts, the start
6. Measure the resistance of the contacts by clip-
winding and both capacitors are in the circuit imme-
ping the ohmmeter leads to terminals L and
diately to help the motor begin turning. As the motor
S. Because current relay contacts are normally
speed increases, the counter emf generated in the start
open (NO), the resistance should be infinity
winding reaches a certain voltage, which energizes
If the resistance is O Q or close to O Q, the
( 00).

contacts are shorted, and the relay must be

replaced.
Common Run

Potential Relays
Potential relays, also called voltage relays, are Start
electromagnetic relays that actuate based on a single- capacitor
phase motor's counter electromotive force (cemf). They
are used to start single-phase, high-torque, capacitor- Terminal 1
start motors in compressors, Figure 16-31.
NC contacts
The operation of a potential relay is based on
increasing voltage in the form of cemf. The increase Terminal 2
occurs as a motor approaches and reaches its rated
speed. As the motor's rotor starts to turn, it creates a
magnetic field. This magnetic field induces a voltage in
the motor start windings known as counter electromo-
tive force (cemf). As the motor reaches higher speed, Potential Relay
the cemf rises to a sufficient amount to energize the relay coil
potential relay's electromagnetic coil and disengage Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
the start capacitor from the circuit. Figure 16-32. Wiring diagram of a motor with a potential
relay.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 371

the relay coil across terminals 2 and 5. This opens the 5. Measure the resistance of the contacts by clip-
normally closed contacts across terminals 1 and 2. As ping the ohmmeter leads to terminals 1 and 2.
a result, the start capacitor is dropped out of the cir- Because potential relay contacts are normally
cuit. When the motor is turned off, a potential relay's closed (NC), the resistance should be 0 Q or
contacts again close and remain closed. This feature is close to 0 Q. A reading of infinity ( indi- 00)

its greatest advantage. If the points are closed as the cates that the contacts are stuck open. Dirty
thermostat closes the motor's power circuit, there is no contacts or contacts burned from arcing may
arcing of the relay contact points, which occurs quite explain measurements above 0 Q but below
often in current relays. infinity ( 00).

The required voltage in the start winding nec-

essary to energize the potential relay's coil is called
pickup voltage. Pickup voltage is typically generated Contactors and Motor Starters
when a motor reaches around three-fourths of its nor- The electrical contacts on low-pressure motor con-
mal operating speed. Because a potential relay coil is trols and thermostats can safely carry a limited amount
connected in parallel with the start winding, the relay of electrical current. However, these same commercial
coil and winding share the same voltage but split the pressure and temperature devices can control large
current. The relay coil is made of small wire, giving it motors with higher current loads through the help &
a high resistance. The motor's start winding is made of two devices: contactors and motor starters. These
of larger wire, giving it a lower resistance. Therefore, devices operate in a manner similar to lower-current
most of the current flows through the lower-resistance magnetic relays.
start winding on start-up, leaving very little current to A contactor is a heavy-duty type of electromag-
pass through the potential relay coil. This minimizes netic relay. Contactors can handle higher current than
the heat produced in the relay coil as the motor starts. relays. They are larger than relays and can often be
However, the coil's resistance must be low enough to rebuilt or have parts replaced. The pickup coil that
open the contact points and remove the start capacitor actuates the switching of the contacts can be replaced
from the circuit at the right time. If not, the motor will with another coil that operates at a different voltage.
overheat. These may be 24 V, 120 V, 240 V, or whatever is available

rn Checking a Potential Relay and convenient for a particular system, Figure 16-33.
Contactors are available in many different contact
~ An HVACR technician must be able to tell if configurations, from a single set of contacts to five or
a potential relay is operating properly. With a few
measurements, a technician can test for proper
relay operation. These tests can be done on a new
or used potential relay.
1. If the relay is installed in a system, disconnect
it from the system. No power can be applied
to the relay when it is being tested with an
ohmmeter.
2. Set the range switch for the ohmmeter to a
high setting (xlO0).
3. If possible, review the relay's wiring diagram
and manufacturer data sheet to verify the ter-
minal locations for the coil and contacts.
4. Measure the resistance of the coil by clip-
ping the ohmmeter leads to terminals 2
and 5. The measurement should be around
several thousand ohms; however, the mea-
surements for different potential relays will
vary. The resistance should not be low or
infinity ( A low reading indicates a pos-
00) .

sible short in the coil, and infinity means DiversiTech Corporation

that the coil is open. Figure 16-33. A standard contactor used in HVACR.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

372 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Replacement Coil

Zettler Controls, Inc.

Figure 16-34. This contactor is used to energize a three-
phase motor.

six sets of contacts. Many residential air-conditioning

systems use contactors with few sets of contacts to
energize the compressor and the condenser fan motor.
Contactors with three or four sets of contacts are used
to control three-phase motor operation. Three-phase
motors cannot use the starting relays that single-phase
motors use. When a three-phase contactor is energized,
the terminals on each side connect Ll to Tl, L2 to T2,
and L3 to T3, Figure 16-34.
A motor starter is similar to a contactor, but it
Replacement Contacts
has built-in overload protection. Overload protection
DiversiTech Corporation
devices are used to prevent motors from burning out
Figure 16-35. If certain components of a contactor are
or overheating. Unlike starting relays, both motor start-
defective, install replacement components instead of replacing
ers and contactors can be rebuilt. Thus, if a contactor or the entire contactor.
motor starter has burnt-out contacts or if the relay coil
is shorted, a technician can just replace the contacts or
coil instead of having to replace the entire contactor or large current needed for the motor. Figure 16-36 shows
motor starter, Figure 16-35. a wiring diagram of a contactor circuit.
For larger HVACR applications, pressure motor Contactors and motor starters are mounted in
controls and thermostats signal a contactor or motor an approved metal box with a safety access door.
starter to energize a high-current motor. Contactor or Motor starters often have a manual shutoff switch
motor starter operation begins when a motor control and fuses or an overload thermal safety breaker
device sends an electrical signal. This signal energizes switch. The safety switch is operated by a heating
the electromagnet in a contactor. The energized mag- element. This is located in the motor circuit black
net attracts the steel armature that holds the contactor's lead inside the contactor or motor starter. Should the
contacts. When this armature moves toward the mag- motor demand too much current (shorts, grounds, or
net, it closes large contact points that safely carry the overloads), the heater will warm a thermal bimetal

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 373

Contactor strip in the control circuit until it bends. The bend-

i Low-pressure ing movement will open the electromagnetic circuit,
r- - - - - , motor control
I
.-----r-o..__
I d
o---.-----.-------L1
which will then open the main switch.
Figure 16-37 shows a wiring diagram of a 120-
240 V single-phase system using a motor starter. The
heavier lines indicate high-current power wiring, and
the lighter lines indicate low-current control wiring. A
wiring diagram for a three-phase system is shown in
Figure 16-38 and Figure 16-39.
Magnetic
armature Code Alert
Electrical Work
o---.----L------L2
Electrical work should be done by a licensed
L-----.J
electrician. The work should comply with local electri-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher cal codes. Most states adopt by reference the National
Figure 16-36. Electrical diagram showing how a motor operating Electrical Code (ANSI/NEPA standard 70), some-
control, a contactor, and a motor are wired. This circuit allows high times with local changes. Some also adopt by refer- &
current flow through the motor and contactor's contacts without ence the National Electrical Safety Code (ANSI/IEEE
overloading the motor control's contacts. standard C2).

Two-Terminal Internal Protector and

Fusite Potential Relay and Contactor
When fan or fans req'd.
Motor Red
...- - - - , tracer
--------, I
Fusite

Brown

L1
120-240 V
Potential
relay

Run cap.

When capacitor or capacitors req'd.

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 16-37. Wiring diagram showing a contactor (highlighted in green) wired to control a 120-240 V single-phase compressor.
Additional wiring is shown for fans and capacitors.

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374 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Motor control Mag. coil

Contactor

Wiring arrg't.
when fan or
fans req'd. L1
...,._._..__ _ L2

Black Protector Black

Brown
For protection conversion kit only
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 16-38. Wiring diagram for a three-phase compressor showing both the wiring diagram and pictorial representation of the
contactor. The motor control is wired in series with the magnetic coil of contactor.

circuit at the correct time. These relays are not as sensi-

Field wiring must be performed by a qualified tech-
tive to the size of the motor as other relays. The same
nician. Improperly installed and grounded field wiring
may present fire and electrocution hazards. Always fol- solid-state relay can be used for motors varying from
low field wiring installation and grounding as described 1/12 hp to 1/3 hp.
in NEC and local/state electrical codes. Failure to follow
codes may result in serious injury or death. Positive Temperature Coefficient Relays
A positive temperature coefficient (PTC) relay is
an electronic relay that uses a PTC thermistor to con-
Solid-State Relays trol the motor circuit by increasing its resistance as it
A solid-state relay (SSR) is a relay that uses senses high ambient temperature, Figure 16-41. PTC
electronic components (such as transistors, silicon- relays are typically used on fractional horsepower
controlled rectifiers, or triacs) rather than mechanical motors.
components to switch circuits on and off. They are Refer to the wiring diagram in Figure 16-42 for
solid-state because there is no physical movement of the description of a PTC relay operation with a perma-
mechanical parts. Switching is done electronically nent split capacitor (PSC) motor. Notice that the PTC
(solid-state). For this reason, solid-state relays are relay and run capacitor are wired in parallel with each
sometimes referred to as electronic relays, Figure 16-40. other. This offers the current through the start winding
SSRs are typically used to start single-phase two possible paths to complete the circuit. Remember
motors. Changes in voltage in the motor, as it starts and that current always takes the path of least resistance.
then gathers speed, are used to open the start winding When the circuit is first energized, the PTC relay has

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 375

Contactor

L1 L2 L3
Transformer
Mag. coil

Wht./Brn. Tr.

Protectors

I
C C
------1 ~ I ------1 ~

lnternaI_)00 1 e lnternal~00• e
thermostats co thermostats co
440 Volt 208/220 Volt
across the line across the line
Emerson Climate Technologies
Figure 16-39. Wiring diagrams shows 440 V and 208-220 V circuits designed for three-phase power. Lines L1 through L3 each
carry one leg of the three-phase voltage.

Danfoss
Figure 16-41. Two positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
relays.

©2012 Galetti North America, Inc.

Figure 16-40. A solid-state relay.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

376 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Start winding After outside controls cut power to the circuit, the
terminal PTC relay motor stops running. While the motor is not energized,
the PTC relay cools down. A cool-down period is neces-
r __ j __ 1 sary for the PTC relay's resistance to drop low enough
for the motor to start up again. Usually two to five min-
Run utes is a sufficient cool-down period. Trying to start the
capacitor motor before the PTC relay has had enough time to cool
down can trip the motor overload protection.

Pro Tip
Run winding PTC PTC Relay Contacts
terminal thermistor
A PTC relay does not have actual contacts. Rather,
Starting Mode
it has a thermistor that acts as a contact. When the
thermistor has low resistance, it acts as a closed contact.
Start winding When it has high resistance, it acts as an open contact.
terminal PTC relay

r-- 1--1 16.4 Motor Protection Devices

Run The most common causes of motor failure are
capacitor current overloads and overheating. An overload may
result in melted conductors or burned insulation on
the motor windings. Considerable damage may also
result if the motor overheats. Overheating can occur
Run winding PTC without the current draw becoming excessive.
terminal thermistor It is important to protect a motor from both cur-
Running Mode rent overloads and overheating. Therefore, it is neces-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
sary to use both current-sensitive and heat-sensitive
Figure 16-42. A PTC relay used to start a PSC motor.
devices. Fuses, circuit breakers, bimetal switches, and
Starting Mode-During start-up, the low resistance of the PTC thermistors are some of the devices used for motor
relay provides an easier path to follow than the run capacitor. protection. These devices open the motor circuit before
Running Mode-After heating up, the PTC relay develops there is damage to the motor.
high resistance and effectively stops conducting. Current now
follows a parallel path of lesser resistance through the run
capacitor. 16.4.1 Fuses
A fuse, short for fusible link, is a short piece of
metal wire that is specifically designed to conduct a
a low resistance that is between 3 Q and 12 Q. These
certain amount of current before it melts to open the
values mean that it is easier for current to pass through
circuit, stopping the current flow. Fuses are used to pro-
the PTC relay than through the run capacitor. During
tect motors from burning out due to current overloads.
start-up, the run winding and the start winding are
Fuses are usually located outside the motor for easy
both energized. Because current passes through the
access. Fuses conduct current normally when operat-
PTC relay and not the run capacitor, the run capacitor
ing below their maximum rating. Figure 16-43 shows
serves no function during start-up.
the fuse ratings in amperes for various ac motors.
As the motor gains speed, current continues to
When current through a circuit exceeds the fuse's
flow through the thermistor inside the PTC relay, caus-
maximum rating, heat builds up inside the fuse. This
ing it to heat up. PTC relays have a large temperature
causes the conductive element inside the fuse to melt,
range for their low-resistance setting. When a PTC
opening the circuit and preventing current flow to the
relay heats up to its set point temperature, the thermis-
motor. A fuse with a melted element is called a blown fuse.
tor's low resistance changes to a very high resistance.
A circuit with fuse protection is shown in Figure 16-44.
This high resistance, between 10 kQ to 20 kQ, effec-
There are four important types of fuses used in
tively opens its leg of the circuit and prevents the flow
HVACR:
of current across the thermistor. The start winding
current seeks the path of least resistance, which is now • Fast-acting.
through the run capacitor. • Time-delay.

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 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 377

• Multipurpose.
Maximum Fuse Ratings for AC Motors
• Current-limiting.
Motor Voltage The starting current of a motor can be from two
Motor Horsepower to six times the running current of that motor. A fast-
120V 240V
acting fuse blows immediately after the maximum rat-
1/6 4.4 A 2.2 A ing of the fuse is exceeded. A fast-acting fuse used on
1/4 5.8A 2.9A
a motor with a high starting current will blow before
the motor can start running. Thus, fast-acting fuses are
1/3 7.2A 3.6A used in applications where the motor does not have
1/2 9.8A 4.9A high starting torque. For example, blower motors may
3/4 13.8 A 6.9A
use a fast-acting fuse, as they do not have significant
torque at start-up. Compressors, on the other hand,
1 16.0A 8.0A often have higher torque requirements to overcome
1 1/2 20.0A 10.0A pressure differences at start-up, which means they
would not use a fast-acting fuse.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
A time-delay fuse, also known as a dual-element
Figure 16-43. This table lists the maximum fuse current
ratings for ac motor protection according to motor horsepower. fuse, will not blow unless an overload condition exists &
for a certain period of time, typically ten seconds. The
time delay is usually required when a motor has a
high starting current. Compared to a fast-acting fuse,
the disadvantage of a time-delay fuse is if an extremely
Power source high current overload occurs, then the motor could be
damaged from the high current before the time delay
is over. Because a fast-acting fuse does not have a time
delay, it will shut the motor off before damage occurs.
A time-delay fuse allows the operation of a motor with
high starting current to reach full speed when it lowers
its current draw to an acceptable level.
Motor operating Fuse
A multipurpose fuse has the advantages of both
the fast-acting and time-delay fuses. A multipurpose
fuse will not blow during small overloads lasting only
short periods of time, such as when the motor is start-
ing. However, if an extremely high overload occurs
(over 500% of the maximum current rating), the fuse
Normal Operating Conditions
will blow immediately. A multipurpose fuse provides
good motor protection from both long-term, small
Power source overloads and short-term, large overloads.
A current-limiting fuse will open a circuit when
the current exceeds its limit and the fuse heats up.
Current-limiting fuses use temperature-sensitive resis-
tors that open up and then close when cooled back
down. They prevent the electrical current to the motor
from exceeding the rated locked rotor amperage,
Figure 16-45.
Motor stopped Blown fuse

Pro Tip
Blown Fuses
If a particular fuse and its equally rated replace-
ments continue to blow, check to make sure the fuse is
Current Overload
the proper size rating for the application. If the fuse is
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher the correct size, there could be another cause such as a
Figure 16-44. When a motor circuit is protected by a fuse, short somewhere else in the circuit.
the motor operates as long as the current does not exceed the
fuse's maximum rating long enough to blow the fuse.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

378 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

will bend from the heat and open the circuit to shut
down the motor.
Bimetal discs are often used as a form of inter-
nal motor overload protection. The contact points are
normally closed. If the motor draws too much current
that generates an excessive temperature, the disc bends
and opens the contact points, which breaks the circuit.
When the temperature of the disc drops enough, the
disc returns to its normal shape and the contact points
close. An internal bimetal protection device may also
break the motor circuit if excessive heat builds up in
the motor, even if the current draw remains at accept-
able levels, Figure 16-47.

DiversiTech Corporation
Figure 16-45. Various types of fuses.

16.4.2 Circuit Breakers

Many homes and businesses use circuit breakers
for each building circuit rather than fuses. A circuit
breaker is an automatic switch that opens a circuit if
the current draw exceeds a predetermined level. These
can be single-pole or multiple-pole. One example of Single-Pole Circuit Breaker
using a double-pole circuit breaker is when connecting
two hot 120 V lines to power a 240 V compressor motor,
Figure 16-46.
Circuit breakers are usually rated the same as
fuses. A tripped circuit breaker is one that has opened
due to high current. It must be manually reset. As
with fuses, if a circuit breaker is continually tripping
open, the breaker should be carefully examined. If the
breaker has sufficient capacity, there may be a short or
other trouble in the circuit.
Fuses and circuit breakers are not necessarily
interchangeable. The UL (Underwriters Laboratories)
nameplate on an HVACR device may indicate the type
of overload protection device required by the National
Electrical Code®.

16.4.3 Bimetal Protection Devices

Bimetal devices are commonly used as safety
devices to protect a motor from both current overloads
and overheating. They can be used for either internal or Double-Pole Circuit Breaker
external motor protection. If a motor draws too much DiversiTech Corporation
current or if nearby parts overheat, a bimetal device Figure 16-46. A single-pole and a double-pole circuit breaker.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 379

In most HVACR equipment, a hermetic compres-

sor is designed to start under a condition of balanced
pressures. Overheating is a danger if the motor must
start against a high head pressure. With the increased
starting load, the motor may draw excessive current,
causing the internal motor overload protection to open
the motor circuit. Most motors normally operate at
125°F (52°C). When the temperature reaches 200°F to
terminal 250°F (93°C to 121°C), the bimetal internal protection
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher device will open the circuit and stop the motor.
Figure 16-47. This bimetal disc protection device is compact If there is excessive current draw, excessive tem-
and designed to fit into a motor with its windings. perature, or both, an internal bimetal protection device
will open the motor circuit. Loss of refrigerant, a restric-

I
tion in the system, or low suction pressure could lead to
Pro Tip
a burnt-out motor if the bimetal protection device were
Motor Overheating Conditions not installed. When the unit has cooled down, the bimetal
A motor may overheat if there is too little refrigerant device will close, and the unit can cycle on again.
flow because refrigerant vapor is often used to cool a
compressor's motor. A motor may also overheat if it has Pro Tip
to start again shortly after shutting off.
Overload Protection Reset
Internal motor overload protection is mainly used After the internal motor overload protection opens
on hermetic compressors. Motors having this protec- the circuit, it may be an hour to two hours before it will
close. This depends on the ambient temperature condi-
tion are usually labeled Internal Overload Protected. The
tions. Use forced air, dry ice, or carbon dioxide spray
internal bimetal protection device is located inside to speed up compressor dome cooling. Do not tap on
the compressor, directly on or in the motor windings. the controls in an attempt to operate the contact points.
In three-phase motors with a wye configuration, the The contact points may vibrate and arc, causing them
internal protection is at the common point of the three to burn out quickly.
windings. It will open all three circuits when its con-
tacts open, Figure 16-48.
Caution
T1 Internal overload Shorted Overload Protection
protection
The leads to internal motor overload protection
must never be shorted. Even a few moments of operat-
ing a compressor without this protection may burn out
the motor. This protection cannot be taken out of the
motor circuit.

Bimetal discs are also frequently used as external

motor overload protection as well. Figure 16-49 shows
one variation of the bimetal disc. In this version, cur-
rent passes through the heater coil and contacts before
going to the motor. The device opens the circuit if the
bimetal disc reaches a temperature that causes it to
snap in the other direction.

Pro Tip
External Bimetal Protection Devices
Copeland Corporation External bimetal devices used for motor protection
Figure 16-48. A three-phase motor usually has internal
may only open a circuit if the current is too high. If the
overload protection at the common point of the three windings. motor should overheat from other troubles, it may still
Since heat will build up equally at this point, all three contacts run and be damaged. Possible sources of excessive
should open simultaneously so that all three sets of windings heat are high exhaust temperatures, poor air circulation,
are opened together. poor refrigerant circulation, and friction.

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380 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Bimetal disc Contact

Points
open
VLCA-1688

Texas Instruments, Inc.

Figure 16-49. Excess heat through the heater coil will cause
the bimetal disc to snap open the contact points.
Aler/on
Figure 16-50. This DDC controller is capable of producing
16.4.4 Thermistor-Based Protection digital and analog outputs.
Devices
Another type of internal motor protection device is The human body can be viewed as analogous to a
the PTC thermistor. The PTC thermistor is often con- DDC system. When a person touches a hot flame, there
nected in series with the windings of a motor. It pre- is a reaction to pull back. The brain acts as a control-
vents current from conducting when the temperature ler, receiving an input from the temperature sensor
of the motor increases beyond a safe level. After the (fingers touching a hot flame). The brain processes this
motor and thermistor cool down to a safe temperature, input and determines that the finger should pull away
current will be able to flow and run the motor. from the flame. The brain sends an output signal to
Another type of electronic thermistor has a nega- the muscles to contract or pull away from the flame.
tive temperature coefficient (NTC). The thermistor This all happens very quickly. A DDC controller also
is placed in a capsule within the motor. As the tem- receives, processes, and sends signals to react quickly.
perature increases, the resistance of the NTC thermis- There are numerous advantages to DDC over older
tor decreases. If the temperature rises to about 200°F mechanical or pneumatic systems. The microprocessor
(93°C), the decreased resistance allows increased cur- control provides faster response times, has very few
rent flow through the thermistor, which operates a moving parts, and usually includes internal diagnostic
relay circuit that opens the motor circuit. This shuts the capability for troubleshooting, Figure 16-51.
motor off. When the temperature falls back to a safe DDC wiring between the controller and sensors
value, the resistance increases, which decreases the is lightweight, low-voltage wiring that only needs to
current below the amount required to hold the relay be able to carry very small electrical signals, typically
open. The relay will then close so the motor can run 0-10 Vdc or 4-20 mA. Some DDC components can even
again. function wirelessly, saving both the cost of wiring and
the time and labor necessary to install wiring. Typical
installation of components involves simply connecting
16.5 Direct Digital Control (DOC) wiring to input and output terminals on the controller.
Direct digital control (DDC) is a type of con- This is usually done with either a twisted pair or dual
trol system that utilizes multiple digital and analog wire group. Inputs and outputs are wired along a ter-
inputs and outputs in the form of low-voltage and/ minal strip, Figure 16-52.
or low-current signals connected to a microprocessor Inputs and outputs are either analog or digital sig-
that operates an HVAC or automated building system. nals to and from the controller. Analog data is an elec-
The microprocessor functions as a master controller. It trical signal that can vary continuously over a range.
receives information from different inputs, processes Think of the shape of an alternating current sine wave.
this information (using an algorithm or program), and At any point along the sine wave, a measurement can
produces output commands to devices, Figure 16-50. be any value between the high and low points. Digital

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 381

Field controller
and display

'F A
72 ....

I
SE TO

TEMPERATURE

~~

< >

Alerton
Figure 16-51. Many DDC systems have software that can be used to control and monitor system operation.

Digital Safety data is an electrical signal that is produced in discrete

outputs fuse steps. A digital signal only occupies certain steps or
values along a scale. If an analog sine wave was digi-
tized, it would look like a series of miniature stair steps
rising and falling. This exemplifies how digital signals
are produced as discrete steps, Figure 16-53.

Digital or DIP Digital

analog inputs switches outputs
Alerton
Analog Digital
Figure 16-52. This DDC field controller uses multiple inputs
and outputs along its terminal strips to control one of a Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
building's ventilator units. Figure 16-53. An illustration of analog and digital signals.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

382 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Many modern DDC controllers accept analog and

digital inputs but produce digital outputs. These out-
puts can be used to control a variety of devices, such
as an actuator controlling an airway damper position.
Based on the magnitude of the output signal, the actu- Fully Open = 0 Vdc
ator could hold open the damper at several different
positions. The range of open is measured as a percent-
age. Each percentage open is assigned a specific volt-
age or current. If the output was in the OVdc to 10 Vdc
range, a fully open damper may correspond to O Vdc,
25% closed = 2.5 Vdc, 50% closed = 5 Vdc, 75% closed 25% Closed = 2.5 Vdc
= 7.5 Vdc, and fully closed = 10 Vdc. Each component
in a DDC system is designed with a specific output
voltage or current draw for its particular operation,
Figure 16-54.
50% Closed= 5Vdc
16.5.1 Control Loops
There are two basic categories of control systems:
open loop and closed loop. An open-loop control
system is a system in which the controller sends com-
mands to the controlled device with no detected feed- 75% Closed = 7.5 Vdc
back information from the conditioned space being

I
returned to the controller. There is no temperature
sensor or other detection device that is telling the con-
troller about the conditions being controlled. In such
cases, a human operator acts as the conditioned space's
sensor. If the operator wants to change the conditioned 100% Closed= 10 Vdc
space, he or she must manually change the thermostat Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
to activate an output device to affect the conditioned Figure 16-54. DDC systems can control damper positioning
space, but the system has no feedback mechanism to by applying a specific current or voltage.
automatically control the conditioned environment.
Most HVACR control systems are closed-loop
systems. In a closed-loop control system, a sensor The following terms are used when referring to
produces a signal based on the conditions in the con- closed-loop control systems:
ditioned space and transmits it to the controller. The • Set point-the desired condition.
controller compares the signal to the set point (desired • Control point-the present condition as measured
condition). The controller then sends a signal to a con- by the sensor.
trolled device to modify or maintain operating vari- • Offset-the difference between the set point and
ables, depending on the sensor's input. The controlled the control point. Offset is sometimes called error.
device's action changes the conditions in the condi-
tioned space. This change in the conditioned space is
then detected by the sensor, which sends a modified 16.5.2 DDC System Components
signal to the controller. In this way, the system's output HVACR control system components each have
modifies the system input, which in turn helps deter- their own designated purpose and function. The three
mine the next output. The process repeats continuously basic types of components in a control system are sen-
as the system attempts to maintain a given condition, sors, controllers, and controlled devices (actuators).
Figure 16-55. The following sections explain how these important
Feedback is information detected by a sensor in a components function in a control system.
conditioned space that is sent to a controller to deter-
mine what action needs to be taken. An example of feed- Sensors
back is the temperature signal sent to a thermostat. The A sensor detects a specific variable in a condi-
signal might indicate that the conditioned space is at the tioned space and sends a signal to the controller based
desired temperature or that it is too hot or too cold. on the measured value of that variable. Each type of

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 383

Closed-Loop Control System Diagram

Output
Input (turn compressor
(control point) Controller Controlled device on or off)
(determines (relay or
offset) contactor)

Feedback path
(new control point)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 16-55. This diagram of a closed-loop control system shows how the system continuously repeats the process of
determining a conditioned space's control point, comparing it to its set point, and initiating an action if there is an offset.

sensor detects and responds to one specific type of the form of physical movement. This movement trips a
stimulus, such as temperature, pressure, an electrical switch that sends an electrical signal to the controller. •
signal, or some other variable. The sensor then sends
a signal to the controller that reflects the condition the Pro Tip
sensor has been exposed to, Figure 16-56. Sensor or Transducer
Electronic sensors are stable and easily pro-
It is possible for some sensors to be transduc-
grammed for various conditions. However, the infor- ers and for some transducers to be sensors. Often the
mation that a sensor may be detecting is not always in terms are used interchangeably. A device's main func-
an electrical format. Transducers can convert an input tion determines whether it is a sensor or a transducer.
signal of one form of energy into an output signal of If it is used mainly to detect a particular condition (heat,
another form of energy. This allows sensors that do pressure, current, etc.), it is considered a sensor. If it is
not produce an electrical output to use a transducer to used mainly to change one form of energy into another
change their signal into an electrical signal for com- form, it is considered a transducer.
municating with the controller.
For instance, as the temperature is rising in a Widely used sensors include the following:
refrigeration system's evaporator, a thermostat's sens- • Sensing bulb or elements-react to heat by changing
ing element detects the corresponding rise in pressure. pressure, usually used with a diaphragm or bellows.
However, an electronic controller cannot respond to a • Bimetal devices-react to heat by changing shape,
pressure signal, so the sensing element's pressure is often to actuate a switch.
transferred to a diaphragm or bellows. These devices • Thermistors-react to heat by changing resistance,
change the pressure signal into a mechanical signal in often to modify an electrical signal being measured
by an instrument.
• Thermocouples-react to heat by producing a DC
voltage that generates a current in a complete circuit.

Controllers
A controller is a circuit that responds to changes
Electrical
in the signals from sensors and issues signals to con-
trolled devices. Examples of individual controller
components include thermostats, pressurestats, and
humidistats. A controller accurately and automatically
operates output devices called controlled devices. The
signals sent to the controlled devices from the control-
ler can be electrical, pneumatic, or hydraulic. Those sig-
Sensing______. nals can be used to turn a system on and off or change
element
its operating parameters. The devices operated by the
Dantoss controlled devices are interlocked with safety devices
Figure 16-56. This temperature sensor may be used in air so they will not exceed their design limitations, even if
conditioning, refrigeration, or heating systems. the signals from the controller direct them to. A DDC

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

384 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

system may have a master controller that is centrally isolates the high-voltage current required in the power
located and remotely located field controller for certain circuit for system operation from the system control
parts of the system, Figure 16-57. circuit. As a result, the power circuit can be made as
short and as direct as possible.
Controlled Devices A type of relay commonly used in control systems
Simply put, a controlled device is a device that oper- is the lockout relay, Figure 16-59. A lockout relay is a
ates based on signals from a controller. A sensor provides
an input to a controller. The controller processes this data
and produces an output that is sent to a controlled device.
A controlled device can be a motor, a solenoid, a contac-
tor, a relay, or some other type of actuator. An actuator
is a controlled device that changes an input energy (fluid,
thermal, electrical, etc.) into mechanical motion. With this
in mind, solenoids, motors with gear assemblies, control
valves, and other devices can act as actuators.
Control devices perform different functions, such
as opening or closing valves, turning large motors on Contacts
or off, or positioning dampers. In short, control devices
are the means by which a control system starts, stops,
or adjusts the operation of an HVACR system or a
building control system.
Relays are electrical devices commonly used to start
or stop different system components, such as motors. The
coil in a relay creates a magnetic field that closes or opens
contacts in a circuit or circuits, Figure 16-58.
Relays are often categorized by the control voltage Wiring terminals
to the coil. This value is commonly 24 V, 120 V, or 240 V.
However, different voltages are available based on the Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
application. In DDC systems, check the electrical out- Figure 16-58. A relay has a coil that creates a magnetic field
put of the controller and find a relay with a matching when it is energized, which opens or closes the relay's contacts.
voltage level.
Relays are commonly used to electrically isolate
lower control voltage from higher power voltage that is
used to run higher current loads. The lower voltage is
applied to the relay coil, and the higher voltage current
runs through the contacts to the electrical loads. This

DIP switches Dantoss

Alerton Figure 16-59. Many lockout relays have a manual reset
Figure 16-57. A field controller with a built-in actuator for button that is used to open the lockout relay coil circuit and
variable air volume control. reset the normally closed lockout relay contacts.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 385

special high-impedance relay that keeps a circuit from of alternating current in an ac circuit. Once a lockout
restarting when any of the safety controls in the circuit relay is tripped, voltage to its coil must be interrupted
have opened. Impedance is the opposition to the flow to reset the lockout relay contacts, Figure 16-60.

Manual reset Lockout

button relay coil

Lockout contacts Compressor

Pressure switch (closed) relay coil
(closed)

Manual reset Lockout

button
A

relay coil
I
Lockout contacts Compressor
Pressure switch (open) relay coil
(open)

B
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 16-60. Diagram of a lockout relay circuit. A-With the pressure switch closed, all of the circuit's current flows through the
lockout contacts and energizes the compressor relay coil. B-With the pressure switch open, all of the current flows through the
lockout relay coil, opening the normally closed lockout relay contacts. Because the lockout relay coil has high impedance, not
enough current reaches the compressor relay coil to energize it.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • In HVACR, relays are often used to start single-
phase motors. An electromagnetic relay relies
• Pictorial diagrams show electrical connections on changing current or voltage values in a
and the approximate physical location of motor's windings to connect and disconnect
devices in relation to each other. Ladder the start windings, start capacitor, or both from
diagrams show a circuit's devices and a motor circuit. Solid-state relays use electronic
connections arranged in the order that they devices to control current through a motor's
activate during circuit operation. Ladder windings.
diagrams are useful for troubleshooting. • Fuses and circuit breakers protect motors by
• HVACR control systems regulate variables, opening the motor circuit when the current
such as temperature, pressure, and humidity, exceeds a predetermined level. Bimetal devices
inside a conditioned space. The three major protect a motor if it heats up beyond safe limits
components in a control system are sensors, by opening a set of contacts and causing the
controllers, and controlled devices. motor to shut down. Thermistors also protect
motors from overheating or high current by
• A control system achieves the desired increasing their resistance, which limits current
conditions in an area by turning components flow and stops the motor.
on and off or by adjusting component
operation. Two values used with controlled • Direct digital controls (DDC) is a type of
devices are cut-in and cut-out. Cut-in is the control system that utilizes multiple digital and
condition value at which a device begins analog inputs and outputs in the form of low-
operation. Cut-out is the condition value at voltage and/or low-current signals connected
which a device ceases operation. to a microprocessor that operates an HVACR
or automated building system. DDCs utilize
• There are two main types of adjustments that sensors, controllers, and controlled devices.
can be made to controls: range adjustment and
differential adjustment. Range adjustment • There are two basic types of control systems:
moves the minimum and maximum values open loop and closed loop. An open-loop
the same amount in the same direction. control system relies on an operator to
Differential adjustment regulates the difference manually trigger changes in operation. A
between the cut-in and the cut-out settings by closed-loop control system uses feedback from
changing both of these values the same amount sensors in the conditioned space to modify
in different directions or by changing only one system output.
of these values.
• The principal types of temperature-sensing
devices used to control motor operation include Review Questions
the sensing bulb, the bimetal device, and Answer the following questions using the information in
electronic sensors. Sensing bulbs and bimetal
this chapter.
devices react to changes in temperature by
causing mechanical motion, which opens or 1. The type of circuit diagram that shows the
closes contact points in a circuit. Electronic approximate physical location of components
temperature sensors produce electrical in relation to each other is a _ _ diagram.
feedback to a controller either by changing A. Boolean
resistance based on temperature (thermistor) B. ladder
or by generating a voltage level that is based on C. pictorial
temperature (thermocouple). D. Venn
• Pressure motor controls regulate a compressor 2. The type of circuit diagram that shows the
motor based on a system's low-side pressure, components and connections arranged in
high-side pressure, or oil pressure. Pressure the order that they activate during circuit
controls regulate the motor to help maintain operation is a _ _ diagram.
the proper pressure in the evaporator, and they A. Boolean
also prevent the motor from operating under B. ladder
excessively low suction pressure, excessively C. pictorial
high head pressure, or improper oil pressure. D. Venn

386 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 387

3. Which of the following is not one of the three 11. A control system's _ _ is the difference
main components used in an HVACR control between the cut-out value and cut-in value.
system? A. adjustment
A. Controlled device B. average
B. Controller C. differential
C. Operator D. range
D. Sensor 12. Which of the following statements about
4. Which device responds to changes in the range adjustment is true?
signals from sensors and issues signals to A. It increases a system's differential.
controlled devices? B. It decreases a system's differential.
A. Relay C. It affects a system's average temperature.
B. Contactor D. It has no effect on how a system operates.
C. Thermocouple 13. Reducing a system's cut-out temperature
D. Controller without changing its cut-in temperature is an
5. In control systems, the desired condition is example of _ _.
called the A. differential adjustment
A. control point
B. cut-in
C. offset
D. setpoint
6. The term for the present condition in a
conditioned space is the _ _.
B. range adjustment
C. combination control
D. actuator modulation
14. If a cooling system's cut-in temperature is
decreased, but its cut-out temperature stays
the same, which of the following is true?
I
A. control point A. The average temperature decreases.
B. cut-in B. The average temperature increases.
C. offset C. The system has a greater differential.
D. setpoint D. The compressor will run for longer spans
7. Sometimes called error, the deviation between of time.
set point and control point is the _ _. 15. Which of the following devices is not used as
A. differential a temperature sensor in thermostatic motor
B. cut-in controls?
C. offset A. Bimetal device
D. range B. Electronic sensor
8. The temperature or pressure value at which a C. Fuse
device begins operation is its _ _. D. Sensing bulb
A. cut-in 16. A(n) _ _ element opens an electrical circuit
B. cut-out when the temperature rises.
C. differential A. above-atmospheric-pressure
D. range B. below-atmospheric-pressure
9. The temperature or pressure value at which a C. range
device ceases operation is its _ _. D. pickup
A. cut-in 17. Sensing bulbs typically use a bellows or _ _
B. cut-out to open and close contact points as their
C. differential internal pressure changes.
D. range A. push button
10. The set of numbers between and including a B. diaphragm
control system's cut-in and cut-out values is C. thermistor
called the system's _ _. D. solid-state device
A. offset
B. set point
C. differential
D. range

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

388 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

18. Which type of bimetal device expands or 25. Once a PTC relay has heated up and
contracts and tilts a mercury switch that increased its resistance, it causes the start
serves as the electrical contact between winding current to change paths and flow
wires? through the _ _.
A. Bimetal disc A. fuse
B. Bimetal coil B. relay's coil
C. Bourdon tube C. run capacitor
D. Thermistor D. thermistor
19. Which type of pressure motor control 26. The type of fuse that blows immediately after
regulates compressor operation to maintain a its maximum rating is exceeded is a _ _
specific evaporator pressure? fuse.
A. High-pressure motor control A. fast-acting
B. Low-pressure motor control B. multipurpose
C. Low-pressure safety control C. PTC
D. Oil pressure motor control D. time-delay
20. If the low-side pressure drops below a safe 27. The type of fuse that blows after its
limit due to refrigerant loss or an evaporator maximum rating has been exceeded for a
freeze-up, a(n) _ _ switches off the certain period of time is a _ _ fuse.
compressor motor. A. fast-acting
A. circuit breaker B. multipurpose
B. low-pressure safety control C. PTC
C. oil pressure motor control D. time-delay
D. Wheatstone bridge 28. Which type of motor protection can be used
21. Which of the following devices does not to sense excessive current draw and excessive
operate on electromagnetic principles? temperature?
A. Contactor A. Bimetal device.
B. Current relay B. Circuit breaker.
C. Potential relay C. Current-limiting fuse.
D. PTC relay D. Multipurpose relay.
22. A _ _ relay is operated by the change in 29. Which device decreases its resistance to
current flow through a motor's run winding. current flow as the motor's temperature rises,
A. current which causes the current to operate a relay
B. lockout that opens the motor circuit?
C. potential A. Bimetal protection device
D. terminal B. Circuit breaker
23. When a single-phase motor reaches three- C. NTC thermistor
fourths of its normal operating speed, _ _ D. PTC thermistor
closes a potential relay's contacts. 30. A direct digital control (DDC) system utilizes
A. centrifugal force multiple inputs and outputs in the form of
B. counter emf _ _ to operates an HVAC or automated
C. current building system.
D. heat A. high-pressure pneumatic signals
24. Unlike a contactor, a motor starter is B. high-voltage and/or high-current signals
equipped with built-in _ _. C. low volume water signals
A. contacts D. low-voltage and/or low-current signals
B. coils 31. A control system that relies on a human
C. terminals operator to act as the conditioned space's
D. overload protection sensor is a(n) _ _.
A. closed-loop control system
B. feedback control system
C. offset control system
D. open-loop control system

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 16 Electrical Control Systems 389

32. In a closed-loop control system, sensors

monitor a conditioned space and send _ _
to a controller, which is information about
how the conditions in the area have changed.
A. actuator data
B. feedback
C. heat signals
D. impedance
33. Which type of relay prevents a circuit
from restarting until the power to its coil is
interrupted?
A. Lockout relay
B. Contactor
C. Impedance relay
D. Solenoid relay
34. A controlled device that changes an input
energy (fluid, thermal, electrical, etc.) into
mechanical motion is a(n) _ _.
A. actuator
B. sensor
C. transducer
D. Wheatstone bridge
I
35. A device that converts an input signal of
one form of energy into an output signal of
another form of energy is a(n)_ _ .
A. actuator
B. diaphragm
C. transducer
D. Wheatstone bridge

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 17 Servicing Electric
Motors and
Controls

Learning Objectives
Chapter Outline ., . . this chapter w1·11 enable you to:
• 1T.est Equipment
17.1 Electnca Information in . . truments to measure
.. Use different testing ms . ·t
17_1_7 Voltmeters .., • . bl ·n a circui .
electrical vana es I • • megohmmeter
17_1_2 Ohmmeters . · · ulat1on using a d
17.1.3 Ammeters • Test motor winding ms b don the measure
and perform maintenance ase
171 4 Multimeters
· · Power Factor M eters
17.1.5 resistance. t ouble by checking
h se of motor r . d
1 6 Wattmeters
:: • Determine t e cau
a motor's current draw, star
t and run capacitors, an
17. . . I Insulation Testers
171.7 Electnca · Motors =
5
.
· h00f g Electric internal temperature. ' oltage and winding
17.2 Troubles .'~ tor Troubles
17.2.1 Determ1nin? Mof Three-Phase Motors ~ h - hase motor s v
Measure at re~~ for single phasing.
17.2.2 Single Phas1~g ~om ressor Motors resistance totes I k easurements on a
i •
173 Servicing Hermet1~ of ~ermetic Compressor Use an ohmmeter to ta em d determine whether
• 17.3.1 Electrical Testing
hermetic compres_so~. mo~~ ~;en winding, or a short
it has a shorted win mg,
Motors
· · a Stuc k H erm etic Compressor
17.3.2 Servicing
Motor to ground. f compressor motor by
. . Fan Motors • Start a stuck herme IC k"t to the compressor
17.4 Serv1cmg t· Problems connecting a hard start I
17.4_7 Connec 10n
17.4.2 Fan Problebml shooting and Service terminals. s b identifying connection
174 3 ECM Trou es • Service fan motorbl y and electronically
· ·. . bl fan pro ems,
17 5 Serv1cmg Ex tern al Motors
. pro ems, trouble codes.
. 17.5.1 Motor Lubri_cat1on commutated motor . nd install belts
17 5 2 Motor Bean ngs b . t motor bearings a .
• Properly. lu nca e t
ternal motors o belt-driven units.
. . Pulleys and Belts
17.5.~ . Control Systems connecting ex It control system
17.6 Serv1cmg Motor . and Servicing Controls Troubleshoot and replace faust~ts and motor starting
• componen ts, such as thermo
17.6.1 Troubleshoot1_ng and Servicing Relays
17.6.2 Trou bleshootmg relays.

Copyright Goodhe
 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 391

Technical Terms Introduction

ammeter outside length HVACR technicians must know how to test electri-
bleed resistor phase loss monitor cal circuits in order to properly troubleshoot and ser-
bushing power factor meter vice electric motors and controls. The service of electric
clamp-on ammeter pulley motors and controls also requires knowledge of the
continuity short cycling system design and an understanding of how electrical
endplay single phasing devices operate within the system. Consistently following
hard start kit slip ring lubricating system good safety practices and being able to read wiring dia-
in-line ammeter voltmeter grams are the first steps to mastering a skill that requires
megohm meter wick lubricating system practice and experience. However, an HVACR techni-
multimeter zerk fitting cian can still achieve a high degree of success, regardless
oilless bushing of skill level, by following an established procedure and
performing electrical troubleshooting one step at a time.
Safety is the most important aspect of working on electri-
Review of Key Concepts cal equipment. Before any service is performed, power

Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help

to a motor or control should be shut down and locked &
out when possible.
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
• The most common causes of motor failure are
current overloads and overheating. Both of these
conditions may cause damage to motor winding
insulation. (Chapter 16)
• Single-phase motors rely on capacitors, centrifugal
switches, and relays to start and run efficiently and
properly. (Chapter 15)
• The majority of electrical problems can be narrowed
down to one of the following causes: a short circuit,
a ground fault (short to ground), an overload, an
unintentional voltage drop, or an open circuit.
(Chapter 13)
• A hermetic compressor consists of a motor sealed
inside a compressor dome, while open-drive
compressors, fans, and blowers are connected to
external motors by means of a direct coupling or belt
with wheel and pulley. (Chapter 15)
• A thermostat senses a conditioned space's
temperature and sends a signal to the controller to
either energize or de-energize the motor starting
relay in order to keep the temperature at the desired
set point. (Chapter 16)
392 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

17.1 Electrical Test Equipment Heating Voltmeter

element
The most commonly used instruments for test-
ing electrical circuits are the voltmeter, ohmmeter, Switch
and ammeter. These three instruments are most often
available in one multi-instrument called a multimeter. i
Two other electrical meters occasionally used are the
power factor meter and wattmeter. In HVACR, most
electrical system and motor troubleshooting can be V
done with just one of these instruments: the multime- 20V
ter, which can measure voltage, current, resistance, and
other variables, depending on the model. In addition to
these instruments, a service technician's toolkit should Power source Light
include insulated gloves rated for high-voltage use Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
and protective eyewear. Tool sets should also include Figure 17-1. Voltmeters connected in parallel are measuring
screwdrivers and pliers that are properly insulated. the voltage of the input power (V1), the voltage drop across
a light (V), and the voltage drop across a resistive heating
element (V3).
17.1.1 Voltmeters
The instrument used to measure voltage in elec- the right type: ac or de. Also, remember to check
trical circuits is called a voltmeter. A voltmeter mea- whether the leads are plugged into the proper jacks on
sures the potential difference between two points in a the meter. Often, the red lead needs to be moved to
circuit. If there is no potential difference between two another jack to measure amperage, Figure 17-2.
points, there will be no voltage reading. For instance,
if a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across a
length of conductor that has no electrical load or virtu-
ally no resistance, there will be little, if any, voltage.
This is because there must be an electrical load or a
resistance of some sort for there to be a potential differ-
ence (a voltage drop) between two points in a circuit.
Voltmeters are either analog or digital. Analog
voltmeters use magnetism to move a needle across a
scale and show the voltage supplied to an electrical
device. Digital voltmeters use solid-state circuitry to
measure voltage. Having no moving parts, digital volt-
meters display their readings on a small screen.
Voltmeters have two leads: one red and one black.
Each voltmeter lead is placed on either side of an elec-
trical load, and then power is applied to the circuit to
measure the voltage drop across that load. A voltme-
ter is connected in parallel with the load or circuit it is
measuring, Figure 17-1. Volts

Pro Tip Ohms

Meter Checks
Before taking any electrical measurements, there
are several things to consider and check:
• Measurement setting.
• AC/DC (polarity).
• Leadsinthejacks.
Setting the measurement variable is not difficult: A Amps
for amperage (current), Q for ohms (resistance), and V Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.
for voltage. But for amps and volts, remember to choose Figure 17-2. Match the measurement setting and the jacks
into which the leads are connected.

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 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 393

There are only two types of voltage to measure: 1 millivolt (mV) = 0.001 V (1/1000 of a volt)
direct current (de) voltage and alternating current (ac) 1 kilovolt (kV) = 1,000 V
voltage. A technician must know the type of current in 1 megavolt (MV) = 1,000,000 V
a circuit in order to set the meter's function switch to Before taking a voltage reading, ensure that the
the correct type of voltage. In ac circuits, a voltmeter voltmeter's leads are in the correct meter jacks and
reads the voltage without regard to polarity because that the voltmeter's range switch is set to the correct
the current is constantly changing directions. voltage scale. Most residential air-conditioning and
In de circuits, the polarity of the measured volt- refrigeration applications use 120 V or 240 V of alter-
age is affected by the side of the load on which each nating current. Low-voltage circuits usually operate
voltmeter lead is placed. To measure voltage polarity at 24 V. Electronic circuits, including many control
correctly, place the black lead on the side of the load circuits, are of ten measured in low de voltage, from
closest to the negative terminal of the circuit's power 1 V to 25 V.
supply and the red lead on the side of the load closest
to the positive terminal of the circuit's power supply. Caution
By being familiar with a circuit's wiring diagram, a
Voltmeter Range Switch
technician can determine on which side of the load to
connect each lead. When measuring voltage, always set a voltmeter's &
range switch to a higher voltage setting than is expected
from the circuit. For example, when checking a 120 V
Caution
circuit, set the range switch to the 240 V setting. This
Voltmeter Polarity prevents damage to the meter if there is a voltage surge
Because current is flowing in only one direction in or higher than expected voltage.
a de circuit, there is an unchanging polarity. Connecting
an analog voltmeter's leads incorrectly will make the
needle try to move backward, which may damage the
meter in high-voltage de applications.
17.1.2 Ohmmeters
An ohmmeter is a meter used for measuring the
Voltmeters are designed to measure different volt- electrical resistance in circuits. In addition to measur-
age ranges, from low voltage measured in microvolts ing specific resistances, ohmmeters may also be used
to high voltage measured in megavolts. The following to check for short circuits, open circuits (circuit conti-
are common units of voltage: nuity), and shorts to ground (ground faults). An ohm-
1 microvolt (µV) = 0.000001 V (1/1,000,000 of a volt) meter is connected in parallel with a load or circuit
after applied voltage has been turned off and locked
out. An ohmmeter applies its own voltage to the load
as part of its measuring process. This known voltage
Ohmmeter is provided by a low-voltage battery inside the meter,
OL or= i 50Q Figure 17-3.
Q Q
Heating Caution
element Ohmmeter Usage
Be certain to turn off a circuit's power before tak-
Switch ing resistance readings with an ohmmeter. Otherwise,
the instrument may be ruined. Take voltmeter readings
across switches and electrical loads in series with the
intended resistance reading to ensure that no voltage
Power
is present.
source
10Q
Light
When measuring the resistance across an open
switch, the reading should be either (infinity) or OL
00

(overload). This means that the resistance is so high

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher that the meter cannot measure the resistance value.
Figure 17-3. Connecting an ohmmeter in parallel enables When checking the continuity of a conductor, the
a technician to check the continuity of a conductor (Q1) or to ohmmeter reading should be zero. If the meter reads
measure the resistance across a device, such as a lamp (Q 2), zero (0 Q), it means there is no resistance, which indi-
a heating element (Q 3 ), or an open switch (Q J cates that the conductor is not broken and that all the

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

394 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

connections are good. If the meter reads (infinity),

00
Movable jaws
the conductor has an open. This could be a broken
connection, a blown fuse or circuit breaker, or other i
unknown cause of an open circuit.

Pro Tip
Ohmmeter Measurements
Taking resistance measurements can be prob-
lematic in circuits. Whenever possible, disconnect a
device from the rest of the circuit before measuring its
resistance. Disconnecting both sides of a device may
not be possible, but by disconnecting at least one leg
of the device, a technician can ensure that the ohmme-
ter reading will be across the intended device and not
through the rest of the circuit. Be familiar with a circuit's
electrical diagram to avoid accidentally taking any unin-
tended or false readings.

17.1.3 Ammeters Digital display

An ammeter is an instrument that measures
current in amperes in a conductor. There are two
types of ammeters: clamp-on ammeters and in-line
ammeters. A clamp-on ammeter makes it easy to
measure alternating current because it is not neces-
sary to disconnect wires or attach leads to obtain
a reading. In-line ammeters require the circuit
to be opened and then have the meter connected Amprabe
in series with the circuit. Most electrical work in Figure 17-4. A digital clamp-on ammeter measures a
HVACR can be performed with a clamp-on amme- conductor's current draw when the movable jaws are closed
ter, Figure 17-4. around the conductor being tested.

Clamp-on Ammeters
A clamp-on ammeter is an ac ammeter that senses
and measures current based on the magnetic field
produced by the alternating current flowing through
a conductor. In the same way that a transformer uses
a primary coil to induce current in a secondary coil,
the current flowing through a conductor induces cur-
rent in the coil of wire inside the clamp-on ammeter's
jaws. The jaws can be opened, slipped around a con-
ductor, and closed again. The current generated in the
jaws by the conductor's electromagnetic field is mea-
sured by the ammeter and shown on a digital display.
Clamp-on ammeters often have other functions as
well, such as settings for measuring voltage and resis-
tance, Figure 17-5.
Only a single wire of a circuit should be placed in
the jaws of a clamp-on ammeter. Current in an ac cir-
cuit flows through the ungrounded (hot) and grounded
(neutral) wires to an electrical load and back. The cur- Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.

rent measured in either wire represents the current Figure 17-5. A clamp-on ammeter is clamped around only
draw of the electrical load. If a technician places the one conductor of a particular circuit to determine the circuit's
current draw.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 395

clamp-on ammeter around both the hot and neutral

wires, the currents will cancel each other out, and the
Using an In-Line Ammeter
reading will be zero. A circuit must be opened before a technician
can take a measurement with an in-line ammeter.
Pro Tip Find a location in the circuit that has a wire that
is in series with the electrical load to be measured
Obtaining Low-Amperage Readings
and that can be easily disconnected.
There may be circuits in which the current is too
low for a clamp-on ammeter to accurately measure. If 1. To avoid shock or arcing, turn off power to
the wire is long enough for free movement, wrap the the circuit. Test for voltage across the electri-
wire multiple times around the jaws to get a higher read- cal load and any switches between the shutoff
ing. Wrapping the wire around the jaws ten times is an switch and the load. There should be no volt-
easy and effective method for reading low current val- age in the circuit. If there is voltage, there may
ues. Divide the reading by ten to convert to the actual be a short in the circuit.
current level. This wire-wrapping procedure is not rec-
2. If there is no voltage, disconnect the previ-
ommended for wire that is 10 AWG or larger.
ously located wire in series with the load to
be tested.
In-Line Ammeters 3. Turn on the ammeter and adjust it to the set- &
An in-line ammeter is an ammeter that is con- ting for ac or de amperes, depending on the
nected into a circuit with leads to measure the circuit's type of circuit. Make sure the meter leads are
current. An in-line ammeter's inner circuitry has low- plugged into the correct jacks on the meter.
resistance shunt resistors placed across its terminals. 4. Review any circuit diagrams to determine the
These shunt resistors protect the ammeter's sensing expected current reading and set the range
coil and allow it to measure high levels of current. switch for the ammeter to the correct setting
Unlike voltmeters and ohmmeters, in-line ammeters for the expected current level.
are connected in series (in-line) with the circuit or load 5. Connect one of the ammeter leads to the
being tested, Figure 17-6. disconnected wire. If the ammeter only has
In a de circuit, verify that the ammeter's leads are probe leads, attach suitably sized, insulated
connected correctly to match the polarity of the power alligator clips.
source before energizing the circuit. The black lead is
placed on the side of the load closest to the negative 6. Connect the other ammeter lead to the termi-
terminal of the circuit's power supply, and the red lead nal to which the disconnected wire was pre-
is placed on the side of the load closest to the positive viously connected.
terminal of the circuit's power supply. 7. Gently wiggle the clips to ensure that both
are securely attached.
8. Restore power to the circuit and read the
measurement on the ammeter.
Heating
In-line element 9. After taking any measurements, shut off the
Switch power, remove the ammeter leads, reconnect
the disconnected wire to its terminal, and
restore power to the circuit.

Caution
Blowing an Ammeter's Fuse
When an ammeter is connected in series, current
through the meter is limited by the total resistance in the
circuit. If an in-line ammeter is accidentally connected in
Power source Light parallel, it may blow a fuse. This occurs because current
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher flow is limited only by the resistance in the meter, which
Figure 17-6. An in-line ammeter is connected in series with is a lot lower than the circuit's resistance, resulting in
the circuit or load being measured. Because this is a series higher current flow.
circuit, there is only one path for current to travel, so each
ammeter will have the same reading.

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396 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

17.1.4 Multimeters wind speed, relative humidity, luminance (light level),

and acidity/ alkalinity (pH), Figure 17-8.
A multimeter is a single electrical meter that can
measure multiple variables, such as voltage, current, Caution
and resistance. A multimeter is also known as a volt-
ohm-milliammeter (VOM). Figure 17-7 shows a typical Connecting Leads to Multimeter Terminals
digital multimeter used by HVACR technicians. When taking various measurements with multime-
Most multimeters are digital instruments; how- ters, it is extremely important to make sure the leads
are plugged into the correct terminals on the multimeter.
ever, analog meters that use a needle for display are still
Refer to Figure 17-7. The red lead is always connected
in use. Some service technicians prefer analog meters,
to one of the positive (+) terminals on the meter, and the
as they can quickly see the needle move as opposed to black lead is connected to the common (-) terminal.
having to read a digital number. Beyond measuring
voltage, current, and resistance, digital multimeters
(DMMs) often come with a variety of functions, such as Diode Check
a diode check and continuity check, along with the abil- A multimeter's diode check function allows a techni-
ity to measure capacitance (in farads), and frequency (in cian to determine if a diode is functioning properly. This
hertz). In some cases, special attachments allow even function selection is usually indicated by the schematic
more variables to be measured, such as temperature, symbol for a diode. The meter also shows how much

Resistance Continuity check

Diode check AC microamps

AC volts AC milliamps

DC volts AC amps

DC millivolts Capacitance

Off Frequency check

Function indicator Voltage, resistance,

capacitance, and
frequency terminal
(red lead)

Common terminal
High-current Low-current (black lead)
terminal-above terminal-below
1 A (red lead) 1 A (red lead)
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
Figure 17-7. An HVACR technician must be familiar with the numerous functions and settings on a digital multimeter.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 397

closed circuit because the circuit is complete. The continuity

check function on a multimeter is used for quick checks to
see if there is a definite connection between two points in
a circuit. Occasionally, meters will display the resistance
between the points being checked; however, the most
common and notable indication of whether continuity
exists is an audible beeping. If the multimeter does not
beep, it means the circuit is open.

Frequency Check
Frequency is a measure of the number of cycles that
occur per second in an ac circuit. Most power in North
America is supplied at 60 Hz. However, some electronic
devices, such as variable speed motors, may require spe-
cial frequencies supplied by VFDs (variable frequency
drives). As a result, it may be necessary to use a multime-
Temperature function
ter's frequency function to verify that an electrical load is &
receiving power at the correct frequency. It is also a good
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.
practice to confirm that the incoming line voltage is in fact
Figure 17-8. HVACR technicians commonly use multimeters operating at 60 Hz. If a motor or other device is not receiv-
that have a thermocouple attachment to use with a
ing the proper frequency, it may cause the motor or device
temperature measurement function.
to draw too much current and overheat.

voltage is conducted across the terminals. A properly

17.1.5 Power Factor Meters
operating diode will conduct current in only one direc-
tion, which means the meter will register a voltage for A circuit's power factor is the relationship between
only one of the two meter lead configurations. the circuit's true power (in watts) and apparent power
(in volt-amperes). Power factor is the ratio of a watt-
Pro Tip meter reading (true power) to calculated power (appar-
Diode Polarity ent power). A power factor meter is an instrument
used to provide a direct reading of the power factor in
A technician must be able to determine which
an electrical circuit. A power factor meter saves time
end of a diode is the cathode and which is the anode.
Generally, one end of a diode is marked with a line,
because it prevents the technician from having to take
stripe, ring, or other marking that indicates the side clos- several measurements at different settings and then
est to the cathode. perform calculations to determine the power factor.
A power factor meter first determines the appar-
To check a diode, start by turning off power ent power in a circuit. It finds the product of the mea-
to the circuit and disconnecting at least one of the sured voltage multiplied by the measured current. It
diode leads from the circuit. Leaving both diode then determines the circuit's true power by measuring
leads in the circuit may result in false readings. its wattage. The ratio of the true power to the apparent
When a meter registers a voltage on a properly oper- power is determined and displayed. This value is the
ating diode, the red meter lead is connected to the power factor. It is always a number between 0.0 and 1.0.
diode's anode (positive lead), and the black meter Power factor meters can be used to assist in increas-
lead is connected to the diode's cathode (negative ing the effectiveness of a circuit. For example, assume
lead). If the meter registers a voltage for both meter a circuit has a measured power factor of 0.8, meaning
lead configurations, then the diode conducts in both that 80% of the total possible power is being used. This
directions and must be replaced. If the meter does value is quite common in an inductive circuit, such as
not register a voltage in either direction, then the one with a motor or transformer. The proper addition
diode does not conduct and must be replaced. of a capacitive load would result in an increase in true
power. This increase would then bring the power fac-
Continuity Check tor closer to 1.0. Electric utility companies usually limit
Continuity is the condition that exists when there the power factor allowable in industrial and commer-
is a continuous, unbroken path between two points in a cial loads. Normally, a power factor of at least 0.85 or
circuit. A circuit that has continuity is also referred to as a 85% is required.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

398 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Scale in megohms
(MQ)
17.1.6 Wattmeters
A wattmeter is an instrument used to measure the
true power, or wattage, used by a circuit or an electri-
cal load. Like an ammeter, a wattmeter is connected
in series with the circuit being measured. Its reading
automatically adjusts for a circuit's power factor. To
help in checking electrical circuits, many companies Lights indicate
list the volt-ampere (VA) values for their equipment. A insulation condition
wattmeter is often used to confirm that a load is oper-
ating at the correct power level. For example, a manu-
facturer may list a motor as a 120 V single-phase motor
with 1.1 VA under a full load. The technician can then
check the motor with a voltmeter and clamp-on amme-
ter to find out if the motor is operating correctly, or
simply use a wattmeter to compare to the rated value.

Thinking Green
Wattage Readings
HVACR technicians use wattage readings to deter-
mine if an electrical load is operating efficiently. For Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
example, if a motor is consuming more than its rated
Figure 17-9. An insulation tester is used for testing the
watts, it is consuming more electricity, making its oper-
resistance of electrical insulation and can measure electrical
ating costs higher.
resistance up to 1000 MQ.

17.1.7 Electrical Insulation Testers

Pro Tip
Extreme temperatures, dirt, oil, and mechanical Insulation Damage from Overloads
stress can break down insulation on conductors over
It is important to test a motor's winding insulation after
time. For instance, when a motor overheats, the insulation
an overload. Overloads can heat motor windings to the
on the motor windings often breaks down. The insula- point of breaking down the insulation. If possible, review
tion on windings keeps current in the motor circuit, but a system's service records. Be sure to ask the system's
burnt or heat-damaged insulation may allow current to owner how often overloads have occurred in the past.
seek ground out of the circuit. This can create a dangerous
shock hazard and also cause an equipment breakdown
due to a short circuit in the windings or a short to ground Caution
(ground fault). An electrical insulation tester is an instru- Insulation Testing under Vacuum
ment used to detect current leaks or possible areas of insu- When a system is under vacuum, do not perform an
lation failure along conductors, Figure 17-9. insulation test. Without refrigerant and oil in the system and
Electrical insulation testers, also called the compressor, the readings will be inaccurate. In addition,
megohmmeters, are often used to test motor winding electrical arcing may occur, burning the windings.
insulation, but can also be used to test the insulation
on other electrical devices. Like an ohmmeter, a meg-
ohmmeter measures resistance by applying a known Testing a Hermetic Compressor's
voltage supplied by the meter. However, because the Winding Insulation
resistance of the tested insulation is often in the meg-
ohm (MQ) range (1 MQ = 1,000,000 Q), a megohm- If possible, operate the compressor for at least
meter must apply a very high voltage to obtain an one hour before testing its winding insulation.
accurate reading, usually between 500 V and 1000 V By doing this, a technician can compare readings
of direct current. Due to this high voltage, a megohm- taken on different days because the winding
meter should only be used by an experienced techni- temperatures will be approximately the same.
cian because the motor windings and insulation may 1. Disconnect power from the motor circuit.
be further weakened or damaged if a high voltage is 2. Isolate the compressor electrically by discon-
applied for an excessive period of time during testing. _ _ __,,_n,,,e"""ct""'in·
= all wires from the compressor terminals.

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 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 399

3. Wipe the terminals clean with a dry towel. Red lead attached Black lead attached
4. Connect a shunt or jumper wire across all of to motor terminal to compressor dome
the compressor terminals. To ensure that the
only resistance tested by the meter is between
the winding insulation and the ground, all
three terminals are wired together.
5. Connect the black meter lead to any bare metal
part on the compressor dome. Be sure this spot
has no paint or coating on it. If necessary, wipe
or gently file a spot to expose bare metal.
6. Connect the red meter lead to one of the
motor terminals, Figure 17-10.
7. Activate the megohmmeter. Refer to the man-
ufacturer's instructions to verify how long
to energize the megohmmeter to produce an
accurate reading.
8. Read the meter and write the results of the
measurement on a service record.
9. Remove both of the meter leads (red first, then
black) and then remove the terminal shunt or
jumper wires.
10. Reconnect the proper system wiring and
I
restore power to the circuit.

In general, a megohm reading of 100 MQ or higher

indicates that the motor winding insulation is in excel-
lent condition. Readings less than 100 MQ indicate that
there may be an issue with the insulation. In addition
to testing the winding insulation in a hermetic com-
pressor, a megohmmeter provides a snapshot of the Megohm meter
level of moisture and contaminants within the refrig- Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
erant and oil mixture. As contaminants in the refrig- Figure 17-10. Checking the winding insulation on a hermetic
erant and oil mixture increase, they cause the motor compressor. The black lead is connected to a bare metal
winding insulation to break down, decreasing the portion of the compressor dome. The red lead is connected to
insulation's electrical resistance. Figure 17-11 shows one of the motor terminals.

Motor Insulation Conditions and Maintenance Procedures

Insulation
Resistance Indicated Condition Preventive Maintenance
Measurement

Over 100 MQ Excellent insulation. No action necessary.

60-100 MQ Some insulation breakdown, some Change filter-drier. If possible, clean dust and debris from
moisture present. windings using a solvent to prevent further insulation breakdown.
40-60 MQ Overheated winding, contaminated Change filter-drier. Check the oil for a burnt odor, which indicates
oil, moisture in the system. an overheated winding. If there is no odor, the oil is contaminated
and needs to be changed.
20-40 MQ Severe oil contamination, system Change oil and filter-driers. If old oil has a burnt odor, check the
likely to fail soon. system's motors, including fan motors, for worn bearings.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 17-11. Hermetic compressor motor conditions and preventive maintenance procedures as indicated by different ranges of
motor winding resistance.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

400 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

the motor conditions indicated by different insulation For belt-driven blowers, fans, and compressors,
resistance measurements. noisy operation is a common sign of a motor problem.
This may be an indication that the belt is too tight and
Pro Tip is placing stress on the motor shaft. It may also mean
Motor Insulation Measurement Record that the belt is slipping. An excessively tight belt can
wear out the motor's bearings prematurely. A slipping
Record a system's motor insulation measurements
in both column and graph format. These two records belt can result in the motor operating continuously to
provide an easy method of observing insulation resis- maintain airflow.
tance trends over a long period of time. After installing a For hermetic compressors, one way to determine
new motor, take an insulation resistance measurement the motor's condition is to measure the unit's power
as the first in a series of important system records. consumption. Approximate wattage readings for small
Review and compare these records each time the sys- hermetic compressors are shown in Figure 17-12.
tem is serviced. When testing a hermetic compressor, a wattmeter
will provide two different wattage readings:
After performing any maintenance on a motor, • Combined start and run winding reading (until
wait a few weeks to take another megohmmeter start winding circuit is opened).
reading. If the reading remains the same or rises
to a higher resistance, then another megohmmeter • Run winding reading during motor operation.
reading is not necessary for a few months. If the To test a hermetic compressor, an analog wattme-
megohmmeter resistance reading has decreased, ter provides the most functionality. When the ther-
warn the owner that the compressor motor may fail mostat contacts close, the wattmeter indicator should
soon, and list other parts of the system (such as fans swing to the right and then quickly move to the com-
and switches) that could be damaged from such bined start and run winding reading. In a few seconds,
a breakdown. Preventive maintenance is almost the indicator will fall to the run winding reading only.
always better and more cost effective than repairing However, if the start winding circuit is open on start-
a failed system. up, the wattmeter indicator will swing to the right and
then move back to the run winding value, without
stopping for a few seconds at the combined start and
17.2 Troubleshooting Electric Motors run winding value. This action indicates a bad relay or
start winding. Wattmeters with digital displays often
Maintenance, troubleshooting, and repair of elec- move too quickly to pick up this movement.
tric motors and electric motor accessories are a major Another method of determining a motor's condi-
part of a service technician's job. A technician must tion is to measure the motor's current draw. Excessive
understand the principles of electricity and know how wear can eventually seize a motor. If the motor is
to use various instruments and tools to accurately seized, its current draw may exceed the motor's locked
determine the cause of motor trouble.
If a motor is severely damaged and must be
replaced, use the motor nameplate to obtain the
required motor specifications. Ensure that the replace- Hermetic Compressor Wattage at 120 V
ment motor has the same specifications as the original Running Wattage
motor. Sometimes a replacement motor from another Motor 70°F Starting
110°F
manufacturer can be found by using a manufacturer Horsepower Ambient Wattage
Ambient
chart to cross-reference comparable models. The Temperature Temperature
replacement motor can never have a current draw less
than the motor being replaced, but it may have a cur- 1/16 66 100 375
rent draw that is 10% greater. 1/9 117 160 740
1/8 108 163 743
17.2.1 Determining Motor Troubles 1/7 160 218 970
Motors fail or become inefficient due to overuse, 1/4 235 320 1250
age, or the development of internal problems. For Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
example, if a unit is undersized for its application, the Figure 17-12. The approximate running and starting wattages
motor may run continuously. This continuous use may for 120 V single-phase hermetic compressors from 1/16 hp
exceed the motor's time rating, which could lead to through 1/4 hp. When comparing measurements, be aware of
motor failure. the ambient temperature.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 401

rotor amperage (LRA). When recording current draw, a slowly discharges or bleeds a capacitor's charge during
technician should measure both locked rotor amperage a motor's Off cycle. This reduces arcing at the motor
(LRA) and full-load amperage (FLA). If either amper- contacts on start-up, which may occur if the motor
age is above specifications, it could signal that the cycles on and off frequently. Although a capacitor may
motor is significantly worn and needs to be replaced. have a bleed resistor, it still must be discharged using
another resistor to ensure there is no charge left in the
Motor Capacitors capacitor.
Motor capacitors are a common cause of motor
starting and running problems. Most motors have Safety Note
only one capacitor, but some have two or more. In Capacitor Case
either case, there are only two types of capacitors: start
Never place your fingers across the terminals of
capacitors and run capacitors.
a capacitor. When discharging a capacitor, place it in
a protective case, then discharge it through a resistor
Pro Tip
connected between the terminals.
Capacitor Wiring
When more than one capacitor is connected in

I
parallel, each capacitance value is added, providing a Discharging and Testing a Capacitor
higher total capacitance level (CT= C1 + C2 + ... ). When An HVACR technician must be able to
more than one capacitor is connected in series, it raises
discharge a capacitor before the capacitor can be
the voltage level the capacitors can handle (VcT = Vc 1 +
tested with an ohmmeter. Proper discharging
VC2 + ... ).
prevents harm to the technician and the
Run and start capacitors are not interchangeable. equipment. Both start and run capacitors can be
They are designed differently to perform different tested in the same way.
functions in a motor circuit. Run capacitors are filled 1. Turn off power to the motor circuit. Take sev-
with oil to dissipate large amounts of heat. They heat eral voltage readings across electrical loads to
up because they perform continuously during motor ensure there is no voltage present.
operation. In other words, whenever the motor is run- 2. While wearing insulated gloves and protec-
ning, the run capacitor is charging and discharging. tive eyewear, use insulated needle nose pliers
Start capacitors do not need to dissipate heat to remove the capacitor from the circuit.
quickly because they are only used intermittently for 3. Place the capacitor in a protective case.
motor start-up. They only charge and discharge when
they are in the motor circuit, which is just for the brief 4. Place a 30 kQ (30,000 Q) resistor across the
period of time that the motor is starting. This allows capacitor terminals for a few seconds.
start capacitors to be designed as dry electrolytic 5. The capacitor is now discharged.
capacitors. 6. Check that the capacitor is not shorted by
placing an ohmmeter across both terminals.
Caution Set the range switch for the ohmmeter to a
Capacitor Overload high setting (xlOO).
Capacitors contain an internal protection device 7. If the meter swings toward zero and then
that bursts when they overload. It is usually indicated slowly returns to (infinity), the capacitor is
00

by a small depression on the top of the capacitor. This good.

small dimple expands when the capacitor has been
8. If the meter stays at zero or only returns part
overloaded. Always discard a capacitor that appears to
of the way to 00 (infinity), the capacitor is
have been overloaded.
defective.
Some capacitors have mechanical connectors, such
as machine screws, while others have spade terminals Caution
or solder leads. Depending on the size of the wire con-
necting the capacitor to the motor circuit, use either a
Capacitor Discharging
small electric soldering iron or a soldering gun to con- Never short a capacitor with a piece of wire or a
screwdriver. Shorting the terminals without a properly
nect capacitor solder leads.
rated resistor may cause a sudden discharge that could
Many capacitors have a resistor connected across
rupture the thin metal foil in the capacitor.
their terminals called a bleed resistor. A bleed resistor

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

402 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

A capacitor must be accurately suited to the

motor and motor load. As a result, a replacement
capacitor should have the same capacitance value as
the old capacitor. If a capacitor of a different capaci-
tance value must be used, a capacitance value up
to 10% greater than the original value is generally
acceptable. For example, a 110 µF capacitor can be
used for a 100 µF capacitor because 110 µF is 10%
greater than 100 µF. An undersized capacitor should
never be used.
The make and model number are usually placed
on each capacitor, Figure 17-13. If this information
is unavailable, a technician should look in the motor
manufacturer's service manual or use the Internet to
cross-reference the capacitor type used by the motor.
A technician may also use a capacitor tester to mea-
sure the actual microfarad rating of the capacitor. In
addition, a multimeter with a capacitance function
can help a technician measure capacitance to deter-
mine whether a capacitor is defective and needs to be Microfarad (µF) Manufacturer Model number
replaced, Figure 17-14. rating
DiversiTech Corporation
Measuring Capacitance Figure 17-13. Run capacitors with their microfarad ratings and
Many multimeters used in HVACR have a model numbers stamped on them. A technician can use this
information to order the correct replacement for a faulty capacitor.
capacitance function, indicated by a capacitor
schematic symbol. Before taking capacitance
measurements, be sure to turn off power Capacitance
to the motor circuit and take a few voltage measurement
measurements to ensure the power is off.
1. Discharge the capacitor to avoid getting
shocked or damaging the meter.
2. If possible, disconnect the capacitor from the
circuit to prevent any unforeseen interrup-
BEI.B
tions or inaccurate readings. Capacitor
leads
3. Set the multimeter to the capacitance func- HzV>)))) n+
tion. If it has more than one capacitance range,

0
the upper value of the selected range should HzV -lrr
be higher than the capacitor's rated value. Off AHz
4. Clip the red meter lead to the positive capaci- A Hz
tor terminal.
5. Clip the black meter lead to the negative
capacitor terminal.
6. Allow the reading to stabilize and compare it
Capacitance
with the capacitor's rated value. function
7. If the meter reads 0 µF or the numbers con-
tinually change, test the capacitor for a
short by switching to the ohmmeter func-
tion on the multimeter. Follow the proce-
dure from earlier in this chapter for testing Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
a capacitor. Figure 17-14. Multimeter with its function switch set to measure
capacitance. A technician must disconnect a capacitor from the
motor circuit before measuring its capacitance.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 403

Typically, a motor's internal temperature is about

Safety Note
20°F (11°C) higher than the temperature of the motor
PCB Capacitors frame. By adding 20°F to the motor frame temperature,
Some run capacitors are filled with a dielectric a technician can approximate a motor's internal tem-
fluid called polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). This fluid is perature. An excessively high temperature can be an
dangerous. Do not open the shell of a capacitor with indication that the motor has a short circuit or a cur-
PCB fluid. If the shell is accidentally pierced or broken, rent overload. This can result in the windings becom-
be careful not to touch the fluid or breathe its fumes. ing so hot that the winding insulation fails.
Dispose of capacitors containing PCB fluid as if they
were hazardous waste, following all local and national
regulations. 17.2.2 Single Phasing of Three-Phase
Motor Temperature Motors
Motors often overheat from excessive current draw. Occasionally, a three-phase motor may blow
If a motor trips its overload protection device, check its a fuse or open a circuit breaker on only one phase.
current draw during normal operation and compare When a three-phase motor loses one or more of its
this value to the motor's rated full-load amperage (FLA), three phases, it is called single phasing. The motor
which can be found on the motor nameplate. For single- will attempt to operate on the remaining two phases, &
phase and three-phase ac motors, a clamp-on amme- but it may quickly overheat and burn out if the motor
ter is most convenient for checking the motor's current is operating under an excessive load. This is because
draw. However, for de motors, an in-line ammeter is the remaining two sets of windings must now carry
necessary. If the current measurement exceeds design the entire load. Each phase will operate on 1 1/2 times
specifications, it is most likely the cause of an over- the normal full-load current to compensate for the lost
heating motor. Current overloads can be caused by the phase.
motor having to operate under an excessive load. They Some three-phase motors have phase loss moni-
may also be caused by a short in the motor windings. tors that are used to shut down the motor if single
The temperature of the hottest part inside a motor phasing occurs. A phase loss monitor is similar to a
should not be more than 72°F (40°C) above the ambient fuse or overload protection relay. It constantly moni-
temperature, which is the temperature of the air sur- tors the voltage of each phase of a motor's three-phase
rounding the motor. In general, this equates to an aver- power supply. When one of the motor's three phases
age, maximum internal temperature of approximately blows a fuse or opens a circuit breaker, the phase loss
150°F (66°C). A motor's rated ambient temperature is monitor opens the motor control circuit to stop the
listed on the motor nameplate. This value indicates the motor and prevent motor damage, Figure 17-16.
maximum ambient temperature at which the motor
can operate. To measure a motor's ambient tempera-
ture, use a thermometer to gauge the temperature of
the air around the motor.

Pro Tip
Motor Cleanliness
Motors depend on ambient air for cooling. If the
ambient air is too warm or if the airflow around the motor
is restricted, the motor will overheat. Always check a
motor for cleanliness and wipe off any dust, dirt, and
debris. These can act as insulators, preventing proper
air circulation and stopping a motor from dissipating as
much heat as it normally would. Compressed air should
be used to blow dirt out of the motor.

Measuring a motor's actual internal temperature

is difficult. To better gauge the temperature inside a
motor, a technician can use an infrared thermometer Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.
to check the temperature of the motor frame. Infrared Figure 17-15. An infrared thermometer uses invisible
thermometers allow a technician to measure the tem- infrared light waves to measure surface temperature. Infrared
perature of a surface from a distance, Figure 17-15. thermometers cannot be used to detect air temperatures.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

404 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

To test a three-phase motor for single phasing, All three sets of windings should have the same
begin by measuring the voltage at the motor terminals. resistance. If the resistance of the different windings is
If the voltage level is incorrect or not present for any of not equal, one of the sets of windings is either shorted
the three phases, check the power supply. If the correct or open, which means the motor must be either ser-
voltage is present for all three phases, it indicates that viced or replaced.
the motor is the problem. Each set of windings can be
tested individually with an ohmmeter, Figure 17-17.
17.3 Servicing Hermetic
Compressor Motors
Servicing hermetic compressors involves two
major areas of work: external servicing and internal
servicing. Most hermetic compressor troubles are
external, being either in the wiring or in the motor
control devices. It is important to find out exactly
where the electrical troubles are before decid-
ing whether the motor is at fault. Furthermore, it
is essential that any external trouble be remedied
as soon as possible. If it is not, it may eventually
cause the motor to fail. The proper steps and pro-
cedures for internal service of hermetic compres-
sors are explained in Chapter 26, Service and Repair
of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers. Most of these
problems have little to do with electricity and more
to do with the refrigerant circuit.

SSAC, LLC 17.3.1 Electrical Testing of Hermetic

Figure 17-16. High -end phase loss monitors can be Compressor Motors
programmed to monitor against multiple adverse conditions
and often have displays that can read measured variables and Although hermetic compressor motors mal-
show trouble codes. function due to the same problems as open-drive
setups, such as short circuits and open circuits, a
hermetic unit cannot be opened to inspect the motor
Three-phase
motor
directly. To check the condition of a hermetic com-
pressor motor, a technician must test the motor
electrically from the outside. This involves using an
ohmmeter to measure the resistance between the
compressor terminals. Because the resistance from
3n n n 3n terminal to terminal equates to the resistance of
each motor winding, a technician can use ohmme-
ter measurements to check the motor windings for
continuity, shorts, and shorts to ground.
Before taking measurements, be certain of the
identity of each terminal. Figure 17-18 shows a typical
hermetic compressor terminal arrangement. To be safe,
check the motor nameplate for terminal identification.
If the terminals are not identified, use an ohmmeter
Ohmmeter _ _ ___..,
n to check the resistance of the different windings by
3Q touching the leads to the different terminal pairs. For
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
a detailed procedure on identifying unmarked motor
terminals, see Chapter 15, Electric Motors. Figure 17-19
Figure 17-17. All three sets of windings in a three-phase
motor should have the same resistance when tested with an lists common winding resistance measurements for
ohmmeter. This is true regardless of whether the motor has a several low-horsepower motors.
delta configuration or wye configuration.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 405

Common terminal Starting terminal

take a few voltage measurements to ensure the
power is off.
1. Visually inspect the compressor to see if it uses
any start or run capacitors. If there are any
capacitors, discharge them by touching a 30 kQ
(30,000 Q) resistor across the capacitor leads for
several seconds. Do not touch the capacitor leads
or resistor leads while discharging the capacitor.
2. Disconnect the wires from the hermetic com-
pressor motor terminals on the dome of the
compressor to test the motor independent of
its outside electrical connections. Make sure
to mark which wire connects to which termi-
nal using tags or color-coded tape.
3. Set the range switch for the ohmmeter to its
lowest setting (xl or xlO). &
4. Check the resistance of each motor winding
by touching the ohmmeter leads to different
terminal pairs. See Figure 17-20.
5. If any of the measurements between the termi-
nals read (infinity) or OL (overload), move the
00

leads to different spots on the terminals to make

sure the leads are making a clean connection.
Running terminal Dirt, oil, or poor contact between the meter leads
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher and the terminals can result in an inaccurate,
Figure 17-18. A technician can easily identify the terminals on higher resistance reading.
this hermetic compressor because they are labeled C, S, and 6. If a measurement does not change from 00

R. Before testing the compressor motor with an ohmmeter, (infinity) or OL (overload) to somewhere near
remember to turn off power to the compressor and disconnect the accepted measurements in the table in
the wires from the motor terminals.
Figure 17-19, it means there is not continuity
in the winding. The winding has an open or
break, and the motor needs to be replaced.
Checking Hermetic Compressors for
7. If a measurement is lower than the values in
Continuity and Shorts the table in Figure 17-19, especially if a value
Before taking any resistance measurements, is near 0 Q, there may be a short in the wind-
be sure to turn off power to the motor circuit and ing. A motor with a short in any of its wind-
ings needs to be replaced.

Hermetic Compressor Winding Resistance Measurements

Motor Between Common and Between Common and Starting Between Running and Starting
Horsepower Running Terminal (Run Winding) Terminal (Start Winding) Terminals (Both Windings)
1/2 4.7Q 18.6Q 23.3Q
3/4 3.3Q 11.9 Q 15.2 Q
1 2.5Q 11.0 Q 13.5Q
1 1/2 1.9Q 8.4Q 10.3Q
2 2.1 Q 6.4Q 8.5Q

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 17-19. Approximate ohmmeter readings across the terminals of several low-horsepower, single-phase motors.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

406 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Any short circuit in the motor windings will 4.?Q

increase the current draw, decrease the power, and
Q
eventually overheat the compressor. A shorted wind- Running terminal
ing can sometimes be detected by an interruption,
such as the addition of a noticeable beat, to the steady
hum of the motor when it is running. Hermetic com-
pressor motors should also be checked for grounded
windings or shorts to ground. A winding has a short Q 23.3Q
to ground when part of the winding has made electri-
cal contact with the frame of the motor. In the case of
hermetic compressor motors, the compressor shell is
the motor frame.
Starting terminal
Ohmmeter--~ n
Checking Hermetic Compressors for 18.6Q
Shorts to Ground Normal Operation
Checking a hermetic compressor for a
short to ground is the same as testing the 00

compressor's winding insulation. A technician

Q
can use either an ohmmeter or megohmmeter Running terminal
to take measurements. Before taking any
resistance measurements, be sure to turn off
power to the motor circuit and take a few voltage
measurements to ensure the power is off.
1. Set the range switch for the ohmmeter to a
high setting (xlO0 or xlO00).
2. Test each winding for a short to ground by
touching the red lead to a compressor termi-
nal and the black lead to any bare metal part Starting terminal
on the compressor dome. Be sure this spot Ohmmeter-----+1 n
has no paint or coating on it. 18.6Q
3. If the measurements each read either (infin-
00 Open Winding
ity) or OL (overload), the hermetic compressor
motor is fine. 0.5Q
4. If the measurements read any value below 00
Q
(infinity) or OL (overload), then there is a short Running terminal
to ground in one of the windings. The entire Shorted run winding
hermetic compressor needs to be replaced.
5. If a megohmmeter is used, a reading of
100 MQ or higher indicates that the motor
Q 19.1 Q
windings are in excellent condition. Readings
less than 100 MQ indicate that there may
be an issue with the winding insulation or
refrigerant and oil mixture in the compres-
sor, causing a short to ground in one of the Starting terminal
windings. Ohmmeter--___, n
18.6Q
Shorted Winding
17.3.2 Servicing a Stuck Hermetic Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Compressor Motor Figure 17-20. When an ohmmeter is connected to the
terminals of an open winding, the resistance measurement is
Occasionally, a hermetic compressor motor will = (infinity). If a winding is shorted, its resistance measurement
not start even though all the electrical tests indicate it is much lower than its accepted resistance value, typically
is in good condition. This condition can have several close to On.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 407

causes. The unit may have been idle for a consider- Red and white wires
able time, allowing dirt or contamination in the unit Black wire connect to run capacitor
to settle. In other cases, some electrolytic plating of the
windings may have taken place. An excessive amount
of liquid refrigerant in the compressor can also bind
the unit.
The most common method of starting a stuck com-
pressor is to use a hard start kit. A hard start kit con-
sists of a capacitor, a PTC or potential relay, and wires.
Hard start kits are sized to the specific voltage and
horsepower of a compressor. As a compressor ages, its
windings deteriorate and friction causes wear to the
rotor and shaft, which means the motor may require
additional torque at start-up. Hard start kits essentially
add a start capacitor to a system that previously did not
have one, Figure 17-21.

Hard Start Method of Servicing a Stuck

Hermetic Compressor
Before performing any service on a
stuck hermetic compressor motor, select the
appropriate hard start kit for the specific motor
Three-Wire
Hard Start Kit
A
Two-Wire
Hard Start Kit
B
Sealed Unit Parts Ca., Inc.
Figure 17-21. Hard start kits are available in three-wire and
two-wire configurations. Two-wire hard start kits tend to be
I
application. Compare the hard start kit's voltage
simpler to install and lower in cost.
and horsepower ratings to the data on the motor
nameplate.
1. Turn off power to the compressor and take
motors, such as shaded-pole motors and permanent
a few voltage measurements to ensure the
split capacitor (PSC) motors. Electronically commu-
power is off.
tated motors (ECMs) are also commonly used to drive
2. Remove the original compressor starting fans because they enable the fan to operate at variable
relay. speeds. Fan motor troubles can occur for a variety of
3. If the hard start kit has three wires, connect reasons beyond just problems with the motor, from
the red and white wires to the compressor's electrical problems to mechanical problems with the
run capacitor. Connect the black wire to the fan itself. The most common causes of fan motor trou-
common terminal on the compressor. bles include the following:
4. If the hard start kit has two wires, connect the • Loose connections.
wires to the starting and running terminals • Dry bearings.
on the compressor.
• Worn bearings.
5. Energize the compressor and cycle it on and
• Burned-out motor.
off several times to ensure that the compres-
sor start-up is successful. • Loose fan.
6. With the compressor unstuck, the hard start • Out-of-balance fan.
kit can be removed and replaced with a new • Fan blades touching the housing.
capacitor and existing relay, or the hard start
kit may be left on the unit to replace the origi-
nal equipment.
17.4.1 Connection Problems
Loose or dirty connections cause excessive
resistance at the connection, which in turn results
17.4 Servicing Fan Motors in an excessive voltage drop at the motor. Loose
connections can cause the fan motor to lose speed,
In addition to compressors, HVACR systems use hum loudly, or overheat. An ohmmeter can be used
motors to drive condenser, evaporator, and blower fans. to locate the faulty connection. Do not rely on visual
Many fan motors are low-horsepower, single-phase inspection.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

408 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Finding Connection Problems in a Fan motor's controller, enabling communication between

the motor and the HVACR control system, Figure 17-22.
Motor Circuit
Service of an electronically commutated motor is
Before taking any resistance measurements, usually done by reading trouble codes sent by the ECM
be sure to turn off power to the fan motor circuit to the HVACR system controller. When troubleshoot-
and take a few voltage measurements to ensure ing an ECM, try the following strategies:
the power is off.
• Check that the motor is being supplied 120 V
1. Set the range switch for the ohmmeter to xlO0. power.
2. Clip the red ohmmeter lead to the positive • Check the low-voltage control circuit to make sure the
connection on the fan motor wiring terminal. motor is communicating with the HVACR system.
3. Clip the black ohmmeter lead to the negative • Check for burnt terminals, loose connections,
or common connection on the fan motor wir- and frayed or broken wires where any part of the
ing terminal. conductor is exposed or not insulated.
4. Record the resistance through the circuit. • Follow the manufacturer's diagnostic chart or
5. Wiggle each of the wires to see if the resis- troubleshooting chart to detect any trouble codes set.
tance decreases. • Resolve codes by referencing the manufacturer's
6. If the resistance decreases, it is most likely recommendations.
from a loose terminal. Tighten or recrimp the • Replace the motor controller board if it is found to
fan motor terminals as needed. be at fault and is accessible.

17.4.2 Fan Problems Pro Tip

A rattle in a fan motor may sometimes be nothing

ECM Troubleshooting
more than a loose fan on the motor shaft. The noise Most ECM manufacturers provide troubleshoot-
can be remedied by tightening the setscrew that fas- ing charts used to help a technician pinpoint problems
with the circuit board in an ECM. The trouble codes are
tens the fan hub to the shaft. Smaller fans have either a
usually displayed on the HVACR system's controller as
round shaft or a flat spot milled on the shaft. Some fan either a digital readout or a set of LEDs that indicate
blade hubs, however, are factory compressed onto the the trouble code. Typically, ECM circuit boards are not
blade. If the hub breaks loose from the blade, replace serviceable, but may be replaced.
the blade.
If a fan is overworked or misused, the blades may
be forced out of position, causing one or more blades
to vibrate. The easiest repair is to replace the fan.
Connections for
Attempts to balance the blades are difficult unless spe- 120 V power
cial static and dynamic balancers are available.
If the fan blades touch the fan housing, the motor
may be misaligned. The fan housing or shroud may
also be bent. The contact spot can often be detected
easily. To remedy a misalignment, move the fan on the
motor shaft or move the fan housing. Do not bend the
fan blades, as this will cause the fan to be out of bal-
ance, which will make the unit vibrate.

17.4.3 ECM Troubleshooting and Service

Most variable speed motors used to drive fans are
electronically commutated motors (ECMs). ECMs are Low-voltage
brushless de motors that are regulated by an integrated control circuit
controller. The motor's controller precisely modulates connections
motor speed based on programmed settings. Most Emerson Climate Technologies
ECMs have wiring harnesses that provide both 120 V Figure 17-22. Motor connections for electronically
power to the motor and lower voltage power to the commutated motors provide the motor with 120 V power to run
the motor and low-voltage power to the motor's controller.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 409

17.5 Servicing External Motors End bell Bearing

External motors are electric motors that are used

in open-drive applications to power compressors and
accessory devices, such as fans and blowers. Problems
found in external motors can be either electrical or
mechanical.
Electrical troubles found in external motors
include open circuits, short circuits, and shorts to
ground in the motor windings. In these cases, replac-
ing the motor is recommended. Overheating is a com-
mon problem that results from frequent starting and
stopping, which can cause a number of components to
fail.
If a single-phase, external motor will not start but

I
has the characteristic hum of a running motor, it is a
sign that one or more of the following components has
failed: the start capacitor, the centrifugal switch, or the
motor starting relay. The hum indicates to the techni- Motor shaft Centrifugal Centrifugal Bearing
cian that current is flowing. However, the rotor is not switch switch
rotating because it does not have the initial torque nec- spring
essary for starting without the start capacitor in the Photo courtesy of A. 0. Smith
circuit. Figure 17-23. The location of the bearings, centrifugal switch,
The first step is to test the capacitor, as described and centrifugal switch spring inside an electric motor.
earlier in this chapter. It is easy to replace the old
capacitor with a new one of the same capacitance. If
the motor still will not start, the most likely cause is a cylindrical sleeve bearing used to reduce the
the centrifugal switch. If the switch's contact points friction and wear on the motor shaft as it rotates,
are dirty, pitted, or burnt from overheating, do not try Figure 17-24. External motors that use bearings
to repair them. Filing or sanding does little good, as equipped with bushings, plain or sleeve, can be
the contact material has worn away. Repaired contact lubricated in one of two different ways:
points typically last only a few hours, which means a • Wick system.
callback will have to be made. It is best to just replace • Slip ring system.
the contacts. A wick lubricating system uses a well or res-
Mechanical problems in external motors are usu- ervoir in the end bell. A wick (fabric that draws up
ally due to the motor's centrifugal switch or bearings.
The centrifugal switch spring, which is used for con-
necting and disconnecting the start capacitor, may
become deformed and out of calibration. In such cases,
it is necessary to replace the switch. Other troubles
may include worn bearings, excessive endplay, exces-
sive vibration due to misalignment of the motor with
the compressor, and improper air gap between the
rotor and stator. Worn bearings typically result in a
customer complaint that the fan is making too much
noise, Figure 17-23.

17.5.1 Motor Lubrication

External motors may be lubricated in various
ways. The system used depends on the motor's Bronze bushing
position (vertical or horizontal) and bearing type. Dial Manufacturing, Inc.
Some external motors have an additional bearing Figure 17-24. Some bearings are equipped with an additional
component called a bushing, which is essentially component called a bushing, which is typically made of bronze.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

410 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

and holds oil) carries oil from the well to the bushing and the bearing upon replacement. When replacing
and shaft. This system allows long intervals between the wick, pack equal amounts on each side of the bear-
servicing and prevents the bearing from getting too ing and over the slot of the bearing, so the spring on
much oil. Motors with a wick lubricating system have the oil well cover will push the wick down on the shaft.
the cotton or wool wick saturated with oil when the Wick-lubricated bearings should be oiled with one or
motor is shipped from the factory. Before starting the two drops every six months.
motor, however, a technician should fill the oil well. Some larger external motors use the slip ring
Add the amount of oil designated by the manufacturer, lubricating system. A brass ring rests on the motor
Figure 17-25. shaft through a slot in the top of the bearing. The ring
If the bearing is to be removed from the shaft or is large enough to dip into the oil well below. As the
the bushing is to be removed from the end bell, the motor shaft turns, the ring turns and lubricates the
wick should be lifted clear of the bearing. This pre- bearing. See Figure 17-26. Be sure to check the ring
vents the wick from being forced between the shaft when working on a motor with a slip ring lubricat-
ing system. Use a medium-viscosity, non-detergent oil
such as SAE 20 or SAE 30.
Other external motors use ball bearings, which
are contained within a top collar (also known as a top
Bushing race) and a bottom collar (bottom race). These bearings
are lubricated with grease, Figure 17-27.
Most ball bearing assemblies are sealed and do not
need periodic lubrication. Others are installed in a col-
lar that is equipped with a grease fitting, called a zerk
fitting. An ordinary grease gun is used to apply grease
to this type of bearing assembly. See Figure 17-28.
Motors equipped with ball bearings are shipped
with enough grease in the bearings to lubricate them
for several months. A small amount of grease should
be added every two or three months. Use high-grade,
medium-weight grease on fully enclosed motors. Too
much grease may cause the bearings to overheat.
The life of bearings depends, to a considerable
Spring-Loaded Wick extent, on cleanliness. Most greases and oils oxidize

Filler plug
Filler plug

Bushing

Seal
Oil return

...__ _...,..,~_ _ _.....~ Oil overflow

t
Drain plug
Yarn-Type Wick
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Drain plug
Figure 17-25. Two variations of wick lubricating systems. A Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
spring-loaded wick draws oil from the oil cup and applies it Figure 17-26. A slip ring lubricating system has a brass slip
to the motor shaft, while a yarn-type wick is saturated with oil ring that dips into the oil well and transfers the oil to the motor
throughout. shaft.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 411

Top race Bearing and

race assembly

Zerk fitting

Bearing
collar Motor shaft

Drain plug

I
reservoirs
Emerson Climate Technologies
Figure 17-27. Grease fills the gaps between the ball bearing
and the top and bottom races, lubricating the bearing as it
moves.

and collect dirt while in use. When a motor is recondi-

tioned, the old lubricant must be discarded. The lubri-
cated portions must be thoroughly cleaned, and new 6310X
M:4d41JY
lubricant should be used. Use only clean grease and 3REA E F T •GAS SOR r l E• '
ASSO RTr "EflT
keep all dirt out of the bearings. Remove contaminated
grease from the end of the grease gun hose by giv-
ing the grease gun a single pump and discarding the
grease that comes out. Remove and clean the zerk fit-
ting and grease drain plug. Clean any hardened grease
from the fittings and the bores they fit into. Next, rein-
stall the zerk fitting and leave the drain plug out.
Attach the grease gun and apply grease until it
begins to emerge from the drain passage or out of any
other area. Use only light force on the grease gun when Goodheart-Willcox Publisher; DiversiTech Corporation
adding grease. If grease is applied with excessive pres- Figure 17-28. Some motors with ball bearings must be
sure, it can overpack the bearing or be forced into the periodically greased using the available zerk fitting. Grease
motor housing where it can contaminate the windings, should be added until it begins to emerge from between the
causing motor damage. Most motors require that the bearing collar and the shaft.
motor be operated with the drain plug out for 10-30
minutes after being greased. After operating the motor
for the required period of time, reinstall the drain plug. become very thick Many of these motors have low
Another method of lubrication is the oilless torque and will have difficulty starting when the oil
bushing. In this arrangement, the motor shaft passes thickens. They may even burn out or trip the overload
through a sintered (porous) bronze bushing. The bush- protection. Be sure to use oil that will remain fluid
ing is saturated with oil at the factory and is considered even at the lowest temperature the bearings may reach
to be permanently lubricated. The total gap between during idle time.
the shaft and bushing is less than 0.001'' and can be as
little as 0.0003". As this gap increases due to wear, the
motor will become noisy, and the bushing should be
17.5.2 Motor Bearings
replaced. A dry bearing can cause the motor to be noisy.
External motors used to drive fans can become However, this condition will last only a short time
very cold when idle. As a result, the bearing oil may before the bearings will either seize (bind) or become

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

412 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

badly worn. If a bearing becomes worn, it can damage by an overheated bearing can break down the
other parts of a motor, such as the motor shaft. lubrication in the bearing, causing excessive wear. If
Bearing wear can cause a motor's endplay to a bearing is overheated, determine the cause of the
become excessive. Endplay is the axial movement of a overheating problem and correct it before replac-
motor shaft as it rotates. Some endplay is necessary to ing the motor. Any one of the following may be the
avoid any binding when the metal of the motor shaft cause:
expands from heat. Excessive endplay causes the motor • Oil too heavy.
to produce a distinct knock, Figure 17-29.
• Oil too thin.
Other indications of bearing wear include exces-
sive vibration and excessive heat on the motor shaft. • Dirt or grit in the oil.
In addition to worn bearings, too much endplay can • Belt too tight.
be caused by a bent shaft or small, foreign objects in • Pulley hub rubbing against the bearing.
the motor. If the endplay seems excessive, it can be
• Motor not properly aligned.
accurately measured with a dial indicator and checked
Problems with motor bearings are usually not cor-
against the manufacturer's specification. rected in the field. Instead, the faulty motor is removed,
In any service to motors, the bearings should
and a replacement motor is installed. The faulty motor
be checked to see if they are worn. Occasionally, the
can then be taken to a qualified shop or returned to
sleeve bearings (bushings) in a reconditioned motor
the manufacturer to be properly rebuilt. However, this
are out of position. This may force the rotor out of the
may not be a very economical option.
magnetic center along its shaft. Listen to the motor as
it rotates. If the rotor is hitting the stator, the bearings
are worn out and must be replaced. A heavy rumbling 17.5.3 Pulleys and Belts
sound at start-up indicates that the bearings are badly Pulleys are used in various HVACR open-drive
worn, even though the rotor may not be touching the applications. A pulley is a grooved wheel with two
stator. If the motor is serviceable, replace the bearings flanges that is used to change rotational direction,
as soon as these noises are present to prevent motor increase or decrease rotational speed, or provide
damage. mechanical advantage. A pulley transmits motion
Sometimes premature bearing wear is caused to or from a rope, chain, or belt placed in its groove.
by a bearing overheating. The intense heat produced Motor shaft pulleys are available in many sizes and
types of construction. Pulley diameters vary from 3"
to 38". Some are made of cast iron and some of steel
Bearing stampings. Practically all pulleys have a keyway and a
i setscrew, Figure 17-30.
The two most popular pulley widths are A-width
and B-width. A-width pulleys fit belts up to 1/2" wide.
B-width pulleys fit belts that are 1/2" to 21/32" wide.
Multiple-groove pulleys are available for units with
two or more belts, Figure 17-31.
Some air-conditioning units use a step pulley,
Metal
...--+--contacting which is made of multiple grooves of different diam-
metal eters, for driving a fan or blower. By changing the belt
from one groove to another, a technician can change
the speed of the fan or blower.

Pro Tip
Multiple-Groove Pulleys
When replacing two or more belts on a unit with a
multiple-groove pulley, make sure to use replacement
Endplay can be belts that are a matched set. Belts that are marked as a
in any direction
matched set are exactly the same length.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 17-29. If a motor's endplay is excessive, the motor Special variable-pitch pulleys are also available.
shaft's axial movement will create metal-to-metal contact,
These are made with half of the pulley threaded on
producing a knocking sound.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 413

Pulley Setscrew V-belt the hub of the other half. A setscrew locks the vari-
able half in place after it has been properly adjusted.
By turning the variable half of the pulley, a tech-
nician can narrow or widen the pulley's V-shaped
groove. Widening the groove allows the belt to ride
closer to the hub, reducing the speed of a belt-driven
blower or fan. Narrowing the groove moves the belt
farther from the hub, increasing the blower or fan
speed. The speed of a belt-driven unit can be varied
by as much as 30% using a variable-pitch pulley.

Caution
Variable-Pitch Pulleys
Increasing the speed of a belt-driven blower or
fan by narrowing the V-shaped groove in a variable-
pitched pulley also increases the motor's current draw.
Decreasing the speed by widening the V-shaped groove &
decreases the motor's current draw.

V-belts are the most popular method used to turn

motor, fan, and blower pulleys. These belts are made of
layers of rubber, fabric, and cord. Some belts are a mix-
Keyway ture of natural and synthetic rubber. Belts are made in
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher many sizes, from 15" to 660" in length. Belt size is deter-
Figure 17-30. The setscrew and keyway on the pulley of a mined by the measure of its outside length, which is
belt-driven blower. the distance around the outside of the belt. This length
can be measured using a steel tape or cloth tape. The
width of a belt's cross section is measured at its widest
point, Figure 17-32.
Multiple grooves
Most belts fall into one of the following four stan-
Pulley dard widths:
• Classical.
• Narrow.
• Notched.
• Light-duty.
When installing belts, be careful to adjust them for
proper tension and alignment. They should be snug but
not tight. The correct belt tension is the lowest tension
at which a belt will not slip when it is under full-load
conditions. Tightening a belt beyond the correct ten-
sion increases the motor's load and puts unnecessary
stress on the bearings. Trying to gauge a belt's tension
by feel alone with one's hands is not recommended. A
commercial tension gauge provides an accurate mea-
surement of belt tension, Figure 17-33.
When belts are used to connect a motor to a com-
pressor, fan, or blower, the pulley on the belt-driven unit
and the motor pulley must be in-line with each other in
two different ways. First, the centerline of the shaft on the
V-belts belt-driven unit must be parallel with the centerline of the
Emerson Climate Technologies electric motor shaft. Second, the pulley grooves must be
Figure 17-31. A multiple-groove pulley provides grooves for in-line with each other. Such alignment will give long life
attaching two or more belts. to the belt and to the electric motor.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

414 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

11/2" b_ 7 21/32"b_ -I 7/8" r=_

8_s116"
~
~J_,~32" 8-!t·
C -L t=
1 1/4" 1 1/2" =1-.-
8_ +0:+ Classical

Narrow

121/32" 1-. t 7/8" --

~ 13/32" ex 17/32"
t
Notched

1/4" i " 73/8'l~-, 7 1/2" b_ 721132"b_

o __i_ Q7/~2" Qs/16" \Im"
5/30 ~ ~
Light-Duty
Gates Corporation
Figure 17-32. The standard designations and dimensions for
cross sections of various industrial belts.

B
A poorly aligned belt will shorten the life of the Gates Corporation
motor by causing it to continuously operate under an Figure 17-33. Belt tension should be checked by hand and
excessive load. A noisy, poorly operating motor may be with a commercial tension gauge. A-Technician checking belt
the result. Figure 17-34 shows a tool that can be used tension by hand while the belt is not moving. B-A commercial
to adjust and align belt drives. tension gauge indicates the distance that the belt deflects
when force is applied to it.

17.6 Servicing Motor Control

Systems 17.6.1 Troubleshooting and Servicing
Perceived motor failure or erratic performance
Controls
may be caused by problems in the motor control sys- Pressure and temperature controls must be cor-
tem. The following sections provide some basic guid- rectly installed. If not done correctly, an HVACR
ance for servicing control systems. More detailed system will not operate properly. The electrical con-
information about servicing specific control systems is nections must be clean and tight. The wire terminals
presented in the service chapters later in the book. connecting the wiring to control must be large enough

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 415

Pressure and Temperature Controls in

Refrigerators, Coolers, and Freezers
Several kinds of trouble may be encountered in
different controls, including contact corrosion, over-
load, loss of charge (in bellows or diaphragm), and
improper sensing element installation.
Corrosion may occur on the contact points of con-
trols, causing a poor electrical connection. Once con-
tact points become worn and cause trouble, it is best
to replace them. Sometimes this means the entire con-
trol should be replaced. Corroded or pitted points can
be detected by using an ohmmeter to check for resis-
tance. In an emergency, the points can be cleaned with
a small, clean file. A single-cut file or mill file works
best, but even a clean nail file may do a temporary job.
Photo courtesy of Ludeca, Inc. However, any attempt to repair contact points is only
Figure 17-34. Laser tool used for fast and accurate alignment temporary, making a callback inevitable. &
of V-belt pulleys, as it detects and corrects angle, offset, and Sometimes a diaphragm or bellows may lose its
twist misalignment between pulleys. charge. This can be detected by a simple pressure
check. If the charge is lost, the bellows are very eas-
ily compressed. If a bellows is charged, the pressure
to carry the wiring's current. Some wire terminals are inside is around 75 psig (517 kPa) or more, which
connected to posts that have either screws or threaded means applying finger pressure will not affect it. In the
studs with a nut and washer, Figure 17-35. event of leakage, replace this part of the control or the
If remotely mounted, the control's sensing element entire control unit.
must be secured very carefully. It should be attached Control troubles also occur when the sensing ele-
tightly to the evaporator or tubing. The sensing ele- ment is not attached tightly to the evaporator. This
ment and the place where it is clamped should be means that a greater change in temperature is required
cleaned with clean steel wool before assembly. The best before the motor will cut in and cut out. The sensing
place for attaching a control's sensing element is on the element must be firmly clamped to the evaporator to
last one-third of the evaporator. achieve good thermal contact between the two. Many
evaporators have metal sockets into which the sensing
element is inserted. Make sure to clean the contact sur-
faces before assembly.
Nut Wire
Machine terminal Pressure and Temperature Controls for Heating
Wire
screw Washer Wire and Comfort Cooling Systems
(lead)
(lead) If a heating or cooling system is not working, the
controls may be at fault. Oftentimes, a malfunctioning
thermostat provides warning signals or trouble codes
to the system controller. Diagnostic or troubleshooting
charts are available for different models of thermo-
Wire stats, so a technician can identify and troubleshoot the
terminal code, Figure 17-36.
If a thermostat does not provide trouble codes, a
good first step is to check all electrical connections.
Make sure that all switches are operating. Then, verify
continuity between the thermostat and the furnace or
Wire (lead) to inside Wire (lead) to inside cooling system.
of control of control
If no problems are found and the heating or cool-
Screw-Type Terminal Post Nut-TypeTerminal Post ing system itself has no apparent problems, the temper-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher ature-sensing device within the thermostat is probably
Figure 17-35. Two types of electrical terminal posts used to at fault. Checking the device externally can be difficult.
connect wiring to a control. Instead, it is best to verify a faulty temperature-sensing

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

416 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Thermostat Troubleshooting Guide and Voltage References

Problem Observed Possible Cause Corrective Action
No display. 1. No ac voltage to subbase. 1. Measure power at TB-1 pins 1 and 2. Should be 22 V
to 30 V.
2. No power to unit. 2. Check for power output. Check P-3 hook-up for 22 V to
30 V. Check power hook-up. Check for defective wiring .
3. Blown fuse (F-8). 3. Replace fuse with 1.0 A.
4. HVACR transformer defective. 4. Replace transformer with correct type.
5. J-1 not connected to subbase. 5. Connect J-1.
6. Damaged pins on J-1 connector. 6. Straighten pins if possible, or replace broken controller.
7. Subbase defect. 7. Replace subbase.
8. Controller defect. 8. Replace controller.
No temperature display 1. Unit not calibrated. 1. Calibrate per Section XIII.
or wrong temperature 2. Temperature sensor is open. 2. Replace temperature sensor board.
displayed.
3. Temperature sensor cable 3. Check temperature sensor cable for damage or check for
damaged or not connected . correct connection . If damaged, replace controller.
4. Temp cal was used. 4. Press RESET for 10 seconds.
Display on, but none of 1. Controller defect. 1. Remove and replace controller.
the function keys work.

DuPont Energy Management Ca .. Inc.

Figure 17-36. Excerpt from a troubleshooting chart showing some fairly typical problems with thermostats and procedures for
correcting those problems.

device by using another thermostat temporarily set in Diagnostic

place. If the alternate thermostat corrects the problem, codes
the original thermostat is faulty. Replacing the original
thermostat is the easiest and most economical means
of correcting a malfunctioning temperature-sensing ,erature AUTO Auto Change to Heat & Cool
j
CHECK Call for Service
l8 A or v button COOL Cool Mode
device. COOL2 2nd Stage Cool1119 FILTER
UV
Servk:eAirFllter
Servk:e UV Lamps
, once. Press A or v HEAT Heat Mode
Electronic thermostats are somewhat easier to ser- perature. HEAT2 2nd Stage Heating HUMID Servk:e Humidifier
ly retum to nonnal or LOCK Keypad Loci<
vice. They typically provide some simple self-diagnos- AUX
EMER
Aux / 3td Stage Heating
Emergency Heat
tics. These diagnostics can inform the technician about
such things as battery condition or a problem with the
programmed settings, Figure 17-37.
A service technician should consult the manufactur-
er's manual for a table of thermostat diagnostic codes. For To Display Outdoor Temperature
)Lor HEAT
the most part, thermostats are rarely serviced because it is 1loviewor when optiooal outdoor sensor is
oollng or Installed, press BACK and NEXT
cheaper to simply replace a suspect thermostat. buttoos at the same time.
pad L«k and Option s«tlngi, - - USM manuaf for deta/1$.
Pro Tip Bra6burn.
Model 3300
Common Causes of Short Cycling Univefal

When a refrigeration system is short cycling, it Braeburn Systems LLC

means that it starts and stops too frequently, running Figure 17-37. Cover for an electronic thermostat listing the
for a shorter time than it should. A system will short meanings of some of the diagnostic codes that may appear on
cycle if the thermostat is not mounted securely and is the thermostat's digital display.
exposed to vibration, which can be caused by foot traf-
fic or machinery. Be sure to mount the thermostat to
something solid.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 417

17.6.2 Troubleshooting and Servicing When replacing a relay, start by disconnecting the
power supply. Use the correct size screwdriver. Label
Relays each wire as it is disconnected to indicate the relay
In general, relays should be replaced, not repaired. terminal it connects to. Relay terminals are usually
A service technician's job is mainly to determine if a numbered, so a tag or clip on each wire with the cor-
relay is defective. The wire size, contact point area, responding number makes it easier to connect the new
spring tension or weight, and air gaps are specifically relay. Masking tape and a marking pencil are useful
designed and set for certain relays. For example, a slight for such labeling.
difference in weight or spring tension between an old If an exact replacement potential relay is not avail-
relay and a replacement might result in the motor run- able, use one of a lower voltage rating (90% of original
ning 100 RPM slower. Replace all relays with exact rating). A relay with a higher voltage rating should not
duplicates or use a relay replacement chart or guide. be used, as the compressor will not generate enough
Loose connections on the starting relay are counter emf to open the relay at the correct start wind-
another common cause of short cycling. The most ing speed.
effective way to determine if a relay is the cause of Always keep a relay's cover in place. This pre-
trouble is to first check the other parts of the circuit, as vents dust from collecting on the contact points,
it is difficult to see if a relay is energized when it is con- which can cause the contacts to burn. If the con-
nected to the compressor. Potential relays that operate tact points burn, it results in excessive voltage drop
on counter emf from the motor require that the motor, across the points and a control that works poorly. 6
the capacitor, the overload cutout, and the thermostat Contact points may also be burned or fused by the
operate correctly. If these parts test correctly, then the discharge of a capacitor if a unit is short cycling. To
next logical faulty component is the relay. eliminate this trouble, use capacitors equipped with
A weight-operated current relay must be mounted bleed resistors across the capacitor terminals. Avoid
straight and level. Otherwise, the plunger will rub and tapping a relay to check it. Such tapping may cause
stick against the sides of the relay body. After power is the points to touch. This brief contact may ruin the
applied to the motor circuit, the relay should quickly points and damage the motor. The relay must func-
close and then open again in about three seconds if it tion correctly without being tapped, or it should be
is working properly. replaced.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Single phasing is the loss of one or more phases
in a three-phase motor. This can be prevented
• Voltmeters, ohmmeters, and ammeters are used using a phase loss monitor. Using a voltmeter
to measure voltage, resistance, and current in a and ohmmeter, a technician can test a three-
circuit, respectively. Voltmeters and ohmmeters phase motor's power supply and winding
should be connected in parallel with a load or resistance to determine if the motor is faulty.
circuit being measured. In-line ammeters must • HVACR technicians use ohmmeters and
be connected in series with a circuit, while megohmmeters to test the windings in hermetic
clamp-on ammeters measure by hooking their compressor motors for continuity, short circuits,
jaws around a single conductor in the circuit. and shorts to ground. If a single-phase hermetic
• A multimeter is a single instrument that compressor will not start and electrical tests
can measure multiple electrical variables, indicate it is in good condition, a technician can
including voltage, current, and resistance. connect a hard start kit to the compressor to
Many multimeters can also check diode provide additional starting torque.
operation, circuit continuity, capacitance, and • Common problems in fan motors include
temperature. bad connections, dry or worn bearings,
• A power factor meter provides a direct reading burnt winding insulation, and a loose or
of the power factor in an electrical circuit. A out-of-balance fan. Technicians should listen
wattmeter is used to measure the wattage for rattling or other irregular noises when
consumed by an electrical load. Like an troubleshooting fans.
ammeter, a wattmeter is connected in series • Troubleshooting electronically controlled
with the circuit or load being measured. motors (ECMs) typically involves checking
• A megohmmeter is an electrical insulation the power supply, inspecting the wiring
tester used to detect current leaks and harness and connections, and following the
conductor insulation failures. In HVACR, manufacturer's troubleshooting chart.
megohmmeters are mainly used to test • Electrical problems in external motors are
motor winding insulation. In a hermetic typically due to short circuits, open circuits,
compressor, the resistance of the winding and shorts to ground in the motor windings.
insulation indicates the level of moisture and If an external motor hums but does not start,
contaminants in the compressor. it is a sign that the start capacitor, centrifugal
• Wattmeters are especially useful for checking switch, or motor starting relay has failed.
the condition of a motor's start winding and • Mechanical problems in external motors, such
starting relay, whereas ammeters are useful for as excessive endplay, are often caused by worn
checking a motor's locked rotor amperage and bearings. Some motors have sealed bearings that
full-load amperage. When replacing a motor, do not require any service. Those that do require
refer to the motor nameplate for the required service have a zerk fitting into which a technician
motor specifications. can inject grease with a grease gun. The life of
• Start and run capacitors are common failure bearings depends on keeping the bearings, grease,
points in a motor circuit. When replacing a and fittings as clean as possible.
capacitor, be certain to use an exact replacement • Pulleys may be used to transmit motion from
with the same voltage and capacitance values. an external motor shaft to a compressor, fan, or
Discharge any motor capacitor in a circuit blower. V-belts are the most popular method used
before handling it. to turn a pulley. V-belts must be carefully adjusted
• Excessive heat in a motor resulting from for proper tension, and the two pulley grooves
high current draw can deteriorate winding must be properly aligned with each other.
insulation and create shorted or grounded • Thermostats and other temperature and
windings. Technicians can use a thermometer pressure controls require a secure mounting
to measure a motor's ambient temperature and on a steady surface, clean and tight electrical
an infrared thermometer to measure and then connections, and a properly positioned sensing
estimate its internal temperature. element. Otherwise, they may cause a motor
to short cycle. Corrosion of the thermostat's
contact points is also a common problem.

418 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 419

• Defective relays should be replaced with exact 7. The function on a multimeter allows a
duplicates. When replacing a relay, remember technician to test devices that conduct current
to disconnect power to the relay and label each in only one direction.
wire to indicate the relay terminal to which it A. capacitance
connects. B. frequency
C. continuity
D. diode check
Review Questions 8. Which multimeter function allows a
technician to test for an unbroken path
Answer the following questions using the information in between two points in a circuit?
this chapter. A. Capacitance
1. A voltage drop only exists if there is a _ _ B. Inductance
between two points in a circuit. C. Continuity
A. switch D. Diode check
B. resistance 9. Which instrument shows the relationship
C. voltmeter between a circuit's true power and apparent
D. current
2. To measure voltage polarity correctly in
a de circuit, a technician should place the
voltmeter's red lead on the side of the load
closest to the _ _ side of the power supply.
A. series
power?
A. Power factor meter
B. Wattmeter
C. Voltmeter
D. Ohmmeter
10. Which instrument measures only the true
I
B. parallel power consumed by an electrical load?
C. negative A. Power factor meter
D. positive B. Wattmeter
3. Which of the following electrical instruments C. Voltmeter
can be used to check for short circuits, open D. Ohmmeter
circuits, and shorts to ground? 11. Megohmmeters are used to test _ _.
A. Power factor meter A. electrical insulation
B. Wattmeter C. full load amperage draw
C. Ammeter B. relay operation
D. Ohmmeter D. V-belt alignment
4. Which of the following electrical instruments 12. A megohm reading of _ _ or higher
can only take an accurate reading when a indicates an excellent condition.
circuit's power is turned off? A. 100 Q
A. Power factor meter B. 10,000 Q
B. Wattmeter C. lOMQ
C. Ammeter D. lOOMQ
D. Ohmmeter 13. If a refrigeration unit is undersized for its
5. Which of the following electrical instruments application, the compressor motor will most
must be connected in series to take an likely fail because it is running _ _.
accurate reading? A. continuously
A. Clamp-on ammeter B. sporadically
B. Ohmmeter C. only with a hard start
C. In-line ammeter D. only when reversed
D. Voltmeter
6. Which of the following electrical instruments
wraps around the conductor it is measuring?
A. Clamp-on ammeter
B. Ohmmeter
C. In-line ammeter
D. Voltmeter

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

420 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

14. Before testing a capacitor or measuring its 21. To make sure an electronically commutated
capacitance, a technician must discharge the motor (ECM) is communicating with the
capacitor using a high value _ _. HVACR system, a technician should check
A. hard start kit the
B. zerk fitting A. 120 V power circuit
C. resistor B. fan blades
D. bushing C. control circuit
15. The temperature of the hottest part inside a D. pressure values
motor should not be more than above 22. If a single-phase external motor is humming
the ambient temperature. but will not start, the first step is to check the
A. 6°F
B. 20°F A. electrical disconnect
C. 44°F B. fuse or circuit breaker
D. 72°F C. phase loss monitor
16. To approximate a motor's internal D. start capacitor
temperature, a technician can add _ _ 23. A cylindrical sleeve bearing, typically made
to the temperature of the motor frame as of bronze, is called a _ _.
measured by an infrared thermometer. A. bushing
A. 20°F B. slip ring
B. 44°F C. wick
C. 72op D. pulley
D. 150°F 24. Which type of lubrication method is
17. All three sets of windings in a three-phase considered permanently lubricated?
motor must have the same A. Wick lubricating system
A. voltage phase B. Slip ring lubricating system
B. motor terminal C. Oilless bushing
C. bleed resistor D. Ball bearings
D. resistance 25. Indications that a motor has excessive
18. A hermetic compressor motor has a short in endplay include all of the following except
one of its windings if any of the resistance
measurements are near A. a distinct knocking sound
A. OL or (infinity)
00 B. excessive vibration
B. on C. excessive heat on the motor shaft
C. 150 n D. a high pitched squeal
D. lOOMn 26. A grooved wheel with two flanges used
19. A hermetic compressor motor has an to change rotational direction or provide
open winding if any of the resistance mechanical advantage is a _ _.
measurements are A. bushing
A. OL or (infinity)
00 B. bearing
B. on C. zerk fitting
C. 150 n D. pulley
D. lOOMn 27. By widening the groove of a variable-pitched
20. Loose electrical connections create excessive pulley, a technician _ _ the speed of a belt-
resistance and can cause a fan motor to driven blower or fan.
A. lose speed A. increases
B. hum loudly B. reduces
C. overheat C. doubles
D. All of the above. D. multiplies

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 17 Servicing Electric Motors and Controls 421

28. The centerline of the shaft on a belt-driven

fan or compressor must be perfectly _ _
with the centerline of the motor shaft.
A. askew
B. parallel
B. perpendicular
D. None of the above.
29. A technician should repair a control unit
with corroded contacts by _ _ the contacts.
A. filing
B. cleaning
C. replacing
D. closing
30. When a control unit's diaphragm or bellows
compresses easily, it indicates that the _ _.
A. element has lost its charge
B. pressure switch shorted out
C. pressure switch has corroded
D. unit is in calibration
I

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 18 Cotnpressors

Learning Objectives
;:::
'5 Information in this chapter will enable you to:
Chapter Outline =§= • Summarize the design differences between open-
drive compressors, fully hermetic compressors, and
18.1 Compressor Drive Configurations
semi-hermetic compressors.
18.1.1 Open-Drive Compressors ii
18.1.2 Hermetic Compressors • Identify the components of a reciprocating piston
18.2 Types of Compressors compressor and summarize their functions.
18.2.1 Reciprocating Compressors • Understand how a Scotch yoke type of reciprocating
18.2.2 Rotary Compressors compressor works.
18.2.3 Scroll Compressors • Explain how a rotary compressor works.
18.2.4 Screw Compressors
• Summarize the differences between rotating vane
18.2.5 Centrifugal Compressors
and stationary blade rotary compressors.
18.3 General Compressor Components and Systems
18.3.1 Service Valves • Understand how a scroll compressor works.
18.3.2 Mufflers • Explain how a screw compressor works.
18.3.3 Compressor Cooling Systems • Identify the components of a centrifugal compressor
18.3.4 Lubrication Systems and summarize their functions.
18.3.5 Unloaders
• Identify and explain the purpose of compressor
18.3.6 Sealing Devices
cooling and lubrication systems, mufflers, and
18.3.7 Crankcase Heaters
crankcase heaters.
 Chapter 18 Compressors 423

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

belt-driven compressor 0-ring Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
booster compressor piston you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
centrifugal compressor piston pin • A gas is a physical substance with no definite shape
centrifugal force piston ring or volume, which expands to fill its container.
clearance space pressure lubrication (Chapter 5)
compression ring system • As a gas is compressed, its pressure and temperature
connecting rod reciprocating compressor rise. This is due to the energy added to the gas by
crankcase rotary compressor compression. The energy added is often termed the
crankcase heater Scotch yoke heat of compression. (Chapter 5)
crankshaft screw compressor
• The combined gas law states that the ratio between
cylinder head scroll compressor
a gas's pressure, volume, and temperature remains
direct-drive compressor semi-hermetic compressor
constant. (Chapter 5)
eccentric shaft seal
hermetic compressor splash system • A compressor draws in low-pressure vapor from the
impeller stator low side of the system, compresses it, and discharges
muffler unloader high-pressure vapor into the high side of the system.
oil ring valve plate (Chapter 6)
oil slugging volute

sys- I
open-drive compressor

Int;:~~;:,:~~ the "heart" of a refrigeration

tern. It compresses low-temperature and low-pressure
refrigerant vapor into a much smaller volume. As the
refrigerant is compressed into a smaller volume, its tem-
perature and pressure increase. The pressure is increased
from a low-pressure level (suction) at the compressor's
inlet to a high-pressure level (discharge) at the com-
pressor's outlet. Cool refrigerant enters the compressor
through the suction valve. The refrigerant contains the
heat that was absorbed when the refrigerant vaporized in
the evaporator. The compressor pumps this vapor to the
condenser, where the heat is released from the refrigerant
as it condenses and subcools.
424 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

18.1 Compressor Drive Compressor

outlet
Configurations
Compressors are driven by an electric motor,
which may be mounted outside the compressor unit or
inside its housing. Compressors that are driven by an
external motor are called open-drive compressors and
compressors that include an integrated drive motor in
a sealed unit are called hermetic compressors. Open-
drive compressors are primarily used in large com-
mercial and industrial refrigeration applications.

18.1.1 Open-Drive Compressors

An open-drive compressor, or external-drive com-
pressor, is driven by a mechanical power source that is
separate from the compressor unit. Most often this is
an electric motor. They are composed of all the casing
and all the mechanical parts necessary to pump a low-
pressure vapor into a high-pressure vapor, Figure 18-1.
A major concern with all open-drive compressor Bitzer
systems is keeping the refrigerant sealed within the Figure 18-1. A four-cylinder, open-drive, V-type compressor.
system. Since an open-drive compressor requires one The shaft seal prevents oil and refrigerant from leaking out of
of its moving parts (the compressor shaft) to go from the compressor case.
inside the compressor to the outside of the compressor,
there is the possibility of developing a leak. To prevent
refrigerant leaks, a shaft seal is required where the
shaft comes through the compressor case. Refrigerant
vapor cannot be allowed to flow out of the case and
air cannot be allowed to flow in. Either would quickly
ruin the compression operation.
A shaft seal creates a leakproof seal between the
shaft and the case where it emerges. The seal must be
able to withstand the varying pressures inside the case
and allow the shaft to rotate without excessive drag.
The motor and the compressor drive are at atmospheric
pressure. The pressure inside the compressor case will
vary depending on the refrigerant used and the tem-
perature. Sometimes it may be considerably above
atmospheric pressure; at other times, it may be below
atmospheric pressure. The shaft seal must be designed
to prevent leakage under the full range of pressures
the compressor produces, Figure 18-2.
All shaft seals used in compressors have two ele- CMP Corporation
ments. Usually, one element turns with the shaft. The Figure 18-2. A shaft seal assembly with gasket.
other element is stationary and is mounted to the com-
pressor case with leakproof gaskets. Spring pressure
pushes the rotating element into contact with the sta- will also increase wear of the shaft seal. For this rea-
tionary element, forming the seal. The rubbing sur- son, the shaft seal is a common failure point in open-
faces are made of either hardened steel and bronze, or drive compressors.
ceramics and carbon. The two rubbing surfaces must
be lubricated or they will wear excessively and start to Direct-Drive Compressor
leak. Unbalanced loading of the compressor shaft due There are two different ways of joining a motor to
to improper belt tension or drive shaft misalignment an open-drive compressor: direct-drive and belt-driven.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 18 Compressors 425

A direct-drive compressor is driven by a coupling con- may be used to drive refrigeration compressors. Such
necting the shaft of an electric motor or an engine directly units are available in 4-ton to 75-ton capacities. Engine-
to the compressor shaft. Since the coupling attaches com- driven compressors of 1-ton to 5-ton capacity are avail-
pressor shaft directly to motor shaft, the compressor turns able for use on truck units and air conditioning.
at the same speed as the motor, Figure 18-3. A pressure control is usually connected to the
engine's throttle. The sensing device is placed in the low-
Belt-Driven Compressors side suction line. The pressure control's linkage opens
On a belt-driven compressor, a belt connects the engine's throttle as the suction pressure increases,
a pulley on the drive motor to a pulley on the com- which speeds up the engine. This, in tum, increases
pressor's shaft. A V-belt is generally used because the compressor speed and the rate of refrigeration. As
it provides a quiet, efficient drive. In large-capacity
installations, more than one belt may be used. This
is necessary in order to transmit the required horse- Compressor
power, Figure 18-4.
The speed of a belt-driven compressor is determined
by the size of the compressor pulley in relation to the
size of the drive motor pulley. If the compressor pul-
ley is larger than the motor pulley, the compressor
turns slower than the drive motor. If the compressor
pulley is smaller than the pulley on the drive motor,
the compressor turns faster than the motor. On most
compressors, the compressor pulley is larger than the
motor pulley, which causes the compressor to turn
more slowly than the motor, Figure 18-5.

[ti Determining Compressor Speed

II The following steps can be used to
determine a compressor's revolutions per minute
(RPM) based on the RPM of the drive motor and
sizes of the motor and compressor pulleys. Coupling beneath guard Motor
1. Determine the RPM of the drive motor: Bitzer

2. Determine the diameter of the motor pulley: Figure 18-3. A motor and direct-drive compressor installation.

3. Determine the diameter of the compressor Compressor

pulley: _ _. head
4. Divide the diameter of the compressor pulley
by the diameter of the motor pulley: _ _ +

5. Divide the RPM of the motor by the value

determined in Step 4: _ _ + _ _ = __
RPM. This is the compressor speed in RPM.

Most V-belt pulleys are made of cast iron, though

some are built up from stamped steel parts. The pul-
leys must be in perfect alignment, and proper tension
must be provided on the belt. Also, the motor and com-
pressor shafts must be exactly parallel to each other.

Engine-Driven Compressors
Lubricant
Although electric motors are most commonly sight glass
used to drive refrigeration compressors, compressors
can also be driven by internal combustion engines. Bitzer
Natural gas, gasoline, propane, and other engines Figure 18-4. An open-drive compressor and its drive motor.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

426 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Construction
In a fully hermetic compressor, the motor and
compressor shaft are in a vertical position. Some her-
metic units are made with the motor at the top. Others
have the motor at the bottom and the compressor at the
top, Figure 18-6.
Smaller units usually have one cylinder. Larger
units (1/2 hp and up) have two or more cylinders. The
motors used in small units are typically single-phase.
Three-phase motors are generally used in larger units.
The compressor and motor of a hermetic unit are
usually spring-mounted inside the hermetic dome,
although some units use external mounting springs.
The spring mounting prevents most of the compressor
vibration from being felt outside of the dome.
In hermetic compressors, the motor's rotor is
mounted directly on the compressor shaft. In hermetic
reciprocating compressors, the rotor often has a built-in
counterweight, which balances the weight of the crank,
Motor pulley Compressor pulley
connecting rod, and piston. Hermetic motors are lubri-
Emerson Climate Technologies
cated by the oil carried in the refrigerant. They do not
Figure 18-5. Multiple belt drive arrangement that might be use brushes or open points inside the dome. Arcing
used to drive a high-capacity compressor.
would cause pollution in both the oil and the refrig-
erant, which would lead to an electrical burnout. The
the temperature in the evaporator (and pressure in the electrical connections and starting relay are located
suction line) drops, the engine slows. Equilibrium is outside the dome.
established between the engine's speed and low-side The discharge (exhaust) and suction lines inside
pressure, which maintains the desired temperature in the dome are flexible. Service connectors are provided
the refrigerated space.

18.1.2 Hermetic Compressors

In a hermetic compressor, the motor is sealed
inside the same dome or housing as the compressor,
so a shaft seal is not needed. The motor is directly con-
nected to the compressor, often through a shared shaft.
Several companies now produce hermetic compressors
of over 20 horsepower. Some are enclosed in a bolted
assembly. These types of compressors are often called
semi-hermetic, field-serviceable, or accessible. Fully
hermetic compressors are sealed in a welded casing.
Both semi-hermetic and fully hermetic compressors
may be equipped with service valves. These types of
compressors may be connected to different types of
evaporator and used for many different applications.

Fully Hermetic Compressors

Fully welded hermetic compressors cannot be
serviced without cutting open the shell. This is a spe-
Danfoss-Maneurop Ltd.
cialized skill, so these compressors cannot be serviced
in the field and are considered "throw-away" com- Figure 18-6. This hermetic reciprocating compressor is a
universal compressor for both commercial refrigeration and
pressors. These units are built in sizes from 1/6 hp air conditioning applications. Note the vertical arrangement of
up to 20 hp. Internal design varies with size and the motor and compressor, which are connected by a shared
manufacturer. shaft.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 18 Compressors 427

on the dome for connecting the exterior lines to the Valve plate Cylinder head
lines inside the dome. Electrical connections to the
motor pass through the dome by means of an insulated
leakproof seal.
A hermetic compressor is lubricated by oil in the
refrigerant that flows through the unit. The refriger-
ant vapor enters the dome through a suction connec-
tor, cooling the motor and picking up some oil (less
than 1%) before it is pulled into the suction chamber
for compression. The oil that is carried by the refrig-
erant helps to lubricate and seal the valves and other
elements in the vapor's path.

Semi-Hermetic Compressors
A semi-hermetic compressor combines a motor
and a compressor inside a multipart shell that is bolted A
together. The shell can be unbolted to open the unit for
repair. For this reason, they are sometimes called ser- Valve plate Cylinder head
viceable hermetic compressors. Gaskets are used between
the bolted sections to seal the unit and prevent leaks.
Semi-hermetic compressors are often air-cooled and
have cooling fins on the exterior housing to increase
surface area and improve heat dissipation. The motor
and compressor are usually arranged horizontally. See
Figure 18-7.

Safety Note
Avoiding Burns
Avoid touching the compressor discharge line.
During and after operation, it is very hot and may cause
burns.

Compressor cover Shared shaft

B
18.2 Types of Compressors Bitzer
In addition to the open-drive and hermetic clas- Figure 18-7. Semi-hermetic reciprocating compressors. A-
sifications already presented, compressors can be fur- The cylinder head, compressor cover, and motor cover can be
ther classified based on their method of compression. unbolted to service the compressor. B-This cutaway shows
the arrangement of parts inside a semi-hermetic reciprocating
There are five basic types of compressors in use in the
compressor.
refrigeration and air conditioning industry:
• Reciprocating (piston-cylinder).
• Rotary. The type of compressor used for a given appli-
cation depends on the physical size of the unit, cool-
• Scroll.
ing capacity required, cost, serviceability, and noise
• Screw. requirements. Figure 18-8 compares the wide range of
• Centrifugal. compressors available for many different refrigeration
Reciprocating compressors are most often used applications.
in small- and medium-sized commercial refrigeration The size of a compressor intended for residential
systems. They are also popular in residential and light or domestic use must be small because of the limited
commercial air conditioning applications, as are scroll space available for most applications. It must be quiet
and rotary compressors. Screw compressors are used and not require servicing for many years. Small her-
primarily in large commercial and industrial systems. metic reciprocating or scroll compressors best meet
Centrifugal compressor use is frequently for the cool- these requirements and are typically preferred for resi-
ing of large buildings. dential or domestic applications.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

428 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Compressor Applications

Capacity Range Capacity Range
Compressor Type Application
HP(W) Tons (W)

Centrifugal 33-12,000 hp 6.96-2,544 Ton Commercial air conditioning

(24.6 kW-8,942 kW) (24.6 kW-8,942 kW)
Reciprocating 0.17-200 hp 0.03-42 Ton Commercial air conditioning
(open-drive) (126 W-149 kW) (126 W-149 kW) Commercial refrigeration
Industrial refrigeration
Reciprocating 0.5-150 hp 0.10-31.8 Ton Commercial air conditioning
(semi-hermetic) (373 W-111 .9 kW) (373 W-111 .9 kW) Commercial refrigeration

Reciprocating 0.17-25 hp 0.04-5.3 Ton Domestic refrigeration

(fully hermetic) (126 W-18.6 kW) (126 W-18.6 kW) Residential air conditioning
Commercial air conditioning
Commercial refrigeration
Rotary 3-50 hp 0.64-10.6 Ton Domestic refrigeration
(2.2 kW-37.3 kW) (2.2 kW-37.3 kW)
Screw 3-5,000 hp 0.64-1 ,000 Ton Commercial air conditioning
(2.2 kW-3,730 kW) (2.2 kW-3,730 kW) Commercial refrigeration
Industrial refrigeration
Scroll 3-2 ,000 hp 0.64-424 Ton Residential air conditioning
(2.2 kW-1,492 kW) (2.2 kW-1,492 kW) Commercial air conditioning
Commercial refrigeration

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-8. Table showing typical compressor applications and capacities. Be aware that the capacities and applications will
vary somewhat, depending on the manufacturer's design.

Large building air conditioning has very different The construction of a reciprocating piston com-
requirements for a compressor. Serviceability is a primary pressor resembles that of the automobile engine. Like
concern, so easy access to the compressor must be pro- an automobile engine, a reciprocating compressor has
vided. Such systems often have a designated mechanical a crankshaft, connecting rods, pistons, cylinders, and
room, so limited space is seldom a concern. In large build- intake and exhaust valves. Reciprocating compressors
ing air-conditioning systems, compressor size is primarily are usually driven by an electric motor. The motor's
determined by the amount of cooling capacity required. rotary motion is changed to reciprocating motion (back-
and-forth action in a straight line) through the action
of a crankshaft and connecting rods. The reciprocat-
18.2.1 Reciprocating Compressors ing motion moves pistons up and down in cylinders
The majority of residential, commercial, and to draw in and compress the refrigerant, Figure 18-9.
industrial HVACR systems use reciprocating compres- Figure 18-10 shows the basic operation of a recip-
sors. A reciprocating compressor is a compressor that rocating compressor. During the intake stroke, the
functions by changing the rotational movement of a piston moves downward in the cylinder. The vacuum
crankshaft into the reciprocating motion of the pistons created as the piston moves downward draws refrig-
within cylinders. These compressors are classified in a erant vapor from the suction line through the intake
number of ways: valve and into the cylinder. During the exhaust stroke,
• By cylinder arrangement. the piston moves upward. As it moves up, it com-
presses the vaporized refrigerant into a much smaller
• By number of cylinders.
space. When a sufficient pressure is reached, the com-
• By type of crankshaft. pressed vapor is pushed through the exhaust valve
• By construction (open-drive, semi-hermetic, or into the condenser.
hermetic).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 18 Compressors 429

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-9. The two types of crankshafts and connecting rods are shown completing one complete revolution. A-Eccentric-
type crankshaft and connecting rod. B-Crank throw-type crankshaft and connecting rod.
I
Intake port from Exhaust port
to condenser Exhaust valve (open)
suction line
Exhaust valve Clearance space
,......._...,...._"'r"---, (closed)
Top dead center

Intake valve
Cylinder (open)
Bottom
dead
center

Connecting rod D Low-pressure vapor

Intake Stroke Exhaust Stroke D High-pressure vapor
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-10. Basic operation of a reciprocating compressor. During the intake stroke, the piston moves down in the cylinder,
creating suction and drawing refrigerant through the intake valve. During the exhaust stroke, the piston moves up in the cylinder,
sealing the intake valve and compressing the refrigerant. When the refrigerant reaches a sufficient pressure, it forces open the
exhaust valve and exits into the discharge line.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

430 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Crankshaft Connecting Rods

A crankshaft is a device used to change rotary A connecting rod connects a piston to a crank-
(circular) motion into reciprocating (back and forth) shaft. A conventional connecting rod used with a
motion. As the compressor's drive motor turns crank throw-type crankshaft often has a split lower
the crankshaft, the connecting rods rise and drop, end. This end clamps around the crankshaft journal or
Figure 18-11. crank throw, Figure 18-14.
To accomplish a reciprocating motion, a crank- Connecting rod bearings installed between the
shaft uses offset journals (crank throws) or eccentrics connecting rod and the crankshaft journal provide
attached to the connecting rods. An eccentric is a shaft a low-friction surface that allows the connecting rod
section that is larger and has a different center than the to slide on the crankshaft journal as the crankshaft
rest of the shaft. The crank throw-type of crankshaft is rotates. This sliding action allows the connecting rod
most common. Refer to Figure 18-12. to maintain its vertical orientation as the crankshaft
The crankshaft is usually made of forged or cast rotates through 360°.
steel. It must be carefully machined to the specific The connecting rods used with eccentric-type
size and shape to ensure correct movement. Some crankshafts usually have cast-iron bearing surfaces.
compressors use an eccentric that is part of the crank- The end of the connecting rod that connects to the
shaft or is fastened to a straight shaft. The eccentric is eccentric is a solid ring. It must be mounted on the
counterweighted to reduce vibration. An eccentric also
eliminates the need for connecting rod caps and bolts,
Figure 18-13. Cylinder head
The crankshaft main bearings support the crank-
shaft and provide a low-friction surface for it to rest
on as it rotates. The bearings must also carry any load
applied to the crankshaft. The bearings are fitted with
great accuracy. Clearance for lubrication is usually Valve plate
.001' (.0254 mm).
In open-drive compressors, various methods are i---.
used to attach the drive pulley to the crankshaft. These ----r---1 - - -
1 I
include a standard taper, a key, and a nut and lock _ _ _ _l _ _ _ l - - - -
1 I
washer combination. I
I
I
I

of----+--+- Connecting rod

+--+---+-- Crank throw

Crankshaft

D Low-pressure vapor
D High-pressure vapor
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-12. Crank throw-type crankshaft. As the crankshaft
turns, the piston reciprocates (moves up and down). The
connecting rod oscillates (swings back and forth) as it
CMP Corporation reciprocates with the piston. The crankshaft journal rotates
Figure 18-11. A crankshaft used in a reciprocating inside the lower end of the connecting rod, which allows the
compressor. connecting rod to maintain its vertical orientation.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 18 Compressors 431

eccentric before the crankshaft and eccentric are When a piston is at the top of the cylinder, the
assembled. See Figure 18-15. volume of the cylinder is low and the pressure inside
the cylinder is high. As a piston moves down in the
Pistons, Piston Rings, and Piston Pins cylinder, the volume increases. The increase in volume
A piston is the part of the compressor that actu- creates a vacuum that draws refrigerant in through the
ally compresses the gas. They are driven up and down intake valve. As a piston returns to the top of the cyl-
in the cylinders by the connecting rods. As pistons inder, the volume of the cylinder decreases, increasing
operate, they draw in and compress the refrigerant. the pressure inside the cylinder and compressing the
refrigerant.

Eccentric
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I 1--.
I I I I I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,.... ___ , :
I I I

I ______ J
~' I
I '- J I

I
1_
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,.--

r-------
'------,
,---,
I

·-·
I
:
I
I
I
Main bearing journals Piston stroke = A
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-13. Eccentric-type crankshaft. Note that the eccentric is attached to the crankshaft with keys and a setscrew. The
eccentric is free to rotate inside the lower end of the connecting rod.

Connecting rod bearings

Piston

Piston pin

Oil ring
Compression
Note: Piston, rod, and pin are a matched set. rings
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-14. Compressor piston and connecting rod assembly. Note how the connecting rod's lower (left) end is split and bolted
together. This makes it possible to install the bearing inserts that will ride on the crankshaft journal.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

432 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

screws

Opening for
crankshaft Counterweights
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-15. An eccentric, connecting rod, and piston
assembly. The entire assembly is attached to a straight shaft.
Note the clamping cap screws and balance weights.

Pistons used in open-drive compressors are usu-

ally made of cast iron. In small, high-speed hermetic
compressors, they are made of die-cast aluminum.
A piston ring is a split metal ring that is installed
in a groove that encircles the piston. The piston ring
has an outside diameter slightly larger than the cyl-
inder. It has an inside diameter slightly smaller than
the piston diameter, which keeps the ring seated in
the groove. The ring also has a small gap between the
ends. The ends of the ring are beveled so they can over-
lap slightly when the ring is compressed. Piston rings
are usually made of cast iron or bronze, Figure 18-16. CMP Corporation
Each piston is equipped with multiple rings. When Figure 18-16. A new piston shown top and bottom.
the piston is installed in the cylinder, the rings are
compressed so they will fit into the cylinder. However,
because the rings have natural diameters larger than ring is called the oil ring. The oil ring may be composed
the cylinder's, they constantly push outward against of multiple parts. It is designed to help lubricate the
the cylinder walls, forming a very tight seal. cylinder wall while simultaneously preventing excess
There are two types of piston rings. The upper lubricant from entering the cylinder. Rings should be
rings are known as compression rings. Their primary fitted to the groove as closely as possible and still allow
purpose is to prevent pressurized refrigerant from movement. The gap should be about .001" (.0254 mm)
blowing past the piston, into the crankcase. The lower for each inch of piston diameter.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 18 Compressors 433

The pistons in some small compressors do not cylinder wall. Some nickel is usually added to give the
have piston rings. Instead, the pistons have oil grooves casting the desired density. The cylinders in some her-
cut in them. Oil fills the grooves and creates a seal metic compressors may be made of aluminum or other
between the piston skirt and the cylinder wall. materials.
The temperature of compressor pistons seldom On small compressors, the exterior surfaces of the
gets above 250°F (121 °C). Thus, there is not much cylinder block have cooling fins to provide better air
expansion of either the piston or the cylinder. Since the cooling. Larger compressors may have water jackets
compressor design does not need to allow for much surrounding the cylinders for cooling. Usually, the cylinder
expansion, the pistons can be fitted with as little as block is part of the same casting as the crankcase. This
.0002" (.0051 mm) clearance for each inch of piston design cuts down the number of joints that might leak.
diameter. Other compressors have removable cylinder blocks
Piston pins are metal cylinders that connect the that bolt to the crankcase.
pistons to the connecting rods. They are made of case-
hardened, high-carbon steel and are accurately ground Valves and Valve Plates
to size. They are usually hollow to reduce weight. Most A compressor's valves regulate the flow of refrig-
piston pins are the full-floating type. This means the erant into and out of the cylinder. There are a number
pin is free to turn in both the connecting rod bushing of different types of valves used in refrigeration com-
and the piston bushings. pressors. Two of the most common are reed valves and
In hermetic systems, the pistons and rings (if poppet valves. See Figure 18-18.
used) are constructed much the same as those used Reed Valves
in open-drive compressors. However, the hermetic Reed valves are the simplest of the valve designs . •
compressors usually run at a higher speed than open- They are strips of spring steel that bend to open the
drive compressors. Therefore, the pistons are smaller valve passage, and spring back to their flat shape to
in diameter and are made as light as possible. close the valve passage. Valve stops are stiff metal
backers that are installed over the reed valves to pre-
Cylinders vent them from opening too far and becoming perma-
Cylinders are the bores in the cylinder block, nently bent. Compressor reed valves are similar to the
within which the pistons move up and down. In some type of valves found in most two-stroke engines.
compressors, the cylinder walls are an integral part Reed valves are usually made of high-carbon alloy
of the cylinder block. Other compressors are built steel. They are heat treated to give them the properties
with removable cylinder liners, or sleeves, that can be of spring steel and are ground to a perfectly flat sur-
replaced when worn, Figure 18-17. face. The entire reed valve assembly usually consists of
Compressor cylinders are usually made of cast a valve plate, an intake valve, an exhaust valve, valve
iron. The cast iron must be dense enough to pre- stops, and valve retainers, Figure 18-19.
vent seepage of pressurized refrigerant through the Valve plates are sometimes made of cast iron.
Hardened steel is also used, because it allows the plate
to be thinner with longer wearing valve seats. Reed
valves are mounted in a valve plate under the cylinder
head. The valve plate has both the intake and exhaust
valve located in it, Figure 18-20.
A compressor's intake valve is mounted on the
cylinder side of the valve plate. It may be held in place
by small pins or by the clamping action between the
cylinder block, valve plate, and cylinder head. The
compressor's exhaust valve is mounted on the cylinder-
head side of the valve plate and may also be pinned or
clamped in place.
As the piston moves down in the cylinder, it cre-
ates a vacuum. Although the refrigerant in the intake
manifold is at a low pressure, it is still a greater pres-
sure than the vacuum in the cylinder. Refrigerant
pushes the intake valve open and rushes into the cyl-
CMP Corporation inder. When the pressure between the intake and cyl-
Figure 18-17. Two different styles of cylinder liners. inder equalizes, spring pressure closes the valve.

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434 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

A B C

D E F
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-18. Typical compressor valve designs. In each case, pressure differences open and close the valves. A-Reed valve,
spring-assisted. B-Poppet valve, spring-assisted. This type of valve is used on some large compressors. C-Reed valve.
D-An open spring-assisted reed valve. E-An open spring-assisted poppet valve. F-An open reed valve.

Cylinder Valve
head cage

Valve
plate

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-20. Cross-section of a typical compressor valve
plate. Heavy springs on the exhaust valve cage permit a
greater valve lift to protect the compressor in case of severe
liquid refrigerant or oil pumping.
CMP Corporation
Figure 18-19. A valve plate assembly with reed valves and
gaskets.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 18 Compressors 435

As the piston moves upward in the cylinder, the Exhaust Valve

increased pressure seals the intake valve. It also starts valve plate
to apply pressure to the exhaust valve. However, the Cylinder
exhaust valve has high-pressure refrigerant on the head
opposite side of it, pushing the valve closed. When
the pressure in the cylinder exceeds the pressure on
the high-side of the system and the spring pressure of Valve plate
the valve, the exhaust valve is forced open and refrig-
erant from the cylinder flows through the valve and
into the discharge line. Gaskets

Poppet Valves
Poppet valves are used in some larger com- Intake valve
pressors. They are very sturdy, but operate slowly. Clearance
Therefore, they are only suitable for low-speed com- space
pressors. Poppet valves have a large valve head that

(Q)
seals against a matching seat in the valve plate and
a long stem that extends through a valve guide in
the valve plate. The guide ensures that the valve can
move only parallel to piston travel. When the valve is
pushed open, a spring on the stem part of the valve
is compressed. When the pressure that opened the
valve drops below the pressure applied by the spring,
the valve snaps shut. Compressor poppet valves are
very similar to the type of valves found in four-stroke Cylinder
engines.
Of the two compressor valves (the intake and the
exhaust), the intake valve presents fewer problems. D Low-pressure vapor
This is because it is constantly lubricated by oil circu- D High-pressure vapor
lating with the cool refrigerant vapors. Also, it operates
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
at a relatively cool temperature.
Figure 18-21. This piston is at the top of its stroke. Note the
The exhaust valve must be fitted with special care.
small clearance space.
It operates at higher temperatures and must be leak-
proof against a relatively high pressure difference. Due
to the high vapor pressures and the high temperatures,
there is a tendency for heavy molecules of hydrocar- Cylinder Head
bon oil to collect as carbon on the valve and valve seat. The cylinder head serves as a pressure plate,
If the valves open further than they are supposed sealing the top of the cylinder so the refrigerant can
to, a valve noise develops. If the valves do not open be compressed. It also supports and holds the valves
far enough, not enough vapor can move past the valve. and valve plate in position. The pressures of compres-
In small high-speed compressors, the intake valves are sion may exceed 400 psi (2760 kPa), depending on the
made very light. They are also made as large as pos- kind of refrigerant used. The valve plate must, there-
sible. The cylinder intake valve is only open a fraction fore, have good support. There must be no leakage at
of a second. The valve design allows a greater amount the gaskets on either side of the valve plate. Cylinder
of refrigerant vapor to enter during that time. heads for both open-drive and hermetic compressors
The piston is designed to come as close as pos- are usually made of cast iron.
sible to the valve plate without touching it. This design A cylinder head also provides the vapor passages
forces as much of the vapor through the exhaust valve into and out of the compressor. In some hermetic sys-
and into the high-pressure side as possible. When the tems, the entire compressor housing is inside a dome.
piston is at top dead center (TDC) of its stroke, there The entire space within the dome is open to the suc-
is a very small clearance. The clearance between the tion line. Consequently, the whole dome is under low-
piston and valve plate is approximately .010" to .020" side pressure. In such systems, no intake manifold is
(.254 mm to .508 mm). The volume of space created is required. Only an opening to the intake valve or valves
called clearance space, Figure 18-21. is required.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

436 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Compressor Housing and Crankcase In small hermetic compressors, the inlet and exhaust
In both open-drive and hermetic compressors, lines go directly from the compressor inlet and exhaust
the compressor housing provides support to the cyl- port through the compressor dome. They are not gen-
inders, crankshaft, valves, oil pump, lubrication lines, erally supplied with service valves. See the line con-
refrigerant inlet, and exhaust openings. In hermetic nections in Figure 18-22.
systems, the housing also supports and aligns the
driving motor. The portion of the compressor housing Reciprocating Compressor Designs
that supports the crankshaft is called the crankcase. There are many design variations for reciprocat-
The portion of the housing that contains the cylinders ing compressors. Some compressors have multiple cyl-
is generally referred to as the cylinder block. In some inders to increase capacity, and some have mechanisms
compressor designs, the crankcase and cylinder block for changing their pumping capacity. Other compres-
are separate units that are bolted together. In other sor designs use alternative methods of converting the
designs, the crankcase and cylinder block are cast rotation of the crankshaft to reciprocal motion.
together as a single unit. Multi-Cylinder Designs
To increase the capacity of a reciprocating com-
Intake and Exhaust Ports pressor, designers could increase the size of the cyl-
In conventional open-drive compressors, the inlet inder. However, having a single, large cylinder and
and exhaust ports are part of the cylinder head. These piston could cause unacceptable vibration and pressure
ports are usually fitted with service valves. Some surges. As an alternative to increasing cylinder size,
larger hermetic compressors also have service valves. additional cylinders can be added to the compressor's

Combined motor Crankshaft

shaft and crankshaft thrust bearing

Suction Exhaust
line

Welded
joint
l

Internal
::::-...._I-- mounting
spring

Hollow piston Cylinder D Low-pressure vapor

D High-pressure vapor
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 18-22. In this hermetic compressor, the suction line is open to the entire dome. The intake valve allows the refrigerant
inside the dome to pass into the cylinder during the intake stroke and closes during the compression stroke. The discharge line
runs from the compressor cylinder head through the side of the housing.

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 Chapter 18 Compressors 437

design. Adding cylinders increases the pumping capac- cylinders at a 90° V. With this cylinder arrangement, a
ity for each revolution of the crankshaft. single-throw crank is used.
Compressors can have from one to twelve cylin- Some compressor designs place the cylinders
ders. In multi-cylinder compressors, the crankshaft directly across from each other. The pistons are posi-
and cylinders are arranged to make the compressor tioned 90° apart, all the way around the crankshaft,
as compact as possible while reducing surging and and operate on a single horizontal plane. This arrange-
vibration. There are many different cylinder arrange- ment is referred to as an X configuration. When cylin-
ments: vertical, V, W, Y, X, or radial. Figure 18-23 ders are arranged in direct opposition, vibration and
illustrates some common cylinder and crankshaft the need for counterweights are diminished.
arrangements.
Most two-cylinder compressors use an inline Dual-Capacity Reciprocating Compressors
arrangement of the cylinders and a 180° crankshaft Dual-capacity reciprocating compressors use
(crankshaft with eccentric centers or crank throws on a special crankshaft design. One connecting rod is
opposite sides of the crankshaft centerline). While one attached to a fixed eccentric on the crankshaft. The
piston is at the top of the stroke, the other piston is at other connecting rod is attached to a movable eccentric
the bottom. Other two-cylinder compressors have two that automatically positions itself off center from the

Vertical lnline V
I
---w- ~
1 Cylinder (1 x L) 2 Cylinder (2 x L)
4 Cylinder (4 x L)
4tJ
2 Cylinder (1 x V)
~
4 Cylinder (2 x V)

w w X Radial

_J"L__
3 Cylinder (1 x W) 4 Cylinder (1 x W) 4 Cylinder 5 Cylinder
6 Cylinder (2 x W) 8 Cylinder (2 x W)
9 Cylinder (3 x W) 12 Cylinder (3 x W)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-23. Some common piston, cylinder, and crankshaft arrangements for single cylinder through twelve-cylinder compressors.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

438 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

crankshaft when the shaft is turning in the forward

direction of rotation. This causes the piston to move up
and down as the crankshaft rotates. When crankshaft
rotation is reversed, the eccentric repositions itself at
the center axis of the shaft, causing its piston to sit idle,
Figure 18-24.
This configuration allows the compressor to run at
maximum capacity when needed and switch to lower
capacity when high capacity is not needed. When oper-
ating in the lower capacity mode, the compressor cycles
less frequently and runs for longer periods. Longer
cycle times decrease start/stop cycles, resulting in less
voltage sag and wear on the compressor. The longer
cycles also allow the evaporator to extract more mois-
ture from conditioned air, resulting in lower humidity
and increased comfort.

Scotch Yoke
In a Scotch yoke design, there is no connecting
rod. The cylinder and piston are longer than those used
in a traditional reciprocating compressor design. Even
at the lower end of the stroke, the piston is guided by
Floating
the cylinder wall. The crankshaft pin, also called the bearing
crank throw, connects to the lower end of the piston,
Figure 18-25. A floating bearing in the end of the piston A B
distributes the load and reduces friction. The Scotch Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

yoke is popular in small high-speed compressors. Figure 18-25. In a Scotch yoke design, the piston is connected
directly to the crankshaft. No connecting rod is used. Instead, the
bottom of the long piston has a yoke that connects to the crank
18.2.2 Rotary Compressors throw. The compressor cylinder serves as a guide. A-The piston
is at the bottom of the stroke (end of the intake stroke). B-The
A rotary compressor is a compressor in which piston is at the top of the stroke (end of the exhaust stroke).
vapor compression takes place in spaces between the
cylinder wall and sides of an off-center rotor that spins
inside the cylinder. A check valve is usually placed in Rotary compressors are commonly used to power
the discharge. It prevents backflow of refrigerant dur- small refrigerated appliances such as window air con-
ing the Off cycle. A check valve should be placed in the ditioners, packaged terminal air conditioners, and heat
oil lines for the same reason. pumps up to five tons. Rotary compressors have high

Fixed eccentric

Eccentric centered
Eccentric off on crank shaft
center
Forward Rotation Reverse Rotation
Bristol Compressors, Inc.
Figure 18-24. A dual-capacity compressor crankshaft. When the compressor runs forward, the eccentric is positioned off center
from the crankshaft, and both pistons move up and down. When the compressor runs in reverse, the movable eccentric centers
on the crankshaft, so that only one piston moves up and down.

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 Chapter 18 Compressors 439

volumetric efficiency. There are two basic types of rotary

compressors: stationary-blade and rotating-vane.
From To
evaporator condenser
Rotating-Vane Rotary Compressors
A rotating-vane rotary compressor uses an off-
center rotor to turn vanes (blades) that create pock-
ets between the rotor and cylinder wall. The vanes in
some compressors are spring-loaded so they can adjust Exhaust
position and continually push out against the cylinder port
walls as the shaft rotates. In other designs, the vanes
are pulled outward from their grooves solely by the Note: At the bottom of the rotor,
centrifugal force of the spinning shaft. Figure 18-26 from the inlet port to the exhaust
port, minimum clearance is
shows the operating principles of a typical two-blade
provided. This forms a tight seal
D Low-pressure vapor
rotating-vane compressor. and prevents leakage. D High-pressure vapor
The low-pressure vapor from the suction line
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
is drawn into the opening between the vanes as the
Figure 18-27. An eight-blade rotary compressor. In this image,
vanes revolve. The trapped vapor in the space ahead of
the rotor is rotating clockwise. Red arrows show the direction of
the lead vane is compressed until it can be pushed into vapor flow. The inlet port is much larger than the exhaust port.
the exhaust line to the condenser. The basic operation

I
A large inlet port is needed to collect enough refrigerant vapor
of a multiple-vane rotary compressor is the same as from the sparse low-pressure side {light blue).
that of the two-vane compressor previously described,
Figure 18-27.
Rotating-vane compressors have three advantages: Rotating-vane compressors are frequently used as
the booster compressor in cascade systems. Booster
• They provide a large size opening into the suction
compressor is the name commonly given to the first
line.
compressor in a cascade system.
• They provide large inlet port openings.
• They have a very small clearance space. Stationary-Blade (Divider-Block) Rotary
The low-side pressure may be quite low, but the Compressors
low-side vapor will be drawn into the compressor The blade on a stationary-blade rotary compressor
under a very small pressure difference. Rotating-vane is mounted in the housing assembly rather than on the
compressors provide a large opening into the compres- shaft. The blade in this type of compressor is spring-
sor from the low side. Thus, more vapor is drawn in on loaded and presses against the rotor as it rotates. In both
the intake stroke. The clearance space provided in these rotary compressor types, the blades provide a continu-
compressors is small. Therefore, all of the vapor drawn ous seal for the refrigerant vapor. In a rotating vane
in on the intake stroke is pushed out on the exhaust compressor, the rotor stays in a stationary position as it
stroke. This increases the compressor efficiency. spins the vanes. In a stationary blade compressor, the

D Low-pressure vapor
D High-pressure vapor
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 18-26. Basic operation of a rotating-vane rotary compressor. Black arrows indicate the direction of rotation of the rotor.
Red arrows indicate the flow of refrigerant vapor.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

440 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

blade stays stationary, while the rotor moves in an orbit quantities of vapor between the cylinder and rotor. The
around the inside of the cylinder. Figure 18-28 shows vapor is compressed into a smaller and smaller space
a stationary-blade (often called a divider-block) rotary as the rotor revolves. As the volume decreases, both
compressor. the pressure and temperature increase. Finally the
An eccentric shaft rotates a rotor in a cylinder. This pressure opens the exhaust valve, and vapor is forced
rotor constantly rolls against the outer wall of the cyl- through the exhaust port. It enters the high-pressure
inder. As the rotor (or roller) revolves, the blade traps side of the system (condenser).

Housing

Blade

Roller
(impeller)

~
~o<::-/
~CJ
Rotor shaft

0
Identification of Parts

Completion of intake Compression stroke

stroke; beginning of 2 continued; new intake
compression stroke started

~~
~o<::-/
0~c,
~0/
0~c,
~

Compression continued; Compressed vapor discharged

3 new intake stroke 4 to the condenser; new intake
continued stroke continued

D High-pressure vapor
Operation D Low-pressure vapor
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-28. In a stationary-blade (or divider-block) rotary compressor, a single stationary spring-loaded blade remains in
constant contact with a rotating impeller.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 18 Compressors 441

The compression action on one quantity of vapor cylinder to the main part of the compressor. One or
takes place at the same time another quantity of vapor is more steel dowel pins help align the cylinder on the
filling the cylinder on the intake stroke. All of the parts back plate. Another accurately finished plate seals the
are fitted to extremely close tolerances and clearances other end of the cylinder.
and the surfaces are extremely smooth. Therefore, no
gaskets are needed in the compressor assembly.
18.2.3 Scroll Compressors
Rotor Construction A scroll compressor produces vapor compres-
In a rotating-vane compressor, the rotor is a fixed sion between the walls of a fixed scroll and an orbit-
part of the shaft. The rotor length must be accurate to ing scroll. Its main compression parts consist of these
.0005" (.0127 mm). Usually the slots for the blades are two intertwined scrolls. One scroll is fixed to the hous-
on a radius to the center of the shaft. To lower the start- ing and remains stationary, while the orbiting scroll
ing load, one design puts the slots at an angle. This pre- revolves in an eccentric path around the center of the
vents the blades from touching the cylinder until the stationary scroll, Figure 18-29.
compressor nears its operating speed. In the stationary The space between the scrolls form a series of
blade compressor, the rotor is attached to the eccentric. pockets. As the orbiting scroll moves, the sizes of
The eccentric is a fixed part of the shaft. the existing pockets are reduced as they are pushed
toward the center of the two scrolls. This reduces the
Blade (Vane) Construction volume of the vapor in the pockets, Figure 18-30.
Rotating-vane compressors use two or more
blades. These blades may be made of cast iron, steel,
aluminum, or carbon. The blades are pushed outward Fixed scroll
(green) Discharge port
from the bottom of their grooves by springs or by cen-
trifugal force. This keeps the blades in contact with the I
cylinder walls, where they form a seal.
The compressor's efficiency depends greatly on
the condition of the blade edge where it rubs on the
cylinder. Each blade must be very accurately ground. It
must be ground to fit the slots, the ends of the cylinder,
and other surfaces in contact with the cylinder.
The single blades used in stationary-blade com-
pressors are very similar in construction to the mul-
tiple blades in rotary-vane compressors. However, they
fit in a slot in the compressor housing rather than slots
in the rotor. Also, since they remain stationary, they
are always spring-loaded.

Cylinder Construction
The cylinders in rotary compressors are usu-
ally made of cast iron. Each cylinder is accurately
machined, honed, and lapped (finished) on the inner
surface and on the ends. All cylinders have intake and
exhaust ports. The intake ports are generally much
larger than the exhaust ports. Some models have
oil passages for lubrication. Cylinders are usually
mounted on an end plate, which is part of the main
compressor crankcase. Refrigerant passages continue
into the end plate.
The exhaust reed valve is mounted on the exhaust
port outlet of the compressor. It is mounted as close D Low-pressure vapor
to the compression chamber as possible. Check valves D High-pressure vapor
are usually used in the suction line. They prevent the Bitzer
high-pressure vapor and compressor oil from flowing Figure 18-29. Cutaway of a scroll compressor showing its
back into the evaporator. Four or more bolts hold the main parts.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

442 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

vapor pockets at various stages of compression at any

given time. This continuous process gives the com-
pressor very smooth action.
Some scroll compressors have the ability to mod-
ulate their capacity during operation. Depending on
the compressor model, this can be done by opening
a bypass port partway between the outer edge and
A E the center of the fixed scroll. This bypass port redi-
rects some of the partially compressed vapor back to
the compressor inlet, reducing the overall capacity of
the compressor. Other models are equipped with a
variable speed motor that can be operated at differ-
ent speeds to modulate capacity. Another method of
modulating capacity is to briefly move the fixed scroll
and the orbiting scroll apart, creating gaps between
the vapor pockets that briefly allow the pressure dif-
B F ferences between the pockets to equalize.
Scroll compressors are commonly used in resi-
dential air conditioning and heat pump applications.
Benefits of scroll compressors include fewer moving
parts, less internal friction, a smooth compression cycle
resulting in less torque variation, low noise levels, and
low vibration levels.

C G
18.2.4 Screw Compressors
Screw compressors use a pair of special helical
rotors to compress refrigerant vapor. The rotors trap
and compress the refrigerant vapor as they revolve
in an accurately machined compressor cylinder,
Figure 18-32.
Figure 18-33 shows a cross section of a screw
compressor. The two rotors are not the same shape.
One rotor is referred to as male, the other as female.
D
The male rotor, A, has four lobes. The female rotor, B,
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
meshes with and drives the male rotor. It has six inter-
Figure 18-30. Diagram showing scroll compressor process. lobe spaces. The cylinder, C, encloses both rotors.
A-Vapor enters the outer pockets between the scrolls. B-
The full amount of vapor fills the inlet space for the first set
In operation, the intake (low-pressure vapor)
of pockets. C-As the gray scroll orbits, it seals the pockets. enters at one end of the compressor and is discharged
D, E, F-The pockets get progressively smaller and pressure (compressed vapor) at the opposite end. The refriger-
increases. G-The lead pockets are forced to the center of ant vapor is drawn in as shown in Figure 18-34.
the scrolls, where the compressed vapor escapes through the The male rotor rotates 50% faster than the female
discharge port. Note that new vapor pockets form continuously rotor because there are four lobes on the male rotor and
during the cycle. six meshing grooves on the female rotor. The grooves
and lobes on the rotors are helical, meaning that they
circle the rotor as they progress from one end of the
As two high-pressure pockets are discharging, rotor to the other. The rotors provide a continuous,
new low-pressure pockets are formed at the outer edges steady pressure rather than a pulsating, pumping pres-
of the scrolls. When a pocket reaches the center of the sure like that produced by a reciprocating compressor.
scroll, the vapor inside the pocket is at a high pressure. The continuous pumping action results in very little
It is discharged out of the center port, Figure 18-31. vibration during compressor operation.
The suction from the outer portion of the scroll The capacity of a screw compressor is adjusted
and the discharge from the inner portion are continu- with an unloader mechanism. The unloader mecha-
ous. Between the two scrolls, there are four sealed nism reduces the load on the compressor for easier

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 Chapter 18 Compressors 443

Discharge
port Discharge Fixed scroll

Suction gas
Motor shaft

Driven Vapor Orbiting scroll

scroll pockets

A B
Image courtesy of Trane, a brand of Ingersoll Rand
Figure 18-31. Scroll compressor design. A-The upper scroll is stationary and the lower scroll is driven. Vapor enters the
compressor through side gaps between the upper and lower scrolls. The discharge port is built into the upper scroll. B-Note how
the rotation of the motor shaft causes the orbiting scroll to orbit (not rotate) about the shaft center.

V
Compressor
discharge port

I
Capacity control slide
ABB Stal Refrigeration Corporation
Figure 18-33. Cross-section of a screw compressor. A-Male
Capacity rotor. B-Female rotor. C-Cylinder.
Screws control slide
(helical rotors)

rotors. As the discharge port moves closer to or farther

from the suction port, the volume trapped between the
Hartford Compressors, Inc. rotors becomes smaller or greater, Figure 18-35.
Figure 18-32. Hermetic screw compressor, which uses a Other compressors use different unloader mecha-
matched set of helical rotors to compress refrigerant vapor. nisms. Some have a slide valve that opens and closes
passages that allow some of the trapped vapor to recir-
culate back to the suction side of the compressor. Many
compressors use a combination of the two methods to
starting. It is also used to adjust the compressor capac- adjust capacity.
ity so that the compressor can run as efficiently as Unloader mechanisms provide a unique feature
possible. of screw compressors: their ability to control capacity
There are a number of different unloader sys- through infinitely variable unloading. Such a design
tems. The compressor may incorporate a slide valve allows for smooth, accurate control of temperature in
that repositions the discharge port in relation to the the conditioned space.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

444 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Suction Discharge Suction Discharge

A B

Suction Discharge Suction Discharge

C D
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-34. In a screw compressor, the revolving rotors compress the refrigerant vapor. A-lnterlobe spaces being filled.
B-Beginning of compression. C-Full compression of trapped vapor. D-Compressed vapor discharged from interlobe spaces.

Screw Compressor Design Variations operating principles of a single screw compressor are
Screw compressors are often used in large-capac- the same as those of other screw compressors.
ity systems ranging from 20 to 300 tons. Open-drive
screw compressors, like the one shown in Figure 18-36, 18.2.5 Centrifugal Compressors
are most often used with ammonia and other high-
pressure applications, such as chillers. Hermetic screw A centrifugal compressor is compressor consist-
compressors, like the one shown in Figure 18-37, are ing of a rotor-operated impeller with radial blades
used with halocarbon refrigerants. inside a volute casing. As the rotor spins, it flings refrig-
Many screw compressors operate with oil injec- erant vapor outward, where it compresses against the
tion. The oil seals the clearance between the rotors and volute casing. Centrifugal compressors are designed
the cylinder to prevent refrigerant leakage. It also helps for use with large-capacity systems ranging in size
cool the compressor. The efficiency of these compres- from 50 to 5,000 tons.
sors is quite high. In this type of compressor, the vapor is fed into a
One type of screw compressor uses one main casing (stator) near the center of the compressor. The
rotor, rather than two. This type of compressor is called impeller is a disk with radial blades that spins rap-
a single screw compressor. In a single screw com- idly in this casing. The vapor is flung outward in the
pressor, the main rotor meshes with two star-shaped casing, piling on top of the vapor ahead of it, causing
rotors, which are driven by the main rotor. The basic slight compression. See Figure 18-38.

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 Chapter 18 Compressors 445

Suction

Bitzer
Figure 18-37. A compact hermetic screw compressor.

Slide valve and

unloader piston
assembly
The force that throws the vapor outward is called
centrifugal force. Because the compressors rely on

I
centrifugal force to compress the refrigerant, their
efficiency increases with speed. Therefore, the com-
pressors are designed to operate at high speeds. The
Radial Oil strainer
discharge port
pressure gained is small, so multiple impellers may be
used in series. This creates greater pressure difference
and pumps a sufficient volume of vapor.
Discharge pressure..... •
Oil. ............................... • Construction
Suction pressure ......... • The centrifugal compressor has the advantage of
simplicity. There are no valves or pistons and cylin-
Hartford Compressors, Inc. ders. The only wearing parts are the main bearings.
Figure 18-35. In this hermetic screw compressor, the The stator of a centrifugal compressor is the casing in
unloader system repositions the discharge port to adjust which the impeller rotates. The stator may be bolted to
compressor capacity. the compressor housing, as shown in Figure 18-39, or
it may be an integral part of the housing.
The stator is a volute design, meaning that it is
spiral shaped. In Figure 18-39, it can be clearly seen
that the stator (10) is wider and taller at the top of the

Bitzer D Low-pressure vapor

Figure 18-36. An open-drive screw compressor. D High-pressure vapor
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-38. A simplified centrifugal compressor diagram.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

446 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Volute
casing
(stator)

vanes

First-stage to
second-stage
Oil tank crossover
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-39. A cross-section of a typical two-stage centrifugal compressor. Note that the discharge opening is not shown.

compressor than at the bottom. In fact, the width and spins, friction and heat are greatly reduced. As a result,
height of the casing gradually changes along the entire more of the compressor motor's power is used to per-
length of its perimeter. form useful work, resulting in improved efficiency.
The casing (stator) also holds the main bearings,
oil pressure pump, and the vapor intake and exhaust
ports. When an external motor is used, the casing also
holds the shaft seal where the shaft extends out for the
18.3 General Compressor
power drive. Both the first stage and second stage of Components and Systems
the compressor have adjustable vanes on the inlet to
In addition to motors, which have already been
regulate the amount of refrigerant vapor flowing into
explained, there are a number of other components and
the impeller. This allows the capacity of the pump to
systems commonly built in or attached to compressor
be adjusted as needed.
units. The following sections will describe those com-
The impeller in a centrifugal compressor is keyed
ponents and explain their functions.
to the compressor shaft. It is made of cast iron or steel.
It is specially designed to move the vapors without
going above gas velocity limits. It is designed so there 18.3.1 Service Valves
will be no vapor-trapping pockets. Most open-drive compressors and some hermetic
compressors have service valves, which allow service
Thinking Green
technicians to attach gauges, add refrigerant or oil,
Magnetic Bearings or isolate the compressor from the rest of the system,
In some centrifugal compressors, the impellers ride Figure 18-40.
on magnetic bearings. The magnetic bearings are ener- Many small hermetic systems do not have service
gized when the compressor starts, causing the impeller valves of any type. To attach gauges and service mani-
shaft to levitate within a magnetic field. Since the shaft folds to these types of systems, refrigerant lines must
does not make physical contact with the bearing as it
be tapped. Special tapping valves are available. These

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 Chapter 18 Compressors 447

Mueller Industries, Inc.

Figure 18-40. Different compressor service valves.

are clamped to a tube so that the valves pierce the tube.

Once clamped to the tube, these valves provide the nec-
essary gauge and service connections, Figure 18-41.

18.3.2 Mufflers
Most hermetic compressors and many open-drive
compressors use mufflers to reduce noise that may be
caused by gas pulsation. Mufflers are constructed of
brazed cylinders with baffle plates mounted inside. A
I
muffler allows the gas to expand in the muffler cham-
bers, smoothing out its flow. It reduces the sharp gasp-
ing sound on the intake stroke and the even-sharper
puff of the exhaust. Mufflers may be located on both
the intake (suction) and the exhaust (discharge) open-
ings of a compressor. Mufflers are installed near the
compressor, usually vertically, to provide efficient oil
movement and to trap any refrigerant that may con- DiversiTech Corporation
dense during the Off cycle, Figure 18-42. Figure 18-41. Piercing valves for accessing systems having
no service valves.
18.3.3 Compressor Cooling Systems
The temperature of the compressor is greatly affected
by the heat of compression. As vapor is "squeezed" and
forced into the condenser, the vapor temperature rises.
Friction (rubbing) between moving parts also adds to
compressor temperature. The heat must be removed to
prevent loss of efficiency and to maintain the lubricating
qualities of the oil in the compressor.
The oil that circulates in the compressor removes
much of the heat from the compressor and also from
the motor in hermetic units. Motors are often cooled
by passing the suction vapors and return oil over the
windings. As the oil flows over the hot surfaces, it picks
up excess heat and carries it to cooler surfaces. Some
units circulate the crankcase oil through an air-cooled Emerson Climate Technology
coil. The cooled oil then helps to cool the compressor. Figure 18-42. This muffler is designed for use on discharge lines.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

448 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Some larger hermetic units are water-cooled. If small amounts of oil and sling it around to other parts.
the system is equipped with a water-cooled condenser, Clearances between the moving parts in this type of
the same water is often used to cool the compressor system must be less than in pressure systems. Bearing
or dome. Many compressors have metal fins on their noise will occur at smaller clearances than with a pres-
exterior surfaces. These fins increase the surface area sure system. This is because there is no oil under pres-
of the housing, allowing more heat to dissipate. Some sure to cushion the bearing surface.
units even use a motor-driven fan to force cooling air Pressure lubrication systems use a small oil
over the compressor, Figure 18-43. pump to force oil to the main bearings, lower connect-
ing rod bearings, and sometimes piston pins. It is a
more expensive system since a pump is required. Also,
18.3.4 Lubrication Systems the crankshaft and connecting rod must have oil pas-
Lubricating oils have been developed especially sages drilled in them, Figure 18-44.
for reciprocating and rotary refrigeration compres- Since the oil pump delivers oil, under pressure, to
sors. Usually, these are mineral oils, which are com- all bearing surfaces, a pressure lubrication system pro-
pletely dehydrated, wax-free, and non-foaming. They vides better protection than a splash lubrication sys-
have a viscosity that is best for the refrigerant and for tem. A compressor with a pressure lubrication system
the refrigeration temperatures. Viscosity is a fluid's will also run quieter, even though it has greater bear-
resistance to flowing. A refrigeration lubricant's vis- ing clearances.
cosity rating indicates its ability to flow at given tem- In a rotary compressor, a constant film of oil is
peratures. Some refrigeration oil contains additives to needed on the cylinder, roller, and blade surfaces. The
improve lubricating qualities. The additives may also cylinder is located so the oil level half covers the main
improve the oil's viscosity properties. bearings. When the compressor operates, the oil feeds
Reciprocating compressors may be lubricated through the main bearings into the cylinder. Some
either by a splash or a pressure (force-feed) system. In systems use a force-feed lubrication system. Pumping
the splash system, the crankcase is filled with the cor- action for the lubrication system may be provided by
rect oil up to the bottom of the main bearings or to the a separate oil pump or by the pumping action of the
middle of the crankshaft main bearings so that the oil blades moving in and out of their slots.
level covers half of the main bearings. At each crank- A compressor's oil pump is usually mounted on one
shaft revolution, the crank throw or the eccentric dips end of the compressor shaft, Figure 18-45. An overload
into the oil. It splashes the oil around the inside of the relief valve must be built into the pump. This will protect
compressor. Oil is thrown onto cylinder walls and pis- the pump and the rest of the system against oil pressures
ton pin bushings. It is also thrown into small openings that are too high. Larger, pressure-lubricated compressors
where it can drain into the main bearings. This is an sometimes use pressure-controlled electric switches. These
excellent system for normal use in small compressors. switches will stop the unit if the oil pressure drops too low.
Some compressor connecting rods have little dips
or scoops attached to the lower ends. These scoop up
18.3.5 Unloaders
To make it easier to start a compressor, some units
include an unloader. An unloader is a mechanism
that temporarily reduces the pressure in the compres-
sor during start-up. The method an unloader uses to
reduce pressure varies depending on the compressor
design. In addition to lowering pressures during start-
up, an unloader may also be used to vary the pumping
capacity in certain compressors. This is useful when
there is a changing heat load, such as in an air con-
ditioner. An unloader may be operated mechanically,
electrically, or hydraulically.
Internal unloaders are usually operated by oil
pressure. Solenoid valves are mounted in the oil lines
leading to the unloaders. When the solenoid is closed,
Bitzer oil pressure drops in the unloader. This allows the
Figure 18-43. These compressors are equipped with their spring in the unloader to expand, holding a compres-
own cooling fans. sor's cylinder intake valve open. When oil pressure

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 18 Compressors 449

-
Scavenger oil flow
D Oil supply to pressure pump
Oil under pressure
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-44. The lubrication system in a pressure-lubricated, hermetic, multi-cylinder, reciprocating compressor. The scavenger
pump returns oil from the motor end of the compressor back to the lower portion of the crankcase at the cylinder, which serves as an
oil sump to store the oil charge. Note the pressure relief valve in the pressure line. The cylinder unloader is operated by oil pressure.

reaches the desired level, the spring in the unloader is

compressed, and the valve is able to operate normally,
Figure 18-46.
When the intake valve is held open, refrigerant
pressure is unable to build. This technique is used
to decrease load during start-up. It is also used to
reduce pumping capacity during periods of low-load
demand.
Low-side pressure switches operate the solenoids.
A timer bypass pressure switch operates the system
at full capacity for about a minute each hour or two.
External unloaders use a bypass line connected to
the evaporator inlet, ensuring suction vapor is cool
(de-superheating).
CMP Corporation In small systems using a capillary tube refriger-
Figure 18-45. An oil pump with gaskets and assembly for a ant control, the pressures balance when the compres-
reciprocating compressor. sor is off. This balancing of the low-side and high-side

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

450 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

~ Solenoid valve (closed)

Oil pressure line -
Oil pressure line
Solenoid valve (open)

Piston Piston

Unloaded during Start-Up Normal Operation

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 18-46. Cutaway compressor's internal unloader. Unloaded during Start-Up-To lighten the load on the motor, reduce a
compressor's pumping capacity. The solenoid valve closes, which lowers oil pressure beneath the unloader spring. The unloader
spring expands, holding the intake valve open. This prevents compression of the refrigerant, making start-up easier. Normal
Operation-The solenoid valve is open, so that oil pressure keeps the unloader spring compressed. This allows the intake valve
to operate normally.

pressures serves the same purpose as an unloader. describe two common types of sealing devices: gaskets
Therefore, an unloader is not required for systems that and O-rings. Shaft seals, which were described earlier
balance pressures during the Off cycle. in this chapter, are another common type of sealing
Some large compressors have either hydraulic or device.
electric unloading devices to control the number of
cylinders pumping. Typically, the intake valves are Gaskets
held open to disable the pumping action of unneeded On open-drive and semi-hermetic compressors,
cylinders. The higher the load, the more cylinders used mating surfaces of the cases are usually sealed with
to pump the vapor. At full load, all cylinders are used gaskets. Gaskets prevent pressure, refrigerant, and
to pump refrigerant. As the load decreases, cylinders lubricant from leaking out of the compressor. They are
are bypassed so they are no longer pumping refriger- needed between bolted parts, such as cylinder heads,
ant. Figure 18-47 shows two unloader control systems. valve plates, and crankcase openings. Gaskets may be
made of special paper, synthetic material, or lead. Some
are made of a plastic substance. Gaskets must be com-
18.3.6 Sealing Devices pletely free from moisture before use, Figure 18-48.
Sealing devices are used throughout the compres-
sor wherever a gap between components could allow O-Rings
refrigerant or pressure to escape. Sealing devices are O-rings are commonly used as sealing devices,
commonly located between mating parts of the com- especially where there may be some motion between
pressor case, between cylinder heads and crankcases, the assembled parts. Figure 18-49 illustrates three typ-
and between shafts and housings. The following sections ical O-ring installations.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 18 Compressors 451

,----,_~ Thermostat Cylinder Thermostat Cylinder

Unloader
--r-<~.,, yoke Unloader
yoke
Unloader
piston

From unloaded
regulator valve

Regulator piston

Regulator piston Unloader piston Regulator piston Unloader piston

relief drain relief drain relief drain relief drain
Electric Unloader Mechanism (Activated) Electric Unloader Mechanism (Deactivated)
A B

>,
a_ Pressure electric switch >,
Pressure electric switch

;i
<( IL___J,---------,
To cylinder
unloader mechanism Ii
<( IL__,-----,
Pneumatic Pneumatic
modulating modulating
thermostat thermostat

Oil relief - - 1 t - - - - - - - - - - H - ' , - ' c - ' f f - + -

drain
(blocked)

Oil pump
pressure

operator

Pneumatic Unloader Mechanism (Activated) Pneumatic Unloader Mechanism (Deactivated)

C D
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 18-47. Oil circuits operating compressor unloaders may be controlled electrically or pneumatically. A-When an electrical
unloader control is activated, oil pressure moves the regulator piston to create an open passage between the oil pump and
the unloader piston. B-When an electrical unloader control is deactivated, pressure against the regulator piston is blocked,
allowing the spring to shift back the piston and block oil pressure to the unloader piston. C-When a pneumatic unloader control
is activated, air pressure pushes the bottom linkage outward, which pushes the upper linkage and regulator piston inward. This
opens a passage between the oil pump and the unloader. D-When air pressure is reduced, the bottom linkage pulls back, which
moves the upper linkage and regulator piston to move to block the passage to the unloader and opening the oil relief drain.

The materials used for 0-rings depend on various 18.3.7 Crankcase Heaters
factors, including temperature, pressure, fluids to be
controlled, and useful life required. 0-rings are usu- Many compressors are equipped with some type
ally made of fluid-resistant elastomer compounds. of protective device. During the Off cycle, refrigerant

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

452 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

installations usually do not require a built-in crankcase

heater. However, an accessory heater can be purchased
and attached to the crankcase, Figure 18-50.
Crankcase heaters are required on compressors
that operate in ambient temperatures lower than evap-
orator temperatures. If the refrigerant in the compres-
sor is allowed to condense, the refrigerant/oil mixtures
in the compressor will begin to foam when the com-
pressor starts. This causes the oil charge to pump out
of the compressor, a condition known as oil slugging.
Slugging of oil or liquid refrigerant can cause broken
valves, damaged pistons, and broken head gaskets.
Flooded starts occur when the compressor picks up
refrigerant mixed with oil and feeds it to the cylin-
ders and bearings. There may be severe damage as a
result. A heating coil keeps the crankcase coil up to
CMP Corporation
30°F (l7°C) warmer than system temperature. This
Figure 18-48. Gaskets with a compressor oil pump package.
ensures that the oil will be warm enough to mix with
the refrigerant and prevent oil slugging.

Electrical Adjusting
connectors

A B

A
-........_Grounding lug
C
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher A
Figure 18-49. Some typical O-ring installations (shown in
yellow). A-An O-ring installed as seal between a shaft and
its housing. B-An O-ring installed to serve as a seat seal.
C-An O-ring installed as a pipe fitting assembly seal.

will migrate to the coolest part of the system. Often,

this is the compressor. A crankcase heater is a device
that warms the compressor crankcase to evaporate any
liquid refrigerant trapped in the oil. In some compres-
sors, the discharge line is coiled in the crankcase. The
heat given off from the discharge line evaporates any
liquid refrigerant in the oil.
Many large compressors for commercial applications
are manufactured with a built-in crankcase heater. This is B
Tutco, Inc.; York International Corp.
especially true if the compressor may be exposed to cold
Figure 18-50. Typical accessory crankcase heaters. A-
temperatures (outdoor units). These heaters may be oper- The length of the heater can be changed by adjusting the
ated during the Off cycle or they may be thermostatically worm (spirally threaded) screw. B-This crankcase heater is
controlled. With the exception of heat pumps, smaller installed on a hermetic compressor.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • A scroll compressor consists of two
intertwined scrolls. One scroll is fixed, and
• Compressors are driven by an electric motor, the other scroll orbits around the center
which may be mounted outside the compressor of the fixed scroll. Pockets of refrigerant
unit or inside its housing. Compressors that are captured between the scrolls and are
are driven by an external source of mechanical compressed as the movable scroll orbits. The
power are called open-drive compressors, and compressed refrigerant is discharged from
compressors that include an integrated drive the center of the scrolls.
motor in a sealed unit are called hermetic • A typical screw compressor has a mated pair
compressors. of helical rotors, one with lobes and the other
• There are two categories of hermetic with matching grooves. As the rotors rotate,
compressors, fully hermetic and semi-hermetic. refrigerant is drawn in and trapped between
Fully hermetic compressors are housed in a the lobes and grooves. As the rotors continue
welded dome and are not field serviceable. The to rotate, the space containing the refrigerant
casing of a semi-hermetic compressor is bolted is reduced, compressing the refrigerant.
together so the compressor can be serviced. • Centrifugal compressors consist of one or more
• There are five basic types of compressors used impellers that rotate inside a volute stator.
in refrigeration systems: reciprocating, rotary, Refrigerant is flung outward against the stator
scroll, screw, and centrifugal. as the impeller rotates. The refrigerant piles up
on the refrigerant ahead of it, compressing it
• A typical reciprocating compressor resembles

I
slightly.
an automotive engine, consisting of pistons
attached to a rotating crankshaft by connecting • All compressor units, regardless of type,
rods. Eccentrics or offset journals on the must have a motor to drive the compressor.
crankshaft cause the pistons to move up and They may also have service valves to allow
down in cylinders as the crankshaft rotates, a technician to attach gauges, add oil or
compressing the refrigerant between the piston refrigerant, or isolate the compressor from
heads and the cylinder head. the rest of the system. Most compressors have
check valves at various points to prevent
• The Scotch yoke variation of a reciprocating refrigerant from flowing in the wrong
compressor has a long piston with an elliptical slot
direction. Some compressors have mufflers on
in the lower piston skirt. The piston is connected
the intake and discharge lines to quiet noise
directly to the crank throw, which slides back
caused by gas pulsation.
and forth in the slot as the crankshaft rotates
and moves the piston up and down. This design • Because the temperature of a refrigerant gas
eliminates the need for a connecting rod. increases as it is compressed, compressors
must have a system for removing the excess
• The two types of rotary compressors are heat. Heat may be removed by oil circulation,
the rotating-vane and the stationary-blade suction gas, cooling fins, forced air, or water
compressors. In a rotating vane compressor, cooling.
spring-loaded vanes expand and contract as the
rotor turns, maintaining contact with the wall • In a reciprocating compressor, components
of the cylinder. Since the rotor is offset in the may be lubricated by a splash system or by a
cylinder, the volume between the vanes gradually pressure system. In a splash system, oil is flung
decreases as the rotor turns, compressing around the inside of the compressor as the
refrigerant trapped between the blades. crankshaft rotates. In a pressure lubrication
system, a small pump delivers oil to vital
• In a stationary-blade rotary compressor, an components.
eccentric rotor turns inside a cylinder and
contacts the cylinder at a single point while • Many compressors use unloaders to reduce
a single fixed blade maintains contact with the load on the compressor during start-up or
the rotor. As the rotor turns, the volume to modulate the compressor's capacity. Most
between the fixed blade and the rotor contact unloaders use oil pressure to hold an intake
point increases for half a rotation, drawing valve open, preventing compression from
refrigerant into the space, and then decreases occurring in those cylinders.
for half a rotation, compressing the refrigerant.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 453

454 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Some form of crankcase heating is required 5. Which of the following is a trait of stationary-
on compressors that operate in low ambient blade rotary compressors?
temperature. A crankcase heater prevents A. The blade is mounted on the rotor.
trapped refrigerant from condensing in the oil. B. The blade is pulled into contact with the
If the refrigerant is allowed to condense in the rotor by centrifugal force.
oil, foaming and oil slugging could occur. C. The rotor is mounted on an eccentric
shaft.
D. All of the above.
Review Questions 6. Which of the following statements regarding
scroll compressors is not true?
Answer the following questions using the information in A. Scroll compressors operate with
this chapter. continuous suction and discharge,
1. Which of the following best describes a resulting in very smooth compression
direct-drive compressor? cycle.
A. A compressor connected to a drive motor B. In a scroll compressor, vapor is
by a belt and pulley system. compressed by a series of pistons that
B. A compressor and drive motor sharing travel in a spiral pattern through a fixed
a single shaft and mounted together in a scroll.
single housing. C. Compressed vapor is discharged from the
C. A compressor's crankshaft connected to a center of the scroll.
motor's drive shaft by a coupling. D. All of the above.
D. A compressor with no crankshaft because 7. Which of the following best describes the
each piston is directly operated by a compression action in a screw compressor?
separate drive motor. A. Two scrolls rotating in opposite orbits trap
2. A(n) _ _ connects the piston to the and compress vapor in pockets.
crankshaft in a reciprocating compressor. B. A pair of helical rotors traps and
A. crank throw compresses vapor between the lobes in
B. connecting rod one rotor and the grooves in the other
C. eccentric rotor.
D. piston pin C. A high-speed, reversing motor compresses
vapor by pushing and pulling a screw-like
3. A reciprocating compressor that has a long piston in a helical cylinder.
piston with an elliptical slot in the bottom D. Two impellers draw vapor in through
of the piston skirt and no connecting rod is opposite ends of a cylinder, causing the
referred to as a(n) _ _. vapor to compress in the center of the
A. full-floating design cylinder.
B. elliptical design
C. Scotch yoke design 8. Which of the statements regarding
D. hermetic design centrifugal compressors is not true?
A. As the speed of a centrifugal compressor
4. Which of the following statements regarding increases, its efficiency decreases.
rotary compressors is not true? B. Vapor is drawn from around the outside
A. Rotary compressors have low volumetric of the stator and compressed inward
efficiency. toward its centrally located discharge.
B. In some rotating vane compressors, the C. Centrifugal compressors often have
blades are pushed against the cylinder multiple impellers that operate in series.
wall by centrifugal force alone. D. All of the above.
C. The blade on a stationary blade rotary
compressor is mounted in the compressor
housing rather than in the rotor.
D. All of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 18 Compressors 455

9. Which of the following is not an approved

method of cooling compressors?
A. Using cool suction vapor and oil to cool a
compressor motor.
B. Running water through water jackets
around a compressor's cylinders.
C. Blowing air across a compressor's exterior.
D. Using a small relief valve to vent
refrigerant to atmosphere for evaporative
cooling around the crankcase.
10. The primary purpose of a crankcase heater is

A. to minimize changes in bearing tolerances

due to thermal contraction
B. to minimize the amount of liquid
refrigerant in the compressor oil
C. superheat suction vapor entering the
compressor
D. prevent oil from freezing in the crankcase

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 19 Cotnpressor Safety
Cotnponents

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
Explain ideal compressor operating conditions and
requirements.
Chapter Outline Describe the use and operation of compressor
19.1 Compressor Operating Conditions protection devices, such as overcurrent protection
19.2 Compressor Protection Devices devices, overload devices, crankcase pressure
19.2.1 Overcurrent Protection regulators, discharge line pressure switches, and
19.2.2 Compressor Overload Devices discharge line thermostats.
19.2.3 Crankcase Pressure Regulators (CPRs) • Explain the role an accumulator plays in a system
19.2.4 Discharge Line Pressure Switches and how it accomplishes its purpose.
19.2.5 Discharge Line Thermostats • Understand the components that maintain proper oil
19.2.6 Accumulators and refrigerant flow to the compressor.
19.3 Oil Control Systems
• Explain the operation of oil separators, oil reservoirs,
19.3.1 Oil Separator
oil level regulators, and oil safety control.
19.3.2 Oil Reservoir
19.3.3 Oil Level Regulator • Summarize the purpose of vibration absorbers and
19.3.4 Oil Safety Control the techniques for installing them.
19.4 Vibration Absorbers • Explain the purpose and operation of crankcase
19.5 Crankcase Heaters heaters.
 Chapter 19 Compressor Safety Components 457

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

crankcase pressure oil level regulator Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
regulator (CPR) oil reservoir you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
discharge line pressure oil safety control • A compressor draws in low-pressure refrigerant
switch thermal overload vapor and compresses it into high-pressure
discharge line thermostat vibration absorber refrigerant vapor. While operating, it reduces
hot pull down pressure on the low side and increases pressure
on the high side. This compressor action makes
mechanical refrigeration possible. (Chapter 18)
• Compressors are vapor compression pumps. They
must be supplied with an intake of refrigerant vapor,
not liquid. Liquid is generally noncompressible and
could damage a compressor's mechanical parts if
pumped. (Chapter 18)
• The higher the high-side pressure against which a
compressor must pump, the harder it must work and
the higher the electrical current its motor must draw.
Overcurrent protection should be installed to protect
all motors, including those used for compressors.

I
(Chapter 13)
• Compressor operation is typically governed by
multiple control components. These devices may
react to temperature, pressure, or other variables for
normal system operation or for safety. (Chapter 16)

Introduction
Of the four basic devices in any HVACR sys-
tem (compressor, condenser, evaporator, and meter-
ing device), the compressor is the most expensive. It is
important that compressors operate safely and are main-
tained to perform at peak efficiency for a long and useful
operational life. A compressor should be applied within
the manufacturer's recommended temperature and pres-
sure conditions. Long-term operation also requires that
the oil and refrigerant entering the compressor is clean
and of the correct quality.
458 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

19.1 Compressor Operating 19.2 Compressor Protection Devices

Conditions There are several variables that should be moni-
tored to ensure that a compressor is operating safely.
Compressors are mechanical devices that generate Compressor protection devices installed into an
friction and heat from their moving parts. Therefore, HVACR system can monitor these variables and react
all compressors require lubrication and cooling to before unsafe conditions can cause damage to a com-
operate efficiently and without sustaining damage. pressor. Important variables that a device may monitor
Refrigerant oil is used to lubricate the mechanical parts include the following:
of the compressor, while refrigerant vapor is often used
to cool the internal motor windings of hermetic and • Current draw on the compressor's motor.
semi-hermetic compressors. The oil must be free from • Head pressure.
contamination, and the refrigerant must be in vapor • Temperature of the compressor dome.
form, not liquid. Contaminants in the refrigerant oil • Temperature of the discharge line.
can damage the surfaces of pistons, scrolls, and screws
in a compressor. Liquid refrigerant is noncompressible.
If it enters the suction side of the compressor, it will 19.2.1 Overcurrent Protection
result in liquid slugging. This can damage compressor Motors and other current-drawing electrical
valves, pistons, scrolls, and vanes. devices require overcurrent protection. High current
Compressors can be small or very large and can damage conductor insulation and lead to a short
applied in various types of systems. They are available circuit or a ground fault (short to ground). Since com-
in fractional horsepower and used in domestic refrig- pressors generally use motors to produce the torque
erators, as high-capacity scroll compressors installed needed for operation, most compressors require some
in building air-conditioning systems, as screw com- form of overcurrent protection. This is generally pro-
pressors used in conjunction with cooling towers, and vided by circuit breakers or fuses. If something occurs
many other systems. Regardless of the application, all that causes a motor to draw an abnormally high cur-
mechanical compressors require two basic elements: rent level, a circuit breaker or fuse opens the circuit to
• Clean oil for lubrication. prevent potential damage. See Figure 19-1.
• Liquid-free vapor refrigerant for cooling.
All compressors also use safety devices to ensure
that they do not run during periods of excessive heat
or pressure. Safety devices, such as internal overloads,
external overloads, and pressure switches, are used to
stop compressor operation in the event of high pres-
sure or high temperature.
The shutdown of a compressor by safety devices
is intended to prevent a potential compressor failure.
If a compressor does not have sufficient lubrication or
cooling, the internal parts will eventually overheat.
If the compressor is permitted to run when starved
of oil or refrigerant vapor, there will be unlubricated
metal-to-metal contact with the pistons, scrolls, vanes,
and valves. This unlubricated metal-to-metal con-
tact could eventually create small metal chips in the
refrigerant loop that further damage various internal
components. Insufficient cooling can also cause motor
windings to overheat. Overheating of motor windings
may result in burnt or shorted windings and eventual
motor failure within the compressor. There are many
devices that are either supplied with the compressor
from the manufacturer or can be placed in the refrig- Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
erant circuit to safely provide a continuous flow of Figure 19-1. This disconnect has three fuses for the three-
oil and clean, dry, liquid-free refrigerant vapor to the phase circuit powering the compressor motors for a rooftop
compressor. unit.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 19 Compressor Safety Components 459

19.2.2 Compressor Overload Devices Start Run

Compressors may overheat due to internal prob-

lems, such as a lack of oil or shorted motor windings.
They may also overheat due to system issues such as
head pressure that is too high due to a blocked or dirty
condenser. To prevent compressor damage from over-
heating, a thermal overload opens the power circuit to
turn off the compressor, Figure 19-2.
A thermal overload is a type of compressor protec-
tion device that is mounted to the compressor shell near
the compressor motor terminals. Many use a bimetal
disc that snaps open and closed a set of electrical contacts
based on temperature. They open when exposed to too
much heat and then reset when the heat falls to an accept-
able level. A thermal overload is wired in series with the
common terminal of the compressor, Figure 19-3. Frigidaire

I
Figure 19-3. Compressor overload mounted to the shell of
Pro Tip the compressor.
Recurrent Trip Problem
A thermal overload reacts to the heat surrounding
designed to open when excessive current is sensed or
a compressor, not just the internal heat generated by
under extreme temperatures. Most internal overloads
the compressor. If a compressor is mounted in a closed
off area subject to high ambient conditions, it may trip
will reset after the conditions return to normal. Some
regularly due to poor air circulation around the com- compressors also contain a reset button mounted to
pressor. Always make sure that there is proper cooling the shell of the compressor. The reset button requires
airflow around a compressor when its thermal overload the HVACR service technician to manually reset the
has tripped. overload when it has tripped.

Some compressors also have internal overloads Pro Tip

located within the compressor. These are usually wired Compressor Protection Devices
into the motor windings at the manufacturer. They are Compressor protection devices are designed to
protect the compressor from an internal failure or inef-
ficient operation. They should be viewed as a sign to the
HVACR service technician that something is wrong in the
system, not just in the compressor. Never just replace
an overload device or reset a tripped protection device.
Always troubleshoot to determine the root cause that is
forcing the protection device to trip off the system.

19.2.3 Crankcase Pressure Regulators

(CPRs)
Starting a compressor places a heavy electrical
load on its motor. It has to overcome inertia, as objects
at rest tend to stay at rest. It must also overcome high
crankcase pressure. In fact, crankcase pressure may be
at its highest at starting. This requires the use of higher
horsepower. Even so, compressor motors are usually
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
taxed to the limit at the moment of starting. This is evi-
Figure 19-2. This thermal overload is mounted to the shell of
dent in measuring a compressor's high starting current
a compressor. It is connected in series with the compressor's or locked rotor amperage (LRA). Compressor starting
common wire and opens the circuit when it senses is even more difficult when starting against above-
dangerously high temperature. normal head pressure.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

460 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

If low-side pressure rises too high, the density of

the vapor refrigerant increases. This increased pres-
sure requires the compressor motor to draw more elec-
trical current than normal. The higher the current and
the longer a compressor motor conducts higher cur-
rent, the more likely an overload will occur.
Higher than normal pressure in the suction line
could occur after a defrost cycle or if evaporator tem-
perature rises too high, such as after a long Off cycle or
on an initial start-up from ambient temperature.

Caution
Hot Pull Down Pressure
An increased low-side and crankcase pressure con-
dition occurs during start-up from ambient temperature.
In a hot pull down, the conditioned space temperature
is being pulled down to normal operating temperature
from much higher starting temperature (generally ambi-
ent temperature). A refrigeration system needs time for
the compressor to remove the bulk of the heat load and
drop temperature and pressure to normal levels.

On some systems, some form of low-side pres-

sure control is used on a compressor to keep crank-
case pressure at a reasonable level, even though the
rest of the low-side pressure may be high. A crankcase Dantoss
pressure regulator (CPR) is a valve with an adjustable Figure 19-4. Crankcase pressure regulators are available in
pressure setting that prevents crankcase pressure from different sizes and designs for different applications.
exceeding a preset safe value. It throttles suction pres-
sure above its setting to maintain a safe pressure level
in the compressor crankcase, Figure 19-4. More infor-
mation on crankcase pressure regulator operation can
be found in Chapter 22, Refrigerant Flow Components.

19.2.4 Discharge Line Pressure Switches

High head pressure can cause problems for a
compressor. A pressure switch is often installed in
the compressor discharge line between the compres-
sor and condenser. If the head pressure gets too high,
the discharge line pressure switch shuts off the sys-
tem. This pressure-responsive, normally closed switch
opens a switch in the compressor control circuit to turn
off the compressor, Figure 19-5. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 19-5. A discharge line pressure switch senses the
head pressure in the discharge line and opens the compressor
19.2.5 Discharge Line Thermostats control circuit if the discharge pressure gets too high.

Another method of protecting the compressor

against high discharge pressure is to use a discharge line will cause it to have a very high temperature. A
line thermostat. Gay-Lussac's law teaches that in a discharge line thermostat senses discharge line tem-
fixed volume (like the high side of a system), pres- perature and opens on a rise in temperature to turn off
sure and temperature rise and fall together. With the system and protect the compressor from danger-
that in mind, the high head pressure in the discharge ously high temperature.

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 Chapter 19 Compressor Safety Components 461

19.2.6 Accumulators through the outlet tubing going downward and back up
to the top of the tank before exiting into the suction line
Many commercial refrigeration systems have an and toward the compressor. A small hole at the bottom of
accumulator in the suction line. An accumulator con- the tube, called an aspirator hole, helps to return oil to the
sists of a tank with a reservoir on the bottom for liquid compressor.
refrigerant and an inlet and outlet on top for the flow
of vapor refrigerant. The inlet tube stops at the top of Caution
the tank. The outlet tube, however, stretches from the
Low-Side Flooding
top of the tank down to the bottom of the reservoir
and then back up near the top of the tank. This design Though accumulators are designed to prevent liq-
uid refrigerant from entering the compressor, massive
ensures that only vapor refrigerant is drawn out of the
flooding of liquid refrigerant into the low side of the sys-
accumulator and through the rest of the suction line
tem could also flood an accumulator and cause liquid
into the compressor, Figure 19-6. slugging in a compressor.
Refrigerant and a small amount of oil circulating
through an evaporator and suction line enter an accumu- Some accumulators have an additional inner coil
lator. Oil and any liquid refrigerant drop to the bottom of of tubing running along the inside of the bottom of the
the accumulator, where they are held. Suction from the tank. The inside of the coil is kept completely isolated

I
compressor draws vapor refrigerant near the top of the from the inside of the accumulator. Only the outside of
tank into the outlet tubing. The vapor refrigerant flows the coil is surrounded by the low-side refrigerant. The
liquid line connects to this coil, allowing high-temper-
ature, high-pressure liquid refrigerant to flow through
Suction Suction
the coil, Figure 19-7.
gas out
This liquid line coil provides two benefits to the
t system. Firstly, heat from the liquid line helps to vapor-
ize any liquid refrigerant along the bottom of the accu-
mulator. Secondly, by absorbing heat from the liquid
line, liquid refrigerant in the accumulator helps to sub-
cool the refrigerant in the liquid line before it enters
the evaporator. In this way, accumulators with liquid
t line connections help improve system efficiency and
protect the compressor.

Oil return
aspirator hole

Trapped liquid
refrigerant

Westermeyer Industries, Inc.

Virginia KMP Corp. Figure 19-7. An accumulator with an inner coil for liquid
Figure 19-6. Inside view of an accumulator. Oil droplets mix line refrigerant has additional connections as shown. The
with refrigerant vapor at the aspirator hole. Liquid refrigerant larger connections are for the suction line, and the smaller
remains trapped until it can evaporate. connections are for the liquid line.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

462 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Caution 19.3.1 Oil Separator

Insulated Accumulator Refrigeration systems work best when oil is kept at
Be sure that both the accumulator and the suction a proper level in the compressor. Oil is a thermal insu-
lines connected to an accumulator are covered with insu- lator. Therefore, any oil in the condenser and evaporator
lation. This will prevent condensation from forming on the will reduce the system's heat transfer efficiency. This will
accumulator. If moisture is present on an accumulator for result in excess energy consumption, as the compressor
too long a time, rust could develop. Regularly inspect the must run longer in order to achieve the desired evaporator
areas of an accumulator that are likely to develop rust, such temperature. It is especially important to keep the oil from
as along seams, at braze joints, and around tubing bends. circulating in low-temperature installations. Refrigerant
A rusted accumulator should be replaced. oil thickens at low temperatures and becomes difficult to
move out of the evaporator.
An oil separator is a system component that
19.3 Oil Control Systems removes oil from high-pressure refrigerant vapor as
Oil is used to lubricate a compressor's moving parts. both refrigerant and oil leave the compressor. Oil sep-
However, a certain amount of this oil is pumped out of arators are placed in the discharge line between the
the compressor with the refrigerant vapor. It is important compressor and the condenser, Figure 19-9.
that this oil be returned to the compressor. Oil moving The refrigerant-oil mixture pumped out of the com-
through the system could accumulate and cause opera- pressor flows at high speed in the discharge line. The
tional problems and component damage, especially if not diameter of the oil separator is larger than the diameter
enough is available within the compressor. of the discharge line. As a result, the flow slows down in
Various devices throughout a refrigeration system are the oil separator, which makes it easier to capture the oil
designed to collect and return the oil to the compressor. aerosol droplets. This oil is captured as the flow passes
HVACR systems may use the following oil control devices: through screens, baffles, filters, or certain piping arrange-
oil separator, oil reservoir, pressure differential valve, oil ments within the oil separator. The heavy oil droplets fall
level regulator, and oil safety controls, Figure 19-8. and collect in the bottom of the oil separator, Figure 19-10.

Pressure
From the differential
evaporator valve

Vent line

- Check
valve
To the
condenser

Discharge
muffler
~
Compressor
--
! t! service valve

l l t

Oil separator
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 19-8. This system diagram shows several of the oil control devices as they are arranged in a commercial refrigeration system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 19 Compressor Safety Components 463

systems, the oil return line is usually connected to the

suction line near the compressor.
Coalescing oil separators can remove 95-99% of
High-pressure
the flowing oil. They use a filter made of highly pure
refrigerant vapor glass fibers. The material forces the molecules to com-
outlet bine and form larger droplets that are then routed by
gravity through a drain layer. A filter in the oil return
line will help keep the oil clean. A filter may not be
necessary if a coalescent oil separator is used.
Liquid refrigerant may collect in an oil separator dur-
ing long Off cycles or during a long manual shutdown.
The liquid refrigerant is heavier than oil, so the refrigerant
High-pressure
will displace the oil in the bottom of the oil separator. An
refrigerant vapor
and oil inlet
uninsulated oil separator may dispel enough heat to allow
refrigerant vapor to condense into liquid. Oil separators
are often insulated to prevent the condensing of vapor
refrigerant. A temperature probe is located under the

I
insulation of the shell of the oil separator to allow for accu-
rate readings for monitoring oil separator temperature.
Another possibility is for liquid refrigerant in the
condenser to migrate back into the oil separator during
Oil outlet
the Off cycle. This liquid refrigerant may return to the
compressor through the oil return line by displacing
Dantass
the oil in the bottom of the oil separator. This could
Figure 19-9. Note the inlet, refrigerant outlet, oil outlet, and
result in too much liquid refrigerant and oil collecting
nameplate on this oil separator.
in the compressor, which may reduce oil lubrication,
leading to damage or added stress on the compressor's
The rising oil level lifts a float that opens a needle moving parts. A check valve installed in the refriger-
valve to allow the oil to return to the compressor crank- ant outlet of an oil separator will stop liquid refrigerant
case or suction line. In some installations, the oil will from migrating backward through the system.
move into a separate oil reservoir before circulating into An alternative is to install a solenoid valve in the
the compressor crankcase or suction line. On hermetic oil return line. This solenoid valve allows oil to return

Suction Out -
line

return
line Float-operated Oil separator Condenser Liquid
Oil level needle valve and reservoir line
Compressor sight glass
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 19-10. In this oil separator installation, oil is removed from high-temperature, high-pressure vapor refrigerant. When the float valve
opens, head pressure pushing down on the oil forces some of it through the return line and into the low-pressure crankcase.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

464 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

to the crankcase during the On cycle. A thermostat is inlet and flows downward along the spiral path of the
used to control the solenoid. The thermostat will close helix. The centrifugal force of the vapor-oil flow forces
its contacts controlling the solenoid only when the oil the heavier substance (the oil) to move outward to the
separator is warm (100°F to 130°F [38°C to 54°C]). The walls of the oil separator, where a screen layer is located.
thermostat de-energizes the solenoid to close during From there, the oil flows downward through a baffle
the Off cycle to prevent possible liquid migration that and into a pool at the bottom. The screen layer serves
could cause a flooded start and slug the compressor. a dual function, as both an oil separating and drain-
A liquid line solenoid valve is recommended on field ing medium. The separated oil flows down the interior
installed systems with a large refrigerant charge (over 3 lb wall of the shell. This entire arrangement causes only
of refrigerant per motor hp). One purpose of a liquid line a small pressure drop for the high-pressure refrigerant
solenoid valve is to prevent movement of liquid refriger- vapor. Up to 98% oil-free refrigerant exits the device. A
ant into the evaporator through the metering device when float-operated oil return valve allows the oil to return
the compressor is not in operation. This helps to minimize to the crankcase or an oil reservoir.
movement of liquid refrigerant from the high side into the
low side. If enough liquid refrigerant were to migrate to 19.3.2 Oil Reservoir
the low side, it could make it into the crankcase and cause An oil reservoir is a storage vessel that holds an
compressor slugging. oil supply for a compressor or a group of compressors
Figure 19-11 shows an oil separator used in large in a refrigeration system. Oil trapped by the oil sepa-
systems. It has a helical design in its top section. The rator is returned to the oil reservoir until it is needed.
refrigerant vapor-oil mixture enters the system at the The oil reservoir may contain sight glasses for obser-
vation of oil level, service valves, and a flare fitting for
adding oil to the system, Figure 19-12.

19.3.3 Oil Level Regulator

Refrigerant and An oil level regulator is an oil control device
oil inlet that regulates the level of oil within a compressor
using a float mechanism. An oil level regulator is
mounted on the outside of a compressor where it
connects through the sight glass port. When its float
drops due to the oil level being low, an oil level regu-
lator opens to allow oil to flow from an oil reservoir,
through the oil level regulator, and into the com-
pressor. See Figure 19-13.
Oil level regulators are used when two or more com-
pressors are piped in parallel. All compressors connected
to the system must be level on the same horizontal plane.
This ensures that each has the same level of oil. Oil level
regulators are used in conjunction with oil separators and
an oil return line to each compressor.
As compressors lose oil during operation, an oil
separator traps the oil and returns it to an oil reservoir.
As the oil level drops in each compressor, the oil regu-
lator returns the oil back to each compressor, evenly
maintaining the proper oil level in each compressor.

19.3.4 Oil Safety Control

All compressors require a certain amount of oil to
Henry Technologies, Inc.
operate properly. Insufficient oil can result in damage
Figure 19-11. In the helical oil separator, refrigerant and oil
to compressors. To ensure that oil is returning to the
enter at the inlet, swirl in a circular motion, and separate due compressor in large commercial installations, oil mea-
to centrifugal force and their weight difference. Refrigerant surements are monitored by control devices. Oil safety
flows upward and out the refrigerant outlet, while the oil drops control is a form of control that will shut off electrical
downward, accumulates in a pool, and exits at the oil outlet. power to the compressor if the net oil pressure or oil

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 19 Compressor Safety Components 465

Oil inlet

Upper sight glass

Westermeyer Industries, Inc.

Westermeyer Industries, Inc. Figure 19-13. An oil level regulator controls the oil level in a
Figure 19-12. An oil reservoir holds standby oil as part of the compressor crankcase. A float-operated valve holds back the
oil control system. Note upper and lower sight glass ports, excess oil in a reservoir until the oil level in the compressor
where the oil level can be observed. crankcase drops.

level drops below normal for a certain amount of time. it prompts operators to have a technician inspect and
Oil safety controls measure either differential pressure diagnose the system. It is always best to find the cause
or oil level. of the system trip, instead of just resetting the controls.
There may be times during regular operation In a mechanical oil safety control, differential oil
when oil measurements drop below normal numbers. pressure is monitored using a pair of bellows. One
This often occurs during system startup. A time delay bellows responds to the low-side (crankcase) pres-
in the oil safety control requires this low oil measure- sure, and the other responds to the oil pump pressure,
ment to last a certain amount of time before switch- Figure 19-14.
ing off the compressor. This time delay is intended Oil pump pressure must be higher than the low-side
to avoid nuisance shutdowns. If operation is normal, pressure for oil to flow back into the compressor. This is
oil measurements should return to regular readings because the oil pump is pushing oil against the low-side
before the time delay has elapsed. In which case, the oil pressure that is in the compressor crankcase. The differen-
safety control will allow the system to continue operat- tial is calculated by subtracting low-side (crankcase) pres-
ing. If low measurements persist, the oil safety control sure from oil pump pressure to get the net oil pressure:
will turn off the compressor.
Oil pump pressure - Low-side (crankcase)
Some oil safety controls must be reset manually
pressure = Net oil pressure
to resume normal system operation. If the controls on
these systems were to reset automatically, the system If net oil pressure becomes too low for too long,
could damage itself by cycling on and off repeatedly. the compressor is in danger of becoming damaged.
Other oil safety controls reset automatically for a set Sustained low net oil pressure prompts a mechanical
number of times before locking out and requiring a oil safety control to turn off the compressor.
manual reset. The importance of manual reset is that

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

466 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

the discharge line as close to the compressor as possible.

This reduces any compressor vibrations that might travel
through the refrigerant lines and cause damage to vari-
crankcase port ous components or the lines themselves. Vibration absorb-
ers are made of flexible, corrugated metal tubing with a
braided wire covering. They may be constructed of brass
or stainless steel with solid brass or copper fittings at each
end, Figure 19-16.

Pro Tip
Vibration Absorber Terminology
Vibration absorbers may also be referred to as
vibration dampeners, vibration eliminators, and other
similar names.

Vibration absorbers should be installed in the

horizontal position perpendicular to the direction of
vibration. See Figure 19-17A. The end of the vibration
absorber farthest from the vibration source should be
secured to a wall or other sound structure. Securing
the vibration absorber at one end prevents the vibra-
tions from traveling beyond the absorber. If vibration

Pressure
element

Johnson Controls, Inc.

Figure 19-14. Commercial system oil pressure safety controls
operate on the difference between the low-side pressure and Emerson Climate Technologies
the oil pump pressure. Figure 19-15. Electronic oil pressure safety control may have
different options and functions, such as controlling the oil refill
An electronic oil safety control monitors oil level, solenoid valve, sounding an oil level alarm, and locking out the
Figure 19-15. This monitoring may be done several differ- compressor when there is insufficient oil.
ent ways, such as using an optical eye or a Hall-effect sen-
sor (a transducer that varies its output voltage in response Braided wire
to a magnetic field). Electronic oil safety controls often covering
control multiple contacts that can be used to shut off the
compressor when oil level is low and to sound an alarm.

19.4 Vibration Absorbers

A vibration absorber is a flexible line of tubing Brass fittings
that carries refrigerant but also reduces or dampens any Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
vibration or physical motion transmitted to it. To protect Figure 19-16. Vibration absorbers are installed in the
components on either side of the compressor, vibration discharge and suction lines to prevent compressor vibrations
absorbers should be installed in both the suction line and from traveling through the lines.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 19 Compressor Safety Components 467

Crankshaft Caution
Compressor axis
Vibration Absorber Care
i Do not stretch, compress, or twist a vibration
absorber. Also, avoid overheating the fittings and
braided covering during installation. Excessive heat
can loosen brazed connections inside the vibration
absorber, resulting in premature failure.

19.5 Crankcase Heaters

Like all components with moving parts, com-
pressors can sustain damage in a variety of manners.
During cold weather, compressors must be kept warm
End secured enough to prevent the dilution of the oil by liquid
A refrigerant. After a compressor has cycled off, there is
the possibility that refrigerant vapor inside the com-

I
pressor could condense if ambient temperature is low
enough. This poses the danger of slugging. If a com-
pressor pumps liquid (slugs), it could sustain dam-
Crankshaft
age that leads to premature failure and the need for
axis replacement. To avoid this situation, many compres-
Compressor
sors are fitted with crankcase heaters.
A crankcase heater is an electric heating element
on or in a compressor that produces heat to warm the
compressor and prevent refrigerant inside the com-
t, Horizontal and pressor from condensing into liquid, Figure 19-18.
~ vertical vibration Crankcase heaters may be thermostatically oper-
ated to energize the heating element at about 50°F (10°C).
Systems with microprocessor controls manage compres-
sor crankcase heaters automatically by initiating them
when the temperature of the sensor (thermistor) is below a
B
certain temperature. More information on crankcase heat-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher ers can be found in Chapter 18, Compressors.
Figure 19-17. Top views of recommended arrangements for
vibration absorbers. A-For vibrations along a single axis, the
vibration absorber should be installed in the horizontal position
perpendicular to the direction of vibration. B-lf vibrations
occur along multiple axes, two vibration absorbers should be
installed in the horizontal position at 90° to each other.

occurs in both the horizontal and vertical directions,

two vibration absorbers should be installed at right
angles to each other. See Figure 19-17B.

Pro Tip
Insulation for Low Temperatures
A vibration absorber should be insulated if it
is installed in a suction line that is below 32°F (0°C).
Proper insulation prevents condensation from forming Crankcase Electrical
and freezing beneath the braided wire covering. Any heater wiring box
frost that forms between the corrugated tubing and the York International Corp.
braided wire covering can damage the tubing, which Figure 19-18. Crankcase heater installed along the outside
can result in a leak. bottom part of a compressor.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • A crankcase heater warms the compressor to keep
the refrigerant inside from condensing during
• Compressors are mechanical devices that the Off cycle. This prevents the compressor from
require lubrication and cooling for safe and liquid slugging or having a flooded start.
efficient operation. Safety devices are used to
ensure clean oil at proper levels and sufficient
vapor flow for cooling. Review Questions
• Compressor protection devices stop operation Answer the following questions using the information in
based on the monitoring of several variables:
this chapter.
current on the compressor motor, head
pressure, temperature of the compressor dome, 1. To prevent damage to the mechanical parts
and temperature of the discharge line. of a compressor, it should only be pumping
• Overcurrent protection for compressors is _ _ from the low to high side.
available in the forms of fuses, circuit breakers, A. contaminant-free oil
and internal overload devices. Thermal B. filtered water
overloads protect compressors from high C. liquid refrigerant
internal and ambient temperatures. Crankcase D. vapor refrigerant
pressure regulators prevent higher than normal 2. To keep its mechanical parts well lubricated
pressure from entering the compressor, which and free from damage, a compressor should
prevents the compressor's motor from drawing be supplied with _ _.
high current that could overload it. Discharge A. contaminant-free oil
line pressure switches cycle off the system if B. filtered water
head pressure rises too high. Discharge line C. liquid refrigerant
thermostats cycle off the system if discharge D. vapor refrigerant
line temperature rises too high. 3. Compressor overcurrent protection may be
• Accumulators reduce the risk of liquid provided by the following devices, except for
refrigerant flowing into the compressor. This
tank consists of a reservoir on the bottom for A. accumulators
liquid refrigerant and an inlet and outlet on top B. circuit breakers
for vapor refrigerant. Accumulators store any C. fuses
low-side refrigerant that has condensed into a D. internal overload devices
liquid. This helps to prevent liquid slugging of
4. A thermal overload monitors and turns
the compressor.
off the compressor when levels are too high.
• Oil control system devices include oil separators, A. crankcase pressure
oil reservoirs, pressure differential valves, oil B. discharge line pressure
level regulators, and oil safety controls. An oil C. discharge line temperature
separator removes oil from refrigerant vapor D. temperature of the compressor and
in the discharge line. Oil collected by an oil ambient air
separator is often stored in an oil reservoir.
5. An accumulator traps _ _ to prevent
• Oil level regulators monitor the level of oil in compressor slugging.
compressors. When oil levels drop too low, an C. discharge line liquid
oil level regulator allows oil to be drawn into B. liquid line vapor
the compressor from the oil reservoir. An oil D. subcooled refrigerant
pressure safety control senses compressor oil A. suction line liquid
pressure or level and turns off the compressor
if measured levels drop too low for too long. 6. A system component that removes oil from
high-pressure refrigerant vapor as both
• Vibration absorbers are flexible refrigerant refrigerant and oil leave the compressor is
lines that reduce or dampen any vibration or a(n) _ _.
physical motion transmitted to them. They A. oil level regulator
should be installed horizontally on either B. oil reservoir
side of the compressor perpendicular to the C. oil safety control
direction of vibration. D. oil separator

468 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 19 Compressor Safety Components 469

7. An oil level regulator uses a float mechanism

to determine oil level and is mounted to the
side of the
A. compressor
B. oil reservoir
C. liquid receiver
D. accumulator
8. A form of control that will shut off electrical
power to the compressor if the net oil
pressure or oil level drops below normal for a
certain amount of time is a(n) _ _.
A. oil level regulator
B. oil reservoir
C. oil safety control
D. oil separator
9. Which of the following statements regarding
vibration absorbers is not true?
A. Vibration absorbers can be placed on
either side of the compressor.
B. Vibration absorbers should be installed

I
vertically whenever possible.
C. The end of the vibration absorber farthest
from the vibration source should be
secured.
D. Vibration absorbers should be insulated if
they are installed in a suction line that is
below 32°F (0°C).
10. A crankcase heater is used to warm a
compressor to prevent the condensing of
the crankcase.
A. moisture inside
B. moisture outside
C. oil inside
D. refrigerant inside

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER20 Metering Devices

Chapter Outline
20.1 Metering Device Basics
20.1.1 Types of Metering Devices
20.1.2 Fixed and Modulating Metering Devices
20.2 Capillary Tubes
20.2.1 Capillary Tube Capacities
20.2.2 Capillary Tube Fittings Learning Objectives
20.2.3 Applications
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
20.3 Metering Orifices
• Summarize the purpose of metering devices.
20.4 Thermostatic Expansion Valves (TXVs)
20.4.1 Thermostatic Expansion Valve Operation • Categorize metering devices as modulating or fixed.
20.4.2 Thermostatic Expansion Valve Design • Summarize the design and function of capillary tube
20.4.3 Thermostatic Expansion Valve Capacities and fixed-orifice metering devices.
20.4.4 Special Thermostatic Expansion Valves • Explain the design and function of common types of
20.5 Automatic Expansion Valves (AXVs) thermostatic expansion valves (TXVs).
20.5.1 Automatic Expansion Valve Operation
• Summarize the design and function of automatic
20.5.2 Automatic Expansion Valve Design
expansion valves (AXVs).
20.6 Electronic Expansion Valves (EEVs)
20.6.1 Stepper Motor EEVs • Explain the design and function of common types of
20.6.2 Pulse Width-Modulating (PWM) Solenoid EEVs electronic expansion valves (EEVs).
20.7 Float-Operated Refrigerant Controls • Understand the differences between high-side float
20.7.1 Low-Side Float (LSF) (HSF) refrigerant controls and low-side float (LSF)
20.7.2 High-Side Float (HSF) refrigerant controls.
 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 471

Technical Terms • A solenoid is an electromagnetic device composed

of a coil of wire wrapped around a case with a
adsorption initialization movable iron core, which is called a plunger. The
automatic expansion valve liquid slugging plunger is pulled into the center of the case, or
(AXV) low-side float (LSF) solenoid body, by electromagnetic force when
capillary tube metering orifice current passes through the coil. (Chapter 14)
distributor MOP thermostatic • A sensing bulb is a device, filled with a volatile
dual-pressure regulator expansion valve liquid, that reacts to heat by changing its internal
electronic expansion valve oil binding pressure. The sensing bulb is connected by a
(EEV) orifice capillary tube to a diaphragm or bellows. Changes in
equalizer pressure limiter sensing bulb temperature result in pressure change
flooded system PWM solenoid EEV that causes the movement of the diaphragm or
frost back starving bellows. (Chapter 16)
heat exchanger thermostatic expansion
high-side float (HSF) valve (TXV)
hunting weight valve Introduction

I
In order for a refrigeration system to function prop-
Review of Key Concepts erly, the proper quantity of refrigerant must be circulated
through the system at the proper pressures. Metering
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
devices restrict the flow of refrigerant to create the proper
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
pressure drop between the high-side and low-sides of the
• Decreasing the pressure on a gas causes the gas to system. Metering devices may be orifices of fixed size
expand and causes its temperature to drop. This
that provide a continuous restriction in the flow of refrig-
phenomenon, along with a change of physical state
erant, or they may be valves, which can vary the flow to
from liquid to gas, provides the cooling action in a meet the demands of varying loads.
refrigeration system. (Chapter 5)
• A metering device is located between the liquid
line and the evaporator. Its function is to lower
the pressure of the refrigerant by restricting the
passageway into the evaporator. (Chapter 6)
• The proper method for checking refrigerant charge
in a system is dependent on the type of metering
device used in the system. Subcooling is used to
check refrigerant charge in a system that uses a
thermostatic expansion valve. Superheat is used to
check refrigerant charge in a system with a fixed-
orifice or capillary tube metering device. (Chapter 11)
472 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

20.1 Metering Device Basics 20.1.2 Fixed and Modulating Metering

Mechanical refrigeration and air conditioning sys- Devices
tems depend on a change of pressure as liquid refrig- Fixed metering devices are the simplest type of meter-
erant flows into the evaporator. Many different types ing devices. They have a fixed diameter passage through
of mechanical and electromechanical devices can be which the refrigerant must pass to enter the evaporator.
used to create this pressure difference in a system. These simple metering devices have few or no moving
These devices are referred to as metering devices and are parts to fail. The two main types of fixed metering devices
installed between the liquid line and the evaporator. are capillary tubes and metering orifices. Capillary tubes
A metering device provides a small opening, are used extensively in refrigerators and window ac units.
or orifice, through which only a certain amount of Metering orifices are frequently used in heat pumps and
refrigerant can flow at one time. As the system oper- split air conditioning systems. The rate of flow through
ates, a limited amount of the refrigerant is allowed to fixed metering devices is relatively constant when the
pass through the metering device into the evaporator. compressor is running.
Since only a small amount of refrigerant is entering the Metering devices that can change their orifice size
evaporator, the refrigerant has room to expand and is to account for changes in cooling loads are referred to
at a low pressure. However, since only a small amount as modulating metering devices. All types of expan-
of refrigerant passes through the metering device, the sion and float valves fall into this category. Because of
refrigerant in the liquid line remains under high pres- their ability to change refrigerant flow based on load,
sure. The metering device must allow just the right these types of valves operate more efficiently than
amount of refrigerant to pass to sustain this pressure fixed metering devices. They are also better suited
difference. for use in an application that is subject to frequent or
extreme changes in the cooling load.
20.1.1 Types of Metering Devices
There are many different types of metering 20.2 Capillary Tubes
devices. The simplest type of metering device is the
capillary tube. One of the more complex controls is the A capillary tube is a metering device consisting of
electronic expansion valve, which is controlled by a a length of seamless tubing with a small and precisely
microprocessor. The most common types of metering formed inside diameter. This tube acts as a constant
devices are: throttle on the refrigerant flow. Pressure decreases as
the small diameter restricts the flow of liquid refriger-
• Capillary tube (cap tube). ant through the tube. As the pressure drops, a small
• Metering orifice. amount of the liquid starts to evaporate in the tube.
• Thermostatic expansion valve (TXV). The vapor that is produced by the drop in pressure is
• Automatic expansion valve (AXV). known as flash gas, and its formation provides a sudden
drop in temperature in approximately the last quarter
• Electronic expansion valve (EEV). of the tube length. The refrigerant is cooled to evapora-
• Low-side float (LSF). tor temperature, and its pressure is reduced to evapo-
• High-side float (HSF). rator pressure.
The performance of a capillary tube depends on
Pro Tip the following variables:
TXV and TEV, AXV and AEV, and EEV and EXV • Tube length.
Although the abbreviation TXV is used to refer to • Inside diameter.
thermostatic expansion valves throughout this book, • Number of turns.
in the field you will find the abbreviation TEV may be The amount of restriction and resulting pres-
used instead. Both abbreviations refer to the same type
sure drop is designed by the system manufacturer to
of valve. Similarly, the abbreviation AXV is used in this
provide the maximum cooling effect for the system.
book to identify automatic expansion valves. In the
field, you may encounter the abbreviation AEV used to The length, inside diameter, and number of turns in
describe the same type of valve. The same also applies the capillary tube determines how much the pressure
to electronic expansion valves, which are indicated by drops between the condenser and evaporator. The longer
the abbreviation EEV in this book. In the field, electronic the capillary tube, the greater the pressure drop. The
expansion valves may also be identified by the abbre- smaller the diameter, the greater the pressure drop.
viation EXV. Turns create friction as the refrigerant flows and create

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 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 473

additional pressure drops. The more turns, the greater compressor. Severe frosting of the suction line during
the pressure drop. compressor start-up indicates an overcharge.
A capillary tube is usually attached between the
evaporator and the liquid line. In some applications, a
capillary tube serves the function of both the meter-
20.2.1 Capillary Tube Capacities
ing device and the liquid line. In such a case, it is con- Capillary tubes must be appropriately sized for
nected between the evaporator and the condenser. If their applications. The required length and diameter of
the distance between the evaporator and the liquid the capillary tube are determined by the capacity of the
line or condenser is shorter than the required length compressor, the type of refrigerant being used, and the
of the capillary tube, a portion of the capillary tube can desired target temperature of the system. Approximate
be coiled so that it fits. A fine filter or a filter-drier is sizes for capillary tubes in different applications are
usually installed between the liquid line or condenser shown in Figure 20-2.
and the capillary tube. The filter drier helps prevent The proper capillary tube size also depends on the
contaminants from entering and clogging the capillary type of condenser used in the application. Static con-
tube, Figure 20-1. densers are condensers that do not have a fan. They
A capillary tube can be installed so that a portion of depend on convection to cool the condenser. Static
it is in contact with the suction line. This allows the two condensers are most often found in older domestic

I
tubes to act as a heat exchanger, in which the capillary refrigerators. In general, systems with static condens-
tube transfers some of its heat to the cooler suction line ers require a 10% longer capillary tube than those
through conduction. This heat transfer superheats the with fan-cooled condensers because static condensers
refrigerant in the suction line and subcools the refriger- cannot remove heat as efficiently. Because different
ant in the liquid line, which improves system efficiency. refrigerants have different pressure-temperature char-
acteristics, the type of refrigerant used in a system also
Pro Tip affects capillary tube sizing.
Heat Exchangers
20.2.2 Capillary Tube Fittings
A heat exchanger is any device in which heat is
exchanged between two mediums. There are numer- A capillary tube can be attached between the
ous types of heat exchangers in HVACR systems. evaporator and the liquid line, condenser, or filter-
Evaporators and condensers are common examples. drier with either brazed connections or fittings. If fit-
They exchange heat between air and the refrigerant tings are used, they must be leak proof and able to
within their tubing. Heating systems have much differ-
withstand vibration. Figure 20-3 illustrates ways to
ent heat exchangers that are based on their method of
make these connections.
heat production.
Figure 20-3A shows the use of a special nut that
squeezes against both the capillary tube and the fitting.
Recent capillary tube designs use a larger diam-
The nose section is deformed as the nut is tightened.
eter and are longer. The larger diameter tube is less
The nut should always be replaced when the capillary
likely to become plugged with dirt, ice, or wax. Since
tube is serviced. Figure 20-3B shows the capillary tube
the larger diameter creates less restriction than a
brazed to 1/4" OD soft copper tubing. The larger tube
smaller diameter, the length of the capillary tube must
can then be connected to the system by the usual flared
be longer to have the same effect.
fitting. Figure 20-3C shows a larger tube brazed to the
Capillary tubes do not have check valves or direc-
capillary tube. The larger tube connection is then made
tional control valves. Since the refrigerant is free to
with a flared fitting. This type of connection would
flow in either direction, the high-side and low-side
normally be replaced with a special capillary tube fit-
pressures equalize when the compressor switches off.
ting during a system overhaul. Figure 20-3D shows a
In a capillary tube system, since the compressor starts
standard flared fitting connected to a special capillary
with equal pressures on the high and low sides, a high- tube fitting. The diameter of the capillary tube deter-
torque motor is not required. mines the size of the fitting.
Because system pressures equalize when the
compressor shuts off and there is no liquid receiver to
20.2.3 Applications
store excess refrigerant, a capillary tube system must
not have an overcharge of refrigerant. Extra refriger- Capillary-tube metering devices are usually used
ant tends to fill the evaporator too full. This causes the on small, fractional-horsepower, hermetic compressor
motor to work harder during start-up and also increases systems that are charged with refrigerant by the manu-
the risk that liquid refrigerant could be drawn into the facturer. These types of systems are commonly found in

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

474 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Evaporator

Condenser

Heat
exchanger

Filter-drier
Capillary tube Liquid line
Suction
line

D High-pressure vapor D Low-pressure vapor Compressor

• High-pressure liquid • Low-pressure liquid

Evaporator

Condenser

Compressor
Suction line Capillary tube

D High-pressure vapor • High-pressure liquid

D Low-pressure vapor • Low-pressure liquid
B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-1. Two simple schematics of refrigeration systems that use capillary tubes. In both, a filter-drier is located ahead of
the capillary tube. Also in both, part of the capillary tube is fastened to the suction line to function as a heat exchanger. A-The
capillary tube is connected to the liquid line. B-ln this system, the capillary tube serves as the liquid line. Part of the capillary
tube is coiled due to its length.

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 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 475

Capillary Tube Length and Diameter

Low Temp. Med. Temp. High Temp.
Evaporator (-20°F) Evaporator (20°F) Evaporator (40°F)
Compressor Condenser Inside Inside Inside
Refrigerant Length Length Length
Horsepower Type Diameter Diameter Diameter
1/8 R-12 Fan 108" 0.028" 84" 0.028" 48" 0.028"
R-12 Static 118" 0.028" 92" 0.028" 53" 0.028"
R-134a Fan 118" 0.028" 96" 0.028" 58" 0.028"
R-134a Static 130" 0.028" 106" 0.028" 64" 0.028"
R-410A Fan N/A N/A 144" 0.028" 81" 0.028"
1/4 R-12 Fan 43" 0.031" 90" 0.040" 60" 0.040"
R-12 Static 47" 0.031" 99" 0.040" 66" 0.040"
R-134a Fan 47" 0.031" 103" 0.040" 72" 0.040"
R-134a Static 52" 0.031" 113" 0.040" 79" 0.040"
R-410A Fan 73" 0.031" 40" 0.031" 101" 0.040"
1/2 R-12
R-134a
R-410A
Fan
Fan
Fan
96"
115"
37"
0.052"
0.052"
0.040"
48"
58"
84"
0.052"
0.052"
0.052"

Figure 20-2. This table lists the appropriate capillary tube dimensions for use in different systems.
90"
108"

42"
0.064"
0.064"

0.052"
Goodheart-W11/cox Publisher
I
domestic refrigerators and freezers. The small hermetic

= A

B
compressors typically used in these appliances do not
have the torque required to start up when the high side
of the system is under pressure. The capillary tube allows
the high-side pressure and low-side pressure of a sys-
tem to equalize when the compressor is off, reducing the
torque required to start the compressor.
The main advantage of the capillary tube is that
it has no moving parts to wear out or stick. The most
common cause of capillary tube failure is a bent,
crimped, or plugged tube. Bending or crimping is usu-
ally the result of someone cleaning the condenser and
accidentally hitting the capillary tube. Capillary tubes
may become plugged due to wax buildup from over-
heated oil in the system or from compressor failures.
When a capillary tube is replaced, it is a good practice
to also install a new liquid line filter-drier. It is also
important to replace the capillary tube with another
capillary tube with the same length and inside diam-
D eter. The amount of refrigerant charge is critical in cap-
A-1 Components Corporation illary tube systems. Overcharging or undercharging
Figure 20-3. Some typical capillary tube connections. results in poor system performance.
A-The capillary tube is connected to the liquid line with a Capillary tubes are inexpensive and work well
special compression fitting. B-The capillary tube is brazed on small hermetic systems. However, they do not con-
to the liquid line. C-The capillary tube is brazed to a short
trol evaporator performance as precisely as expansion
section of larger tubing, which is then connected to the liquid
line with a standard flare fitting. D-This liquid line standard valves. Expansion valves alter refrigerant flow based on
flare fitting is connected to a special capillary tube fitting. changes to system pressure and temperature. Capillary

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

476 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

tubes have a fixed diameter and length, so the rate of Piston retainer Fluted piston
flow remains fairly constant.

20.3 Metering Orifices

A metering orifice is a fixed-orifice metering device
that consists of a fitting with a small hole, called an orifice,
between the fitting's inlet and outlet. The orifice limits
the amount of refrigerant that can pass through the fit-
ting. This creates a pressure drop between the fitting's
inlet and outlet. A metering orifice is installed between
the condenser and evaporator and provides the pressure
drop between the high side and low side of the system. It
can be removed and cleaned for service. A
The orifice must be correctly sized in order to pro-
duce the proper pressure drop for a given system. The
refrigerant charge is also critical in a system with a
metering orifice. These are frequently used in packaged
air-conditioning units or split systems where the con-
denser, evaporator, refrigerant charge, and compressor
sizes are determined by the system manufacturer.
The orifice size may need to be changed for units
with long suction line sets to account for the extra
refrigerant charge. Manufacturers often supply several
metering orifices for air conditioners that may require
on-site changes to the suction line length. This allows B
the technician to select and install the correct size Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
based on the system's final design. Figure 20-4. A piston-type metering orifice. A-In one mode,
One type of metering orifice commonly used in refrigerant flow pushes the piston into contact with its seat. The
heat pump applications has a sliding fluted piston only path for refrigerant is through the bore in the center of the
with a small hole in it. The high pressure from the piston. B-During the other mode, refrigerant flow pushes the
piston off its seat. Refrigerant can then flow through the flutes
condenser pushes the piston against its seat, causing
around the outside of the piston as well as through the bore in the
the device to operate like a normal metering orifice. center of the piston, eliminating any pressure drop.
When the refrigerant flow reverses for the heating
mode, pressure is applied to the other side of the pis-
ton, causing it to slide to the center of the housing. Pro Tip
This lifts the piston from its seat, and allows refrig- Metering Orifice Devices
erant to flow through the flutes in the piston, which Metering orifices are sometimes called fixed-orifice
greatly increases refrigerant flow through the device, metering devices, flowraters, flow restrictors, accurat-
Figure 20-4. ers, pistons, or orifices. Be aware of the different names
Heat pumps often use two piston-type metering used across industry.
orifices installed between indoor and outdoor coils.
One metering orifice meters refrigerant flow during
the cooling mode and allows free flow during the heat- Thinking Green
ing mode. The other metering orifice meters refriger- Fixed Metering Devices
ant flow during the heating mode and allows free flow Because they are unable to adjust the refrigerant
during the cooling mode. In other heat pump systems, flow rate, fixed metering devices are less efficient than
a single piston-type metering orifice is used at the out- thermostatic expansion valves under varying load con-
door coil, and a TXV and check valve bypass line are ditions. In many cases, the efficiency of older comfort
used at the indoor coil. cooling systems equipped with fixed metering devices
can be dramatically improved by installing a thermo-
static expansion valve.

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 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 477

20.4 Thermostatic Expansion valve size and sensing bulb must be chosen for each
application.
Valves (TXVs) A thermostatic expansion valve has a sensing bulb
A thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) is a type mounted on the outlet of the evaporator. The sensing bulb
of expansion valve metering device that adjusts the is a sealed bulb connected to the thermostatic expansion
refrigerant flow rate based on a superheat pressure sig- valve by a capillary tube. The sensing bulb is filled with a
nal from a sensing bulb at the evaporator's outlet. It is volatile fluid, and pressure inside the bulb changes with
capable of adjusting the refrigerant flow rate to com- the temperature at the evaporator outlet. The refrigerant
pensate for varying loads. TXVs are commonly used flow rate through a thermostatic expansion valve is con-
in large commercial refrigerators and many air-con- trolled by the combination of the system's low-side pres-
ditioning systems. They are also often used on multi- sure and the pressure signal from the sensing bulb. The
ple-evaporator systems. A multiple-evaporator system valve provides a high flow rate as the evaporator empties
using thermostatic expansion valves can provide dif- (warms) and reduces the flow as the evaporator fills with
ferent temperatures in different cabinets. The correct refrigerant (cools), Figure 20-5.

.... Thermostatic

I
+-------------1--+-
expansion valve

Thermostatic
expansion valve
sensing bulb
Motor control
sensing element
Power line
t
Motor control ______.

Suction line

Motor wires

• High-pressure liquid
D High-pressure vapor
• Low-pressure liquid
D Low-pressure vapor

Compressor Liquid receiver

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 20-5. A thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) used in a simple refrigeration system. Note that the thermostatic expansion
valve's sensing bulb and a motor control sensing element are both installed on the evaporator outlet.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

478 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

20.4.1 Thermostatic Expansion Valve temperature sensed by the sensing bulb (T1) deter-
mines the pressure in the sensing bulb (P1). A change
Operation in the sensing bulb temperature (T1) will cause a cor-
A thermostatic expansion valve is operated by a responding change in the sensing bulb pressure (PJ
pressure difference between the sensing bulb pressure When TXV system is operating normally, the
and low-side (evaporator) pressure. See Figure 20-6. If the thermostatic expansion valve is partially open and
pressure in the sensing bulb (P1) is greater than the com- the sensing bulb pressure (P1) exactly balances the
bined pressure from the evaporator (P2) and the spring pressure combination of the spring (P3) and evapora-
(PJ, the valve is forced open. If the combined pressure tor (P2). This state is known as equilibrium. The ther-
from the spring (PJ and evaporator (P2) are greater than mostatic expansion valve will hold this position until
the sensing bulb pressure (P1), the valve closes. the evaporator either warms or cools and pressures
With the compressor running, there is a tempera- change.
ture difference in the refrigerant between evaporator When the suction line temperature drops to the
inlet (TJ and outlet (TJ This temperature difference motor control's cut-off temperature, the motor con-
is called superheat, and it represents the sensible heat trol shuts down the compressor. With the compressor
(measurable temperature) absorbed by refrigerant stopped, the sensing bulb pressure (P1) and the low-
vapor passing through the evaporator outlet. A TXV is side pressure (P2) equalize. Since the sensing bulb
designed to maintain a set and steady superheat value. pressure (P1) and low-side pressure (P) cancel each
The refrigerant temperature at the outlet (T2) is usually other out, the spring pressure (P3) is enough to force
about 10°F (5.6°C) warmer than the refrigerant temper- the valve firmly into its seat. Refrigerant flow stops.
ature at the evaporator inlet (TJ. The valve will stay closed until the sensing bulb pres-
The refrigerant temperature at the evaporator sure (P1) once again overcomes the low-side pressure
outlet (T) is sensed by the TXV's sensing bulb. The (P 2) and spring pressure (P:J. This can only happen

Evaporator

• High-pressure liquid
• Low-pressure liquid
D Low-pressure vapor
D High-pressure vapor

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-6. A thermostatic expansion valve is operated by differences between the sensing bulb pressure and evaporator (low-
side) pressure. P1-Sensing bulb pressure acts to open the valve. P2-Evaporator pressure acts to close the valve. P3-Spring
pressure acts to close the valve . The valve opens when P1 is greater than combined force of P2 and P3 . The valve closes when
combined P2 and P3 forces are greater than P1.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 479

after the compressor is restarted and begins pumping Minimum Stable Signal (MSS) Setting
down pressure in the evaporator (P ). As the temperature of the evaporator drops, the
In some TXV systems, high-side and low-side pres- amount of superheat increases. The amount of super-
sures do not balance during the Off cycle. Therefore, heat in the suction line is largely determined by the
it is necessary to have a compressor that is capable of refrigerant control. The best superheat setting for an
starting under load. On the other hand, some special evaporator is the point that causes the least sensing
TXVs are equipped with bleed ports or valves that do bulb temperature change while the system is running.
equalize pressure, allowing a lower-torque compressor This setting is called the minimum stable signal (MSS)
motor to be used. point or setting.
If a thermostatic expansion valve is adjusted cor- For example, consider the following data regard-
rectly, it will close and remain closed whenever the ing the operating behavior of a particular valve and
compressor is idle. It will remain closed unless the evaporator combination:
evaporator is under reduced pressure, and the temper- • At l2°F (6.7°C) superheat, the bulb temperature
ature is above normal. This prevents flooding of the changes from 14°F to 10°F (7°C to 5.6°C).
low side with liquid refrigerant. A thermostatic expan-
• At l0°F (5.6°C) superheat, the bulb temperature
sion valve does not regulate the low-side pressure. It
changes from 11°F to 9°F (6.1°C to 5°C).
controls superheat by filling the evaporator with pre-

I
cise amounts of refrigerant. The pumping action of the • At 8°F (4.4°C) superheat, the bulb temperature
compressor establishes low-side pressure. changes from 8.5°F to 7.5°F (4.7°C to 4.2°C).
Some large air-conditioning systems may use • At 6°F (3.3°C) superheat, the bulb temperature
as many as six thermostatic expansion valves on one changes from 8°F to 4°F (4.4°C to 2.2°C).
evaporator. In this way, it is possible to maintain con- The minimum stable signal point would be an
stant pressures and temperatures, ensure the evapo- 8°F (4.4°C) superheat setting, because it produces the
rator has a full charge of refrigerant, and reduce the smallest variation in sensing bulb temperature, 1°F
pressure drop through the evaporator. (.6°C) of change. In order to make the system function
Flash Gas at maximum efficiency, the superheat setting should
As mentioned earlier, flash gas is refrigerant vapor therefore be adjusted to 8°F (4.4°C).
that forms in the evaporator due to a sudden drop in
Thermostatic Expansion Valve Adjustment
pressure between the high side and low side of the
A typical thermostatic expansion valve has an adjus-
system. As heat is absorbed to form the flash gas, the tem-
tor for increasing and decreasing spring tension inside the
perature of the remaining liquid refrigerant in the
valve assembly. Typically, turning the adjustor clockwise
evaporator drops.
increases spring tension. Turning the adjustor counter-
Superheat clockwise reduces spring tension, Figure 20-9.
The term superheat refers to the difference in tem- If spring tension is increased, a larger difference
perature between the evaporator inlet and the evap- between the sensing bulb and evaporator pressures is
orator outlet. See Figure 20-7. A system adjusted to required to open the valve. This results in less refrig-
operate at a normal 10°F (5.6°C) superheat is shown erant entering the evaporator. Less refrigerant means
in Figure 20-7A. Increasing the superheat too much it will be able to vaporize more quickly and begin to
starves the evaporator. Starving the evaporator absorb more sensible heat (superheat) than previously.
means that liquid refrigerant is present in only part If the superheat setting is increased too far, refrigerant
of the evaporator. Figure 20-7B shows the same valve will evaporate partway through the evaporator. This
adjusted to maintain a superheat setting of 25°F (14°C). will reduce the evaporator's heat absorption capacity
At this setting, the evaporator is starved, reducing the and overall system efficiency. This condition is known
efficiency of the system. as a starved evaporator.
On the other hand, lowering the superheat too If spring tension is decreased, a smaller pressure
much floods the evaporator. Too much refrigerant in difference is required to open the valve, resulting in
the evaporator can result in liquid refrigerant being less superheat in the system. If the superheat is reduced
drawn into the compressor. This condition is referred too far, not all of the refrigerant will evaporate before
to as liquid slugging, and it can damage the compres- it leaves the evaporator. Again, this reduces efficiency
sor. Figure 20-8 lists typical superheat setting ranges and also increases the risk that liquid refrigerant may
based on the operating temperature range of the evap- be drawn into the compressor. For optimum perfor-
orator. However, the manufacturer's recommendation mance, the valve should be adjusted so the superheat
for the superheat setting should always be followed. is set at the minimum stable signal (MSS) point.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

480 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

32°F

10°F superheat

22°F
• High-pressure liquid
• Low-pressure liquid
D Low-pressure vapor
A

47°F

25°F superheat

22°F
• High-pressure liquid
• Low-pressure liquid
D Low-pressure vapor
B
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 20-7. Superheat settings. A-This thermostatic expansion valve is adjusted to give a normal 10°F (5.6°C) superheat.
Liquid refrigerant will fill most of the evaporator. B-A TXV with a superheat setting that is high will starve the evaporator. Not
enough liquid will be allowed into the evaporator to fill it. System efficiency is reduced.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 481

The adjusting nut or screw is sensitive. It should

Typical Superheat Settings Based
not be turned more than one-quarter turn while the
on Evaporator Temperature Range
unit is operating. In addition, the system should be
Type of Evaporator Range of Typical given 10 to 15 minutes to stabilize at the previous set-
Superheat Settings ting before another adjustment is made.
Low-temperature 2°F to 5°F (1 .1°C to 2.8°C)
less than 0°F (-17.8°C) Hunting
Medium-temperature 5°F to 10°F (2.8°C to 5.6°C) The term hunting refers to a responsive mecha-
0°F to 30°F (-17.8°C to-1.1°C) nism going too far in one direction and then overcor-
High-temperature 10°F to 12°F (5.6°C to 6.7°C) recting and returning too far in the other direction.
greater than 30°F (-1.1°C) This may also be referred to as surging. The term
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
hunting, used in reference to refrigeration systems,
identifies the changes in refrigerant flow through the
Figure 20-8. A table showing typical superheat settings
based on evaporator temperature. This table provides typical refrigerant control.
ranges only. Always use the specific settings suggested by the If a valve hunts, it will alternately open up too
system manufacturer. wide, allowing too much refrigerant to flow into the

Sensing bulb

Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 20-9. Cross section showing the flow of refrigerant through a diaphragm -type thermostatic expansion valve. Sensing bulb
pressure is applied to the upper surface of the diaphragm. Low-side pressure and spring pressure applied to the bottom of the
diaphragm keep the valve closed until overcome by sensing bulb pressure. The adjustor can be turned to increase or decrease
pressure on the spring, which changes the amount of sensing bulb pressure needed to open the valve.

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482 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

evaporator, then close too far, not allowing enough Suction line
refrigerant into the evaporator. Each extreme change
reduces evaporator efficiency.
The less hunting, the more effective a system
will be. When a valve is hunting too much, a uniform
amount of refrigerant is not provided to the evaporator.
Hunting may even allow liquid refrigerant to reach the
compressor and cause compressor damage. In some
cases, hunting is caused by a valve that is too large for
the system.
Each thermostatic expansion valve and evaporator
combination has to be properly sized for its applica-
tion. In addition, a thermostatic expansion valve must
be properly adjusted. The superheat adjustment should
keep surging and hunting to a minimum. However, it
should still permit full evaporator use.

20.4.2 Thermostatic Expansion Valve Bulb Cooler

A
Design
A typical thermostatic expansion valve assembly
has a brass body into which the liquid line and evapo- Suction line
rator line are connected. The valve and seat are housed
inside the valve body. The valve is joined to a flexible
metal bellows or diaphragm. The valve is moved by
a rod, connected at the other end to a sealed bellows Capillary tube
or diaphragm (power element). A capillary tube con-
nects the sensing bulb to the top of the TXV, above the
sealed diaphragm. Figure 20-10 shows how tempera-
ture changes in the sensing bulb translate into up-and-
down movement in the valve.
The valve assembly is sealed to prevent refriger-
ant from seeping out and moisture from seeping in. A
filter-drier should be placed in the liquid line ahead of
the thermostatic expansion valve. A strainer (screen)
is located between the liquid line connection and the
valve assembly. The strainer keeps dirt away from the
valve and seat.
Bulb Warmer
Pro Tip B
Filter-Drier Location
• High-pressure liquid • Low-pressure liquid
Filter-driers are typically installed at the coolest
location that is outside of the refrigerated space and D High-pressure vapor D Low-pressure vapor
upstream from the metering device. On some split com- Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
fort cooling systems and heat pumps, filter-driers are
Figure 20-10. The effect of sensing bulb temperature on a
installed on the liquid line, just outside of the condens-
thermostatic expansion valve. A-The sensing bulb is cold,
ing unit. On other systems, the filter-driers are installed
pressure is low, and a considerable quantity of control fluid is
on the liquid line, immediately in front of the metering condensed in the bulb. B-The sensing bulb is warmer, and
device. On some systems, a filter-drier may be installed some control fluid has evaporated. The vapor is pushing the
at both of these locations. Always follow the manufactur- diaphragm downward, opening the valve further. For accurate
er's directions for positioning and installing a filter-drier. control, there must be enough control fluid in the sensing bulb
to ensure that it never completely evaporates.
Although a needle and seat are commonly used
to control flow through thermostatic expansion valves,

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 483

other types of valve mechanisms might be used for dif- of the valve diaphragm exposed to low-side pressure
ferent applications. For example, a ball valve is often used at all times. The connection between the lower dia-
instead of a needle in TXV designed for applications phragm chamber and the valve outlet may be a pas-
where the refrigerant capacity in the evaporator is criti- sage cast or bored into the valve, or it may simply be a
cally important. The ball provides positive closure with large clearance around the valve push rod that allows
very little refrigerant bleed-through. See Figure 20-11. refrigerant to leak past.
Although the valve mechanisms within TXVs In internally equalized TXVs, the bottom of the dia-
may vary, they all serve the same function. They open phragm is exposed to evaporator inlet pressure, and the
or close the valve orifice as needed to allow the proper top of diaphragm is exposed to sensing bulb pressure,
volume of refrigerant flow from the liquid line into the which is related to the temperature at the evaporator out-
evaporator. Some thermostatic expansion valves, like let. Therefore, internally equalized valves do not provide
those used in heat pumps and hot-gas defrost appli- accurate control when used with evaporators that have a
cations, are equipped with built-in check valves. The large pressure drop between the inlet and outlet.
check valve will not allow refrigerant to flow back
through the TXV. Externally Equalized Thermostatic Expansion
Valves
Internally Equalized Thermostatic Expansion An externally equalized thermal expansion valve

I
Valves has an external equalizer that connects the suction line
In order to sense the low-side pressure in the sys- at the evaporator outlet to a chamber inside the expan-
tem, the bottom of the thermostatic expansion valve sion valve, just below the diaphragm. The equalizer is
diaphragm must be exposed to low-side pressure. In a small tube, usually 1/4" OD, Figure 20-12.
an internally equalized thermostatic expansion valve, Because the equalizer delivers pressure at the bot-
a small passage connects the chamber under the valve tom of the diaphragm that is equal to the pressure at
diaphragm to the valve outlet. This keeps the bottom the evaporator outlet rather than the evaporator inlet,

Thermostatic

Sensing
bulb

Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 20-11. A ball valve, instead of a needle, is used in this thermostatic expansion valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

484 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

External
equalizer
Evaporator

• High-pressure liquid
• Low-pressure liquid
D Low-pressure vapor
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-12. A thermostatic expansion valve with an
equalizer. The equalizer delivers suction line pressure at the
sensing bulb location to the underside of a valve bellows or Emerson Climate Technologies
diaphragm (low-pressure side). This compensates for any Figure 20-13. This thermostatic expansion valve is externally
pressure drop through the evaporator while the compressor is equalized. The fitting for the equalizer is on the front of the
running. valve.

the valve compensates for any pressure drop through operating, the secondary port closes. Then, the valve
the evaporator. This allows the valve to provide the operates in a normal manner.
correct refrigerant flow, even when there are large Other TXVs are equipped with fixed bleed ports
pressure drops through the evaporator. A thermostatic that gradually equalize low-side and high-side pres-
expansion valve equipped with an external equalizer sures when the compressor is off. These bleed ports are
is shown in Figure 20-13. typically very small and do not adversely affect nor-
There is always some pressure drop through an mal valve performance. However, when the compres-
evaporator. An equalizer should be used if the pres- sor stops, enough refrigerant is able to pass through
sure drop between the inlet of the evaporator and the the bleed ports to equalize system pressures in three to
outlet is more than 4 psi (28 kPa). The equalizer pro- five minutes. Like the RPB TXVs, thermostatic expan-
vides the same pressure as is in the suction line at the sion valves equipped with fixed bleed ports are used
sensing bulb location. This equalizing of pressure will in systems that have motors with low starting torque,
permit accurate superheating adjustments. Pressure Figure 20-14.
drop in the evaporator tends to increase the superheat
effect, which in turn causes the valve to restrict flow Sensing Bulb Variations
more, leading to a starved evaporator. The sensing bulbs used in thermostatic expansion
valves can be divided into five types, based on the type
Thermostatic Expansion Valves with Bleed of fluid filling the bulb. Each variation of sensing bulb
Valves and Bleed Ports charge changes the operational characteristics of the
Some thermostatic expansion valves, like those valve. This means that the type of sensing bulb charge
used in many air conditioning systems, are equipped used in a thermostatic expansion valve affects how it
with bleed valves for rapid pressure balancing (RPB). reacts to conditions within a system. For this reason,
These types of valves allow a compressor motor with it is extremely important to select the proper thermo-
low starting torque to be used in this type of system. In static expansion valve for a given application.
this type of TXV, a secondary port opens when the com- The following are the five different types of charges
pressor stops running. Refrigerant flows through the used in thermostatic expansion valve sensing bulbs:
secondary port, quickly equalizing pressures between • Liquid-charged.
the low side and high side. When the compressor is • Gas-charged.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 485

always some liquid in the bulb regardless of its temper-

ature. Because the sensing bulb charge and evaporator
To evaporator
(low-pressure) are filled with the same refrigerant and the pressure
inside the bulb changes at the same rate as the pressure
From liquid line inside the evaporator, the valve maintains a constant
(high-pressure) superheat, or compressor superheat, setting.
In Figure 20-16, Curve A is a graph of evaporator
pressure plus superheat-spring pressure under varying
temperatures. Curve B is a graph of the sensing bulb pres-
sure under varying temperatures. Since the same refrig-
erant is used in the sensing bulb and in the system, the
curvature of Curve A and Curve B are identical.
At any given temperature, the pressure in Curve A
is greater than the pressure in Curve B. This pressure
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
difference occurs because Curve A represents a combi-
Figure 20-14. Simplified TXV mechanism with a bleed port.
When the valve is closed, small amounts of high-pressure
nation of evaporator pressure, which is affected by tem-
liquid refrigerant continue to pass through the bleed port and perature, and superheat-spring pressure, which is not

I
enter the low-pressure side of the valve. significantly affected by temperature. In this graph, the
pressure exerted by the superheat spring is represented
by the distance between Point a and Point b.
• Liquid cross-charged. Since the pressure in Curve A is greater than the
• Gas cross-charged. pressure in Curve B for any given temperature, it is
• Adsorption gas cross-charged. also true that the sensing bulb must be warmer than
Each manufacturer has a code for identifying the the evaporator in order for the thermostatic expan-
fluid that charges the sensing bulb. Some use letters; sion valve to remain open. This temperature differ-
others use colors or numbers. Some valves are marked ence results in the superheat added to the system and
with the refrigerant number; others are color-coded is represented in the graph by the distance between
to identify the refrigerant with which they are to be Point a and Point c.
used. Figure 20-15 shows several thermostatic expan-
sion valves identified by standard color coding. Green
indicates the valve is designed for use with R-22, light A
blue is for R-134a, and yellow is for R-12.
Liquid-Charged Sensing Bulb
Liquid-charged sensing bulbs are used in air
conditioners and some refrigeration systems. A liq-
uid-charged sensing bulb is charged with the same
refrigerant as the system. The quantity of fluid in the ~
::::,
liquid-charged sensing bulb is sufficient so there is I§
Q)
C.
E
Q)
I-

Pressure------+-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-16. In a thermostatic expansion valve with a
liquid-charged sensing bulb, changes in the sensing bulb
temperature and pressure mimic changes in the evaporator
temperature and pressure. Curve A represents the valve
closing pressures, a combination of the evaporator pressure
Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation and superheat spring pressure, graphed against temperature.
Figure 20-15. The labels on these thermostatic expansion Curve B represents the liquid -charged sensing bulb (valve
valve power heads are color-coded and include the alpha- opening) pressure graphed against temperature. Line ab
numeric designation of the refrigerant with which they are illustrates the superheat spring pressure. Line ac represents
designed to be used. the valve superheat.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

486 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Because there is always a reserve of liquid refrigerant C B

in the sensing bulb and the pressure in the sensing bulb
,,, A
mimics the pressure in the system, the sensing bulb main- /
/
tains control of thermostatic valve operation under all /
operating conditions. This is true even if the valve body c/ /

: •,
/

l
/
temperature is lower than the sensing bulb temperature. ' I
/
These elements are designed for a temperature /

range from approximately -20°F to 40°F (-28.9°C to ,/ :/

~ : ---1ta
4.4°C). This setup may cause some evaporator flooding ::::, : b /
when the system is pulling down from normal ambi- ~
Q)
/
/
ent temperatures. C.
E /
Q)
I-
,;c I I
,,
Liquid Cross-Charged Sensing Bulb / :/
, 'I
A liquid cross-charged sensing bulb uses a refrig-
erant that is different from the one in the system. For
b --j-1a
: I
this reason, the refrigerant in the sensing bulb behaves
differently than the system refrigerant under the same Pressure -------
conditions. A liquid cross-charged sensing bulb may Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
use a mixture of different refrigerants to achieve the Figure 20-17. Graph showing the behavior of a liquid cross-
desired operating characteristics. charged sensing bulb designed for an application within a specific
Liquid cross-charged sensing bulbs share many sim- temperature range. It provides a rapid pull-down and is used
for normal refrigeration. The superheat value at the top end is
ilarities with liquid-charged sensing bulbs. Some liquid high, which prevents any flooding of the unit. Curve A represents
is always present in the bulb, regardless of temperature. the evaporator pressure plus superheat-spring pressure under
Also, the sensing bulb continues to control the valve even varying temperatures. Curve B shows the saturation pressure
if the valve body temperature dips below that of the bulb. and corresponding temperature for the refrigerant in the system.
Liquid cross-charged sensing bulbs are designed Curve C represents sensing bulb pressure graphed against
for a temperature range from -40°F to 40°F (-40°C temperature. Line ab represents the superheat spring pressure.
to 4.4°C). These valves are usually used for either Line ac represents the valve superheat.
commercial low-temperature applications or with
extremely low-temperature systems. Figure 20-17 is
a graph of the operating characteristics of one type of This type of valve closes quickly when the com-
liquid cross-charged sensing bulb. pressor stops. This happens because the evaporator
Curve A shows how evaporator and superheat pressure increases faster than sensing bulb pressure
spring pressure varies with temperature. Curve B shows as the evaporator warms. As the suction pressure is
the saturation pressure and corresponding temperature reduced, the superheat is reduced, thus using maxi-
for the refrigerant in the system. Notice that the curva- mum evaporator surface. Hunting is reduced because
tures of Curves A and B are nearly identical, but that the pressure-temperature curve of the sensing bulb is
the pressure for Curve A is greater than the pressure in flatter, resulting in faster valve reaction. Figure 20-18
Curve B for any given temperature. The distance of the shows the difference in the performance curve of a
offset, Point a to Point b, is equal to the pressure added cross-charged sensing compared to a liquid-charged
to Curve A by the superheat spring. sensing bulb.
Curve C shows the pressure in the liquid cross- Gas-Charged Sensing Bulb
charged sensing bulb under varying temperatures. A gas-charged sensing bulb uses the same refrig-
Since the sensing bulb is filled with a different refrig- erant as the system. The amount of charge is such that
erant than the evaporator, its pressure/temperature all the liquid is vaporized at a predetermined tem-
curve has a different curvature than Curves A and perature. Increasing the temperature above this point
B. The superheat added by the valve equals the dis- causes a much slower increase in element pressure. As
tance between Points a and c. Note that the superheat a result, the expansion valve does not open any further
is greater when the evaporator is warm and is greatly with an increase in the cabinet temperature. However,
reduced as the evaporator is cooled. Because Curve C if the valve body becomes colder than the sensing bulb,
(sensing bulb pressure) is fairly straight and Curve A the vaporized control fluid condenses in the valve
(evaporator and spring pressure) is more curved, the body. Control is lost, and the valve closes. Gas-charged
valve will be more sensitive to changes in suction pres- elements are designed for a temperature range from
sure than to changes in the sensing bulb temperature. 30°F to 60°F (-l.1°C to 15.6°C).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 487

For example, if just enough control fluid is put into B

the sensing bulb to produce a maximum pressure of
40 psig (280 kPa), the sensing bulb pressure will not
significantly exceed this limit, even under the highest
possible system temperatures. When the low-side pres-
sure also reaches 40 psig, the valve will not open any
further. Thus, low-side pressure will not have to oper-
ate above 40 psi, Figure 20-19.
Thermostatic expansion valves with gas-charged Q)

::i
sensing bulbs require that the diaphragm and the sens- "§
ing bulb capillary tube be kept at a temperature warmer Q)
C.
than the bulb during the operating cycle. This is neces- E
Q)
I-
sary so the valve will be controlled by the bulb. If the valve
becomes colder than the bulb, the sensing bulb charge
may condense in the diaphragm case. The pressure inside
the entire sensing bulb will drop, even though the evapo- Pressure------
rator and bulb itself are warm. This will cause the valve to Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
close, or throttle, even though evaporator conditions war- Figure 20-19. Curve A in this graph shows the change in
rant the valve remaining open. evaporator and superheat spring pressure under varying
temperature. Curve B shows the gas-charged sensing bulb
Gas Cross-Charged Sensing Bulb pressure under varying temperature. After the sensing bulb

I
The gas cross-charged sensing bulb is charged becomes warm enough to vaporize all refrigerant in the
with a refrigerant different from the system refriger- bulb (Point a), any additional heat applied to the sensing
ant. The amount of charge is such that, at the desired bulb raises the bulb temperature, but does not significantly
increase pressure.

100°F Liquid cross-charged

element
temperature, all the refrigerant in the bulb is vapor-
ized. Once all the refrigerant in the bulb is vapor-

Uqu;d-cha,ged 1.;::.:·;: ~-;:·.. ized, the valve is at its maximum operating pressure.

,/:" , .~~
Increasing the temperature above this point does not
Q)

::i element ,Y significantly increase pressure in the sensing bulb.

"§

l 40"F} Air cond.

Q)
C.
Adsorption Gas Cross-Charged Sensing Bulb
E
Q)
Some types of gas cross-charged sensing bulbs
I- / ,' 25°F depend upon a different principle. In thermostatic
/ _,.- } Normal
0°F / / expansion valves with these sensing bulbs, the sens-

1
/
/
:
: -1QOF
} Low temp.
ing bulb contains two substances. One is a noncon-
densing gas, such as carbon dioxide, that provides
1 -40°F the pressure in the bulb. The other is a solid, such
I
as carbon, silica gel, or charcoal, that has the ability
Pressure to adsorb gas.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Adsorption is the adhesion of a layer of gas or
Figure 20-18. Graph showing constant superheat of liquid
liquid one molecule thick over the surface of a solid
cross-charged sensing bulb designed to be used for all three substance. There is no chemical combination between
applications (low temperature, normal, and air conditioning) the gas and the solid substance (adsorber).
as compared to a liquid-charged sensing bulb in wide
temperature ranges. The blue line shows system pressure Pro Tip
and superheat spring pressure under varying temperature
conditions. The red line shows pressure inside a liquid- Adsorption versus Absorption
charged sensing bulb under varying temperature. The orange Adsorption is often confused with absorption.
line shows pressure conditions inside a liquid cross-charged Adsorption occurs when a thin layer of fluid (gas or
sensing bulb under varying temperatures. The superheat liquid) adheres to a solid, but the two substances are
produced by a liquid cross-charged element changes as not mixed together. Absorption occurs when two sub-
temperature drops, but the superheat produced by a liquid- stances are mixed and become one substance.
charged element remains constant as temperature drops.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

488 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

The ability of a substance to adsorb gas depends results in less separation of oil and liquid refrigerant
upon the temperature. Substances more readily adsorb from the flowing vapor. The inside of the tube will be
gas at low temperatures. As the sensing element warms, uniformly coated with oil.
the pressure in the element will increase. This is due to the The suction line in Figure 20-22C is shown in vertical
release of the adsorbed gas. As the sensing element cools, position. In this position, there will be no separation of the
its pressure will decrease due to the adsorption of gas droplets of refrigerant from the vapor. However, the oil
back to the solid substance. The pressure change controls will uniformly coat the inside of the suction line.
the valve opening in the thermostatic expansion valve. In all cases, the temperature of the vaporized
Thermostatic expansion valves with this type of refrigerant and the droplets of liquid refrigerant will
sensing bulb have the advantage of a pressure-tem- be a few degrees colder than the suction line surface.
perature lag in their operation. They have very wide
temperature applications and may be used on any
refrigeration or air-conditioning system.

Sensing Bulb Mounting

The location and mounting of the sensing bulb are
very important. The sensing bulb must be in good ther- A
mal contact with the evaporator outlet, Figure 20-20. On
systems with small-diameter horizontal suction lines, the
..-
sensing bulb should be mounted on the top of the suction
line, as shown in Figure 20-20A. If the bulb is mounted
on a vertical suction line, the capillary tube of the bulb
~
should always enter from the top of the bulb, never from Suction line Sensing bulb
the bottom, Figure 20-20B.
The bulb must not be affected by the air or liq-
uid being cooled. It should be wrapped in insulation I

so that only suction line temperature affects the bulb,

as in Figure 20-20C. Special insulation forms are avail- Copper mounting
hardware
able that fit snugly around the sensing bulb, capillary
tube, and suction line.
The bulb must have excellent thermal contact with I

the suction line. Some sensing bulbs are crimped or ____.

creased lengthwise to provide double contact and help
align the sensing bulb with the surface of the suction
line. See Figure 20-21.
.....
B
The contacting surfaces of the tube and sensing bulb
must be clean, and the connection must be tight. Both the
Insulating
suction line and the sensing bulb should be cleaned with form
steel wool before the sensing bulb is installed. Copper
straps and non-rusting machine screws and nuts should
be used to fasten the bulb to the suction line.
The suction line carries refrigerant that is mostly
vaporized. However, there will be some droplets of
liquid refrigerant and some oil. Figure 20-22 shows
conditions inside various types of suction lines. In
Figure 20-22A, refrigerant vapor and some droplets C
of liquid refrigerant are flowing through a rather large Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

diameter suction line. Due to the large diameter, the Figure 20-20. Correct ways to attach a thermostatic
velocity of the vaporized refrigerant at times will be expansion valve sensing bulb to a suction line. A-If possible,
mount the sensing bulb in a horizontal position and on top
quite slow. The droplets of liquid refrigerant and oil
of the suction line. B-lf the sensing bulb must be mounted
will settle on the bottom of the line. vertically, make sure the capillary tube from the valve enters
The diameter of the suction line in Figure 20-22B the sensing bulb from the top, not the bottom. C-The
is smaller. As a result, the velocity of the vaporized sensing bulb should be properly insulated to prevent the air
refrigerant will be higher than in Figure 20-22A. This surrounding it from affecting its temperature.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 489

A
A

• • • •
B

.r·
i .i D Low-pressure refrigerant vapor
··i .
B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-21. Crimped sensing bulb. A-The crimp runs along
the bottom centerline of the sensing bulb. B-A crimped sensing
bulb contacts the suction line at two points rather than one.
i .i
. i.
i •i
[!] Liquid refrigerant droplets
G Oil droplets
. Oil I
C
This is due to the insulating quality of the oil that Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
coats the inside of the suction line. This is why proper Figure 20-22. Flow conditions in various suction lines.
mounting of the sensing bulb is critical. A-A large-diameter horizontal suction line. B-A small-diameter
horizontal suction line. C-A large-diameter vertical suction line.

20.4.3 Thermostatic Expansion Valve

Capacities the low side. Increasing this pressure difference will
increase the rate of refrigerant flow.
The capacity of a thermostatic expansion valve
It is important to use a valve of the correct capac-
(TXV) varies according to following characteristics:
ity. With an undersized valve orifice, the evaporator
• Orifice size. will be starved regardless of the superheat setting. The
• Pressure difference between the high side and the full capacity of the evaporator cannot be reached. If
low side. the orifice is oversized, the valve will hunt, or surge.
• Temperature and condition of the refrigerant in When the valve opens, too much refrigerant will pass
the liquid line. into the evaporator. The suction line will sweat or frost
The capacity of most thermostatic expansion before the sensing bulb can close the valve. Increasing
valves is based on the size of the orifice and the pres- the superheat setting to correct this condition results in
sure difference between the high side and low side the evaporator being starved much of the time.
of the system. The same valve body may be used for
many capacities. The larger the orifice, the more liquid 20.4.4 Special Thermostatic Expansion
refrigerant can be fed into the evaporator in a given
time. Valve assemblies are rated in tons of refrigera- Valves
tion. However, the same orifice usually has three dif- Most HVACR systems use a standard TXV with a
ferent tonnage capacities. This capacity range depends single inlet, outlet, and sensing bulb. However, some
on the pressure difference between the high side and system designs require special TXVs to accommodate

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

490 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

high system capacities, multiple evaporators, or large that splits the flow of refrigerant into several paths.
variations in operating conditions. Many different Such a design is used to reduce the pressure drop in a
thermostatic expansion valve designs are available to large evaporator.
fit specific applications. In a system with a distributor, there are separate
circuits or paths within the evaporator. Separate small
Distributors tubes run from the inlet of each of these circuits to the
Some systems have a refrigerant distributor con- distributor. The outlet of each circuit is connected to a
nected to the metering device. A distributor is a device manifold that feeds a single suction line, Figure 20-23.

Manifold

A
External
equalizer tube
Thermostatic
expansion valve

Suction line
Multiple-circuit
• High-pressure liquid evaporator
• Low-pressure liquid
D Low-pressure vapor
B
Rheem Manufacturing Company; Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-23. A thermostatic expansion valve equipped with a distributor provides multiple connections to evaporator. A-This
distributor feeds six separate circuits within the evaporator coil. B-Output from the TXV is equally distributed to separate circuits
in the evaporator.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 491

Because the refrigerant flows through shorter,

separate paths in the evaporator rather than one
long path, the pressure drop across the evaporator is
reduced. The reduced pressure drop results in a more
consistent temperature across the entire surface of the
evaporator. This is a popular design for air condition-
ing applications.
Systems that use a distributor must be carefully
designed so that each evaporator circuit receives an
equal amount of refrigerant. Distributors are available
with varying numbers of outputs and different tubing
sizes for different applications, Figure 20-24.

Pressure Limiters
Sometimes, a pressure-limiting expansion valve
is used to prevent overloading the condensing unit.
The maximum operating pressure (MOP) for the sys-
tem can be set by using a thermostatic expansion valve
equipped with a gas-charged sensing bulb, a gas cross-
charged sensing bulb, or a mechanical pressure limiter.
Mechanical Pressure Limiters
Pressure limiters are devices within the TXV that
prevent the evaporator pressure from exceeding a safe
operating limit. A pressure limiter is placed between
the sensing element and the needle valve. One type
of mechanical pressure limiter is composed of a dia-
phragm and a spring. It is designed to collapse at a cer-
tain pressure. Thus, if the pressure limiter is designed
to collapse at 40 psig (377 kPa), the valve will close if Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
the low-side pressure exceeds this amount, regardless Figure 20-24. Distributors are available in a wide range of
of the evaporator temperature and pressure. During capacities for different applications.
the Off cycle, the suction pressure is kept below the
pressure limit. This ensures that the compressor is
mechanism for the selection of either high-pressure or
not required to pull down high pressure at start-up.
low-pressure control.
Expansion valves equipped with this type of pres-
sure limiter offer rapid pull down on start-up and thus MOP Thermostatic Expansion Valves
require less torque at the compressor. See Figure 20-25. A maximum operating pressure (MOP), or pres-
In a pressure-limiting thermal expansion valve, a sure limit, may also be achieved using a thermostatic
gas-charged element provides a limit to the pressure expansion valve equipped with a gas-charged sensing
that will open the valve. The gas used is non-condens- bulb. As explained previously, when a gas-charged
able and obeys Charles' and Boyle's Laws. When the sensing bulb reaches a predetermined temperature,
low-side pressure exceeds a certain set value, the dia- all refrigerant in the bulb is vaporized. Any increase
phragm within the element will collapse. Since the in bulb temperature above the predetermined value
valve will not open again until the low-side pressure causes little or no increase in bulb pressure. This pres-
drops below the limit, the system can quickly pump sure limit is the maximum pressure under which the
down to a normal low-side pressure. expansion valve can remain open, and is referred to
Another type of pressure-limiting thermostatic as the valve's MOP setting. The MOP setting of a gas-
expansion valve has an adjustable pressure limiter. charged TXV is comparable to the pressure-limit set-
Above a certain pressure setting, the spring com- ting of a mechanical pressure limiter.
presses the diaphragm, closing the valve, Figure 20-26. There are two operational differences between
Frequently, it is necessary to have two different MOP thermostatic expansion valves (those equipped
pressure levels controlling a given valve. A control with a gas-charged sensing bulb or mechanical pressure
valve with two pilot pressure regulators is called a limiter) and non-MOP thermostatic expansion valves.
dual-pressure regulator. This system uses a switching The first difference is that MOP thermostatic expansion

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

492 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Sensing bulb

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-25. Thermostatic expansion valve equipped with a mechanical pressure limiter. The pressure-limiting element
consists of two diaphragms and a spring. Whenever suction pressure gets near the motor overload point, the spring between the
two diaphragms compresses and the valve reduces the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator.

valves close tightly during the Off cycle. As the evaporator and prevents flood back and overloading of the com-
warms up in the Off cycle, the maximum operating pres- pressor motor.
sure is reached. An increase in sensing bulb temperature MOP thermostatic expansion valves are used
will not open the valve. Assisted by the spring pressure with comfort cooling systems. They are also used with
(closing pressure), the valve stays tightly closed. indoor and outdoor coils found in heat pumps.
The second difference is that MOP thermostatic
expansion valves remain closed during pull-down. Pilot-Controlled Thermostatic Expansion Valves
Although temperatures and pressures are relatively Some large refrigeration installations (50 tons and
high in the evaporator during pull-down, the valve over) may use a pilot-controlled thermostatic expan-
remains closed until pressure drops below the MOP. sion valve. In these installations, a conventional ther-
This delay in valve opening permits rapid pull-down mostatic pilot valve is mounted on a large auxiliary

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 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 493

20.5.1 Automatic Expansion Valve

Operation
An automatic expansion valve increases refriger-
ant flow when evaporator pressure drops and decreases
flow when evaporator pressure increases. This action
maintains constant pressure in the evaporator when-
ever the system is running. As the compressor runs,
liquid refrigerant flows through the automatic expan-
sion valve and is sprayed into the evaporator. Here,
due to low pressure, the refrigerant boils rapidly and
absorbs heat. This vaporized refrigerant moves back to
the compressor through the suction line.
In the compressor, the refrigerant vapor is com-
pressed to high-side pressure and pumped into the
condenser. While flowing through the condenser, the

Suction line

I
connection

Liquid line Valve seat

connection

Automatic
expansion valve

Evaporator
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 20-26. Thermostatic expansion valve equipped with Motor control
an adjustable pressure limiter. sensing element

Liquid line
valve body. The thermostatic pilot valve regulates the
pressure that operates the larger valve.

Suction line
20.5 Automatic Expansion Valves
Condenser Filter-drier
(AXVs)
An automatic expansion valve (AXV), or pres-
sure-controlled expansion valve, is a metering device
that operates based on low-side pressure. The valve
throttles the liquid refrigerant in the liquid line down Compressor
to a constant pressure. A basic refrigeration system
with an automatic expansion valve metering device is
shown in Figure 20-27.
In this example, the compressor, motor, and con-
denser (condensing unit) are in the base of the cabi-
Liquid
net. Notice that there is no sensing bulb attached to the receiver
automatic expansion valve. Unlike a TXV, an AXV does
not control superheat. It controls only low-side pres- Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
sure. Refrigerant can flow through an AXV only if the Figure 20-27. Compression refrigeration system that uses an
evaporator pressure is reduced below a preset level. automatic expansion valve.

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494 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

vapor is cooled. The refrigerant gives up the heat that 20.5.2 Automatic Expansion Valve
it absorbed in the evaporator and returns to a liquid. It
then flows into the liquid receiver, ready to repeat the
Design
cycle. There are many different designs of automatic
The motor control thermal element is clamped expansion valves. The flexible part can be either a dia-
to the outlet of the evaporator. When the evaporator phragm or a bellows. Usually, it is made of phosphor
is cooled to its proper temperature, the motor control bronze and is soldered or brazed to the valve body.
turns off current to the compressor motor. After the Flexible elements must move in and out time after time
compressor stops and pressure in the evaporator rises, without losing flexibility. The valve body is usually
the automatic expansion valve closes. drop-forged brass, but sometimes it is cast. It must be
A system using an automatic expansion valve is leak proof. The liquid inlet has a soldered connection,
sometimes called a dry system because the evaporator standard flange, flared connection, or pipe thread. The
is never filled with liquid refrigerant, but with a mist or liquid inlet is usually equipped with a screen, designed
fog. Because the automatic expansion valve is operated for easy removal.
by low-side pressure alone, the system operates inde- Figure 20-28 is an external view of an automatic
pendently of the amount of refrigerant in the system. expansion valve. An arrow indicating flow direction
This type of system is used widely in small commer- is often stamped on an AXV to ensure proper instal-
cial applications. lation. A protective cap can be screwed on over the
These expansion valves are adjustable. They per- adjusting knob. The cap prevents the adjusting knob
mit the opening of the valve over a wide range of pres- from being accidentally moved. The valve capacity is
sures. Automatic expansion valves must be adjusted often stamped on this cap. An O-ring below the cap
for atmospheric pressure, which affects their opera- threads provides an airtight seal around the cap. This
tion. High altitudes will cause a decrease in atmo- prevents debris from entering the diaphragm housing
spheric pressure. The adjusting screw must be turned and seals in atmospheric pressure.
in (increasing opening spring tension) to make up for
the lower atmospheric pressure. Refrigerants with dif-
ferent evaporating pressures have different expansion ...____ Adjusting knob
valve settings. (under cap)
It is important to remember that the valve capac-
ity should equal the evaporator capacity. For exam-
ple, a one-ton expansion valve is used with a one-ton
capacity condensing unit. An under-capacity valve
tends to starve an evaporator (too little refrigerant gets
through). An overcapacity valve tends to allow too
--------- Diaphragm
much refrigerant into the evaporator when the valve housing
opens. This may cause sweat back or frost back on the
suction line. The terms sweat back and frost back refer
to the accumulation of condensation on the suction
line due to the difference in the line temperature and
ambient temperature.

Pro Tip
Expansion Valve Leaks Direction of
A faulty valve or seat in an expansion valve assem- flow arrow
bly will allow refrigerant to leak during the Off cycle. This
could allow liquid refrigerant to flow into the suction line.

l
When the compressor starts, this will be indicated by
frosting of the suction line. The presence of liquid refrig-
erant in the suction line may result in liquid refrigerant Outlet
being drawn into the compressor. This can cause the
compressor to knock severely and may cause compres-
Courtesy of Sporlan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
sor damage.
Figure 20-28. Typical diaphragm-type automatic expansion
valve.

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 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 495

Bellows-Type Automatic Expansion Valve diaphragm often has concentric corrugations (ripples)
Figure 20-29 is a simple drawing of a typical to improve its flexibility. See Figure 20-30.
bellows-type automatic expansion valve. In this type The diaphragm separates the atmospheric pres-
of valve, a flexible bellows is linked to a needle valve. sure and the system pressure. Four basic forces control
Atmospheric pressure or pressure from a confined gas the operation of the valve. Force 1 is the adjustable range
(P1) is inside the bellows. Evaporator pressure (Pz) is spring. Force 2 is atmospheric pressure. These forces work
pushing against the bellows. Adjusting screw spring together to move the diaphragm down, opening the valve.
force (F1) combines with the atmospheric or confined Force 3 is the evaporator pressure underneath the dia-
gas pressure (P1) and the liquid line pressure (P3) to phragm. Force 4 is applied by the closing spring, which
open the valve. Force from a different spring (Fz) com- pushes up on the diaphragm. These forces work together
bines with evaporator pressure (Pz) to close the valve. to move the push rod and ball assembly up, closing the
In some variations of this design, the liquid line pres- valve. When Force 1 and Force 2 are greater than Force 3
sure (P3) is applied perpendicular to the needle valve and Force 4, the valve opens. When Force 3 and Force 4 are
and, therefore, does not contribute any force to open- greater than Force 1 and Force 2, the valve closes.
ing or closing the valve. Another diaphragm expansion valve design is shown
As the evaporator pressure decreases, the pres- in Figure 20-31. The diaphragm movement is limited by
sure difference forces the bellows toward the valve the body and the adjusting screw. Threads fasten the dia-

I
body. Since the needle valve is linked to the bellows, phragm assembly to the body of the valve. A tightly fitted
it is forced away from its seat. Some liquid refriger- cap or cover plate, which protects the pressure adjustment,
ant sprays into the evaporator. Because the refrigerant can be removed to adjust the valve.
evaporates at a constant low pressure, the evaporator The diaphragm has a disk on the valve side. This
and cabinet temperature stay within design limits. disk presses on a pin that moves the ball valve away
from its seat. When the low-side pressure increases,
Diaphragm-Type Automatic Expansion Valve the diaphragm moves against the adjustment spring.
Diaphragm automatic expansion valves have stops This allows the spring at the ball valve to push the ball
to prevent too great a movement of the diaphragm. The valve against the seat.
As already mentioned, automatic expansion
valves can be adjusted to the correct evaporator pres-
sure. Turning the adjustment clockwise increases the
rate of flow, thereby increasing the low-side pressure.
Turning the adjustment counterclockwise decreases
the flow rate, decreasing low-side pressure.

Automatic Expansion Valve Bleeder or Bypass

Unless the automatic expansion valve used in a
system is equipped with a bypass or bleeder, the high-
side and low-side pressures will not balance during
the Off cycle. This means that the compressor must
start while under load.
Many compressor units are designed to start
only under a low load (low-torque) condition, as when
low-side and high-side pressures are equal. The equal
evaporator
pressures allow the compressor to start without push-
ing against a high pressure. Therefore, the motor will
require less starting torque.
Automatic expansion valves seal the refriger-
ant orifice during the Off cycle. To balance pressures,
some automatic expansion valves are equipped with
an opening designed to allow refrigerant to slowly
Figure 20-29. Simple drawing of a bellows-type automatic
leak past the valve when it is closed. Typically, a small
expansion valve showing the various pressures inside
the valve that control its operation. P1-Atmospheric or V-shaped slot is made into the valve seat. The bypass,
confined gas pressure. P2-Evaporator pressure. P3 -Liquid or bleeder, openings are quite small. They do not inter-
line pressure. F1-Adjustable-pressure (opening) spring. fere with the operation of the valve when the compres-
F2-Nonadjustable-pressure (closing) spring. sor is running, Figure 20-32.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

496 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Protective cap

Adjusting knob

_ _ _ _ _ Force 1:
range spring

Diaphragm
housing _ _ _ _ _ Force 3:
evaporator pressure

Push rod and

ball assembly

Inlet
Internal equalizer

_____ Force 4:
closing spring

• High-pressure liquid
Outlet • Low-pressure liquid
Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
Figure 20-30. Cross section of a diaphragm automatic expansion valve, showing the forces that control operation of the valve.
Force 1 is applied by the adjustable range spring. Force 2 is atmospheric pressure. Force 3 is evaporator pressure. Force 4 is
applied by the closing spring. The valve is designed to control the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator, maintaining a constant
evaporator pressure.

If this type of expansion valve is used in a system, 20.6 Electronic Expansion Valves
its compressor can be driven by a low-torque motor.
However, such a system must be charged with the cor- (EEVs)
rect amount of refrigerant, and the evaporator outlet must Another type of expansion valve that is becoming
have an accumulator. Otherwise, liquid refrigerant could more popular is the electronic expansion valve (EEV).
travel down the suction line. This could cause sweating or In this type of expansion valve, an electric operator
frosting on the suction line. Also, dangerous liquid refrig- is used instead of the diaphragm power assembly of
erant slugging could occur in the compressor. a TXV or the spring assembly of an AXV. There have

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 497

Ball valve and Adjusting

Inlet

Screen

Outlet
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-31. Cross section of another typical automatic expansion valve. Directional arrows indicate the flow of refrigerant
through the valve.
I
been a number of electric operators used over the
Needle years, including heat motors and magnetic operators.
However, the most common in modern systems is a
stepper motor operator.

20.6.1 Stepper Motor EEVs

In stepper motor EEV, a small stepper motor
is used to drive the pin or piston that operates the
valve. The stepper motor may either operate the valve
directly through its shaft, or it may transmit its power
through a gear train, which increases the torque. See
Figure 20-33.
The stepper motor responds to electric signals sent
by a controller by rotating a small, precise, and repeat-
able amount. This may be as little as one twenty-fourth
of a complete revolution or 15°. A lead screw translates
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher the rotary motion of the stepper motor into the linear
Figure 20-32. Type of needle valve and seat used in a (back and forth) motion needed to open and close the
bypass or bleeder automatic expansion valve. The notch in the valve port.
valve seat permits pressures to balance during the Off cycle. The lead screw is a threaded rod connected to the
However, because the notch is small, it does not affect the
normal operation of the valve during the On cycle.
stepper motor so that it rotates when the motor rotates.
A piston, or drive nut, with internal threads rides on
the lead screw. The piston is splined on the outside or
is prevented from rotating in some other way. Because
the piston cannot rotate with the lead screw, it is drawn
forward on the lead screw threads as the screw turns

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498 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

in one direction and backward on the threads as the

screw turns the other direction, Figure 20-34.
Since the direction of valve travel is based on the
direction of rotation of the stepper motor and lead
screw, the stepper motor can open the valve, close the
valve, or modulate the valve's position. Since this rota-
tion is so precise and repeatable, the controller can
Motor housing precisely position the valve for optimum flow under
widely varying load conditions.
Although the EEV is electrically driven and is
electronically controlled, it performs the same func-
tion as a thermostatic expansion valve, restricting
superheat to a desired setting. Superheat is the tem-
perature difference between the inlet of the evapo-
rator and the outlet of the evaporator. As with a
thermostatic expansion valve, the inputs used by an
electronic expansion valve are low-side pressure and
A temperature at the evaporator outlet. The pressure
reading is supplied from a pressure transducer con-
nected to the suction line, usually by an SAE or flare
connection. See Figure 20-35.
A pressure transducer is a device that converts
pressure into an electrical signal the controller can use.

a Stepper
motor

::llllii.
Motor lllllf1111111im 1111111
1 Gear
housing } train
111111111111111111111 1111111 Il l
I

• • I •

Guide-----• D Piston
l
Lead screw --------1 B Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation Figure 20-34. Inner parts of a stepper motor electronic
Figure 20-33. In this electronic expansion valve, the small expansion valve. The lead screw is turned by the stepper
stepper motor and gears drive a pin against the port. A-A motor. As the lead screw turns, threads on the bottom of it
cutaway of the valve. B-An exploded diagram showing the mesh with internal threads in the piston, causing the piston to
inner working parts. move up or down.

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 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 499

The evaporator temperature input is sent to the valve

controller from a temperature sensor mounted on the
suction line near the evaporator outlet. A temperature
sensor is an electrical device used to measure tempera-
ture. Often this is a thermocouple or thermistor.
Both the pressure transducer and the temperature
sensor are placed on the suction line in the same loca-
tion where the sensing bulb and external equalizer
Emerson Climate Technologies lines would be installed in a TXV system. The control-
Figure 20-35. A pressure transducer measures pressure at ler is placed nearby and receives the pressure and tem-
the evaporator outlet and sends a corresponding signal to the perature signals. See Figure 20-36.
controller.

Controller

Temperature
sensor

I
Pressure
transducer

Evaporator

Condenser

Compressor

• High-pressure liquid Liquid

D High-pressure vapor receiver
• Low-pressure liquid
D Low-pressure vapor

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-36. An EEV system uses a pressure transducer and a temperature sensor to send data to the EEV controller, which
calculates the valve response needed to achieve or maintain the preset superheat.

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500 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

An EEV's controller is an electronic device that The controller is typically supplied with 24 Vac
receives the temperature and pressure signals, uses from an external transformer. The 24 Vac are con-
them to calculate the proper valve response, and then verted, on the PC board, into the 12 Vdc the valve
sends commands to the stepper motor. Once the pres- motor requires and the 3 to 5 Vdc that the electronic
sure and temperature information is received by the components need.
controller, the controller's microprocessor calculates The stepper motors used in refrigeration valves
superheat using an internal pressure-temperature provide no position feedback to the controller. When
table. Most controllers include the pressure-temper- first powered, the controller will send the valve more
ature tables for a number of refrigerants. The correct steps than the valve can use. This overdriving rou-
one for the application can be selected by the user, tine is called initialization. It is done to ensure that
Figure 20-37. the valve is fully closed and at its zero open position.
The controller modulates the valve to maintain the Subsequent opening or closing commands are based
desired superheat, which is set by the user. The control- on this zero position.
ler does this using an algorithm that calculates the spe- If properly configured and applied, the stepper
cific position of the valve pin or piston required to allow motor will precisely respond to the number of step
the correct amount of refrigerant flow. Algorithms can commands it receives. To prevent accumulation of
be complex and specific to an application and are usu- missed steps, the controller occasionally may drive
ally held by the controller manufacturer as proprietary the valve fully shut and then furnish the valve with
information or even patented. additional steps, similar to initialization but without
Additional inputs that may be given to the con- as many steps. This will re-establish the zero position
troller include pump-down signals for defrosting or and allow the valve to correct any lost accuracy. Since
stopping the system, and additional temperature sen- the valve mechanism was designed for this type of
sors for ambient or room temperature monitoring. operation, the overdriving and initialization will not
damage the valve or controller.
Because the stepper motor will maintain its posi-
tion when power is removed, the motor does not need
to be constantly energized. While this saves energy
during normal operation, a power interruption to the
system will not automatically close the valve. In criti-
cal applications where refrigerant migration during a
power failure may be harmful to the system, a solenoid
valve in the liquid line closes during the loss of power
to the system, preventing refrigerant migration.
Due to their programmable controls, precise con-
trol of refrigerant flow, and responsiveness, EEVs can
be applied into an HVACR system in multiple ways.
Primarily they are used as the system's metering
device, controlling flow from high side into the low
side. However, EEVs can be used in HVACR systems
for other applications, such as evaporator pressure
regulators (EPRs) and hot-gas bypass or defrost valves,
Figure 20-38.

20.6.2 Pulse Width-Modulating (PWM)

Solenoid EEVs
PWM solenoid EEVs are refrigerant metering
devices that use a pulse width modulation signal to
control the operation of a solenoid valve for variable
with permission from Carel Industries - all right reserved
refrigerant flow, Figure 20-39. In this type of valve, a
control signal rapidly opens and closes a solenoid valve
Figure 20-37. The controller processes signals from
the sensors and sends control signals to the EEV when at different speeds in order to vary refrigerant flow.
adjustments are needed. Some have displays showing Since most solenoid valves are designed to be
measured superheat and the percent that the valve is open. either open or closed, they cannot maintain a valve

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 501

I
with permission from Carel Industries - all right reserved
Figure 20-38. EEVs are available in different styles and can be used in multiple applications in HVACR systems.

position located somewhere between open or closed. varying refrigerant flow. A solenoid valve's inability to
Other types of expansion valves, such as automatic hold the valve at an intermediate position would nor-
expansion valves and thermostatic expansion valves, mally exclude it from being used to modulate refriger-
can hold their valves at any position for the purpose of ant flow. However, by using a modulating electronic
signal to control whether the valve is open or closed
for specific intervals within a given amount of time,
PWM solenoid EEVs can be used to modulate refriger-
ant flow.
The longer a PWM solenoid EEV holds its valve
open during a given interval, the more refrigerant
flows into the evaporator. The shorter the amount of
time a PWM solenoid EEV holds its valve open dur-
ing a given interval, the less refrigerant flows into the
evaporator. In this way, a properly controlled solenoid
valve can be used to vary refrigerant flow.

20.7 Float-Operated Refrigerant

Controls
The metering devices discussed so far regulate
flow of refrigerant into the evaporator based on tem-
perature and pressure. Another class of metering
devices regulates refrigerant flow based on the quan-
tity of liquid refrigerant at different places in the sys-
tem. This approach to refrigerant metering requires a
liquid receiver, a tank built into the evaporator or con-
Invensys Climate Controls Americas
denser where liquid refrigerant accumulates, a float, a
Figure 20-39. A PWM solenoid EEV may look like a regular
valve, and a linkage between the float and the valve.
solenoid valve. This underscores the importance of the There are two main types of float-operated meter-
controller and control signal in regulating a PWM solenoid ing devices. The first type controls the flow of liquid
EEV's operation. refrigerant into the evaporator. This type is called a

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

502 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

low-side float. The second type controls the flow of liq- Insulation
uid refrigerant out of the liquid receiver on the high t
side of the system. This type is called a high-side float.
Low-side Float
float needle
20.7.1 Low-Side Float (LSF) Evaporator
A low-side float (LSF) is an efficient, yet simple,
refrigerant control. Its job is to maintain a constant
level of liquid refrigerant in the evaporator. It does this
by adjusting flow through its valve based on the level
of liquid refrigerant in the evaporator.
Systems that use this type of valve control are
known as flooded systems. The flooded evaporators
used in low-side float systems are efficient heat trans-
fer devices. This means that heat moves easily from the
evaporator shell to the liquid refrigerant inside.

Operation
In this type of system, liquid refrigerant flows L__J+-i+--++-- Pressure motor
control
from the liquid receiver through the liquid line. Liquid line
Refrigerant flow is metered by a low-side float needle.
The evaporator in this system consists of a finned tank.
Filter-drier
The tank contains a float and needle control. These
maintain a constant level of liquid refrigerant under a
low-side pressure. This refrigerant, since it is a liquid at
low pressure, is at a low temperature. The cold liquid
refrigerant will absorb considerable heat in both the
On and the Off cycles, Figure 20-40.
Some of the refrigerant inside the evaporator tank
vaporizes as warm air passes over the evaporator. The
vaporized refrigerant moves through the suction line
to the compressor. As this happens, the liquid level in
the evaporator tank drops, and the float drops with it.
As the float drops, the linkage between the float and
the needle valve causes the needle valve to open fur-
ther. This increases the flow of liquid refrigerant into • High-pressure liquid
the evaporator until the proper liquid level is reached. • Low-pressure liquid D Low-pressure vapor
As the float rises with the liquid level, it closes the Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
needle valve, slowing the flow of liquid refrigerant Figure 20-40. A system that uses a low-side float refrigerant
into the evaporator and maintaining the desired level. control. Note the motor controller mounted on the suction line
This operation continues until the preset pressure level is triggered by suction line pressure.
is reached and the motor controller cuts power to the
compressor motor.
The pressure on the low side in a flooded system and the compressor motor stops. When the pressure in
such as this will vary with the temperature. The higher the evaporator rises to a level corresponding to a pre-
the temperature, the higher the low-side pressure. For set refrigerant temperature, the cycle will repeat. The
this reason, such systems usually use low-side pres- compressor motor will then start again.
sure to control the compressor motor. A spring-loaded The cabinet temperature may be controlled by
pressure-sensitive switch is located on the suction a temperature control switch. In such systems, the
line or on the evaporator. When the low-side pressure temperature-sensitive element is usually clamped to
rises, the switch closes and activates the compressor the fins on the evaporator. This type of system is use-
motor. As the motor drives the compressor, the pres- ful when a constant temperature is desired. It is often
sure and temperature in the evaporator are reduced. used on drinking fountains and other systems that are
At a given pressure setting, the pressure switch opens required to maintain a constant temperature.

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 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 503

In systems with a low-side float-controlled meter- refrigerant. The receiver must be large enough to store
ing device, the pressures do not balance during the all liquid refrigerant that is in the system.
Off cycle. Therefore, it is necessary to use a motor that The float itself may be a sealed ball, a sealed cylin-
will start under a load. Such a system also requires a der, or an open pan. It is connected by levers to a needle
rather large refrigerant charge. This is because there is or ball valve. This valve closes when the liquid level
liquid refrigerant in both the liquid receiver and in the reaches the correct height. The valve opens when some
evaporator. of the refrigerant evaporates and the liquid level drops.
All flooded systems are quite efficient. Cold liq- In evaporators equipped with float-operated
uid refrigerant wets the evaporator surfaces, providing metering devices, the suction line extends into the
excellent heat transfer. These systems are also easy to float chamber. In a pan float design, the suction tube
service. The float needle and seat must be kept in good extends to the bottom of the pan. This ensures that oil
condition to prevent excessive flooding of the low side. collected in the pan is drawn into the suction line and
recirculated, Figure 20-42.
Construction Oil picked up by the vapor is normally returned
Figure 20-41 is a cutaway illustration showing through a small opening at a predetermined level in
the exterior and the interior construction of a flooded the suction return tubing. Since the diameter of the
evaporator equipped with a low-side float. Either a hole is small, if the unit is not level, the oil will not
temperature-operated or pressure-operated motor con- return to the compressor. When this occurs, the oil
trol may be used. A low-side float system usually has forms a layer on the surface of the liquid refrigerant.
a large receiver built into the evaporator for the liquid This condition is referred to as oil binding. The layer of

I
Suction line
connection

Liquid line
connection

Float valve needle

Refrigerated shelf

Tray
stop

• Low-pressure liquid
D Low-pressure vapor
. Oil

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-41. A flooded evaporator equipped with a low-side float. Note the suction line and the liquid line connections. The float
and needle mechanism maintain a constant level of liquid refrigerant in the evaporator.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

504 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Float pan

--
Liquid
level

Lead gasket

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-42. A pan float is used in this low-side float valve assembly. The suction line dips to the bottom of the open float pan in
order to remove oil that might otherwise accumulate in the pan.

oil prevents the refrigerant underneath from evaporat-

~ Inlet from condenser
ing at a rapid rate or at the temperature correspond-
ing to the pressure. Special provisions must be made
to return any excess oil to the compressor. This is done
by using an oil return wick or a small bypass at the
liquid refrigerant surface.
~
Many large ammonia refrigeration systems and
some water-cooling systems use a low-side float con-
trolled metering device. A low-side float may be used
in multiple evaporator systems.

20.7.2 High-Side Float (HSF)

A high-side float (HSF) is a float-type metering
device that regulates refrigerant flow into the evapo-
rator based on the volume of liquid refrigerant in the
high-side receiver. A typical high-side float refriger-
ant control assembly consists of a chamber, a float,
a valve, and a lever connecting the float and valve,
Figure 20-43.
Floats are made of either copper or steel. In her-
metic units, steel is usually used. Needles and seats are
made of longwearing alloys, such as stainless steel or Lever Needle valve
hard-surfaced alloys. A system equipped with a high- Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
side float will not have a separate liquid receiver. The Figure 20-43. A typical high-side float assembly. Liquid
function of the liquid receiver is accomplished by the refrigerant flowing in from the condenser causes the float to
float chamber instead. rise, which opens a needle valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 505

Like low-side floats, high-side floats are used A high-side float may be installed right next to the
in flooded systems. The evaporators in flooded sys- evaporator, so that refrigerant leaving the valve directly
tems have a reservoir that is always filled with liquid enters the evaporator, or it may be installed at some dis-
refrigerant. tance from the evaporator and connected to the evapora-
tor through the liquid line. If the high-side float valve is
Operation installed away from the evaporator, as in Figure 20-44,
Figure 20-44 is a drawing of a high-side float the system must be designed so the refrigerant exiting
refrigerant control system. As the compressor runs, the float valve is still under pressure. This prevents the
refrigerant from the condenser flows into the high- refrigerant from vaporizing before it reaches the evapo-
side float chamber. As the chamber fills, the float rises, rator. That means an additional valve or other restric-
opening a valve at the chamber's outlet. This allows tion must be installed between the liquid line and the
more liquid refrigerant to flow through the control evaporator to provide the required pressure drop. A
valve. When the liquid level inside the float chamber capillary tube is frequently used in place of a standard
drops, the valve closes, slowing the flow of refrigerant. liquid line. If a larger liquid line is used, it should have
The amount of refrigerant allowed to pass through the a weight valve at the evaporator inlet.
float valve equals the amount of refrigerant vaporized A weight valve is a simple valve consisting of a
in the evaporator. weighted needle, an adjustment spring, a valve seat, an

Motor control
sensing element

Evaporator I
Temperature
motor control

Insulation

Condenser
.__ _ _ Liquid
line

Suction line --1--1-----i~ Compressor

High-side float

• High-pressure liquid • Low-pressure liquid

D High-pressure vapor D Low-pressure vapor
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 20-44. A compression system equipped with a high-side float refrigerant control. Note that a weight valve is installed
between the liquid line and the evaporator. This valve keeps the liquid line pressurized to prevent refrigerant from vaporizing
ahead of the evaporator.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

506 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

inlet port, and an outlet port. The refrigerant pressure in desired. It is frequently used in the flooded cooler of
the liquid line must overcome the weight of the needle a centrifugal chiller. The equipment is easy to service.
and spring pressure in order to pass into the evapora- However, the amount of refrigerant charged into the
tor. This further limits the flow of refrigerant and creates system must be very accurately measured. The evapo-
a pressure drop between the liquid line and evaporator. rator must receive the correct amount of refrigerant in
Figure 20-44 shows a weight valve in the liquid line. order for the system to operate correctly. Extra refriger-
The evaporator is under low pressure. Therefore, ant will overcharge the evaporator and cause frosting
the tubing connecting the high-side float and the of the suction line.
evaporator should be insulated. Either a tempera- High-side float systems do not have as much
ture or a pressure motor control can be used on this trouble with oil distribution as low-side float controls.
type of system. The motor control's sensing element At higher pressure, the oil dissolves and circulates
will be located in the refrigerated space, as shown in more readily in the liquid refrigerant. However, the
Figure 20-44. evaporator used with a high-side float control must be
The high-side float system is popular in commer- equipped with a special oil return, otherwise oil bind-
cial applications where high operating efficiency is ing will still occur.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
A pressure-limiting expansion valve closes the
Summary TXV when suction pressure exceeds a preset
• Metering devices restrict refrigerant flow from limit to prevent overloading the compressor.
the liquid line into the evaporator, thereby Pressure limits can be achieved using a
maintaining the proper pressure drop between mechanical pressure-limiter or a gas-charged
the high side and low side of an HVACR or gas cross-charged sensing bulb.
system. Fixed metering devices provide a • Automatic expansion valves (AXVs) adjust
constant rate of refrigerant flow while the refrigerant flow based solely on low-side
compressor is running. Modulating metering pressure. By doing so, they maintain a constant
devices adjust their orifice size to compensate pressure in the evaporator. Such systems are
for heavy loads and other changes in the referred to as dry systems, because they do
operating conditions of the system. not allow liquid refrigerant to build up in
• Metering orifices and capillary tubes use their the evaporator. AXVs can be operated by a
small openings to produce a pressure drop diaphragm or bellows mechanism. During an
between high and low sides of a system. They AXV system's Off cycle, high-side and low-side
both allow high-side and low-side pressures to pressures will not equalize unless the valve is
equalize during the Off cycle. equipped with a bleeder valve or bleeder ports.

I
• Thermostatic expansion valves (TXVs) adjust • Electronic expansion valves (EEVs) are
to changes in low-side pressure and evaporator controlled by an electric operator. There are
temperature to maintain a predetermined different types of electric operators in use, but
superheat. A sensing bulb installed on the the stepper motor operator is the most common
suction line provides pressure to the top of in modern systems. A stepper motor is an
the valve's diaphragm, which controls the electric motor capable of rotating in very small,
opening of the valve. Evaporator pressure and a precise increments. Because of the repeatable
superheat spring apply pressure to the bottom and precise rotation provided by a stepper
of the valve's diaphragm, which works to close motor, an EEV can maintain optimum flow
the valve. Unless the TXV is equipped with a under widely varying load conditions and
bleed valve or bleed ports, the high-side and be used in different applications in HVACR
low-side pressures will not equalize during the systems.
Off cycle. • Low-side floats are installed in an evaporator
• The type of refrigerant charge in a TXV's tank. This tank is always filled with liquid
sensing bulb and the tension of the superheat refrigerant, which is why these types of
spring affect the temperature and pressure systems are referred to as flooded systems.
conditions under which the valve opens and As the liquid level in the evaporator tank
closes. The superheat spring tension must decreases, the float lowers, opening the valve
be properly adjusted to provide optimum and allowing more liquid refrigerant into the
evaporator efficiency and reduce valve hunting. evaporator. When the liquid level rises, the float
rises with it, closing the valve.
• The capacity of a thermostatic expansion
valve is dependent on orifice size, the pressure • High-side float systems are installed in a
difference between the low side and high chamber in the condenser or liquid line. As
side of the system, and the temperature and the liquid level in the chamber rises, the float
pressure of the refrigerant in the liquid line. also rises, opening the refrigerant control valve
An undersized TXV will starve the evaporator and allowing liquid refrigerant to pass into
regardless of the superheat setting. An the evaporator or the liquid line. If the float is
oversized TXV will cause excessive hunting installed at a distance from the evaporator, an
and suction line frosting. additional restriction, such as a capillary tube
or weight valve, must be installed on the liquid
• A distributor splits the flow of refrigerant line to prevent the refrigerant in the liquid line
coming out of a metering device and supplies from vaporizing due to pressure drop.
equal portions of the flow to separate, parallel
circuits within the evaporator. This reduces
pressure drop through the evaporator and
allows more uniform cooling across the coil.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 507

508 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

6. The purpose of a bleed valve or bleed port in

Review Questions a thermostatic expansion valve is to _ _.
Answer the following questions using the information in A. ensure that the underside of the
this chapter. diaphragm is exposed to the same
pressure as the evaporator outlet
1. The simplest type of the following metering B. equalize low-side and high-side pressure
devices is the _ _. during the Off cycle
A. thermostatic expansion valve C. reduce valve hunting during operation
B. automatic expansion valve D. vent refrigerant to the atmosphere if high-
C. low-side float side pressure becomes excessive
D. capillary tube
7. Which of the following types of sensing
2. _ _ metering devices automatically change bulbs are charged with the same type of
their orifice sizes to account for changes in refrigerant used in the system?
load. A. Gas-charged and adsorption gas cross-
A. Adsorption charged.
B. Equalizer B. Gas-charged and gas cross-charged.
C. Fixed C. Liquid-charged and gas-charged.
D. Modulating D. Liquid-charged and liquid cross-charged.
3. Which of the following statements regarding 8. A mechanical pressure limiter or a _ _ can be
capillary tubes is not true? used to limit the maximum operating pressure
A. A capillary tube equalizes pressure (MOP) of a thermostatic expansion valve.
between the high side and low side during A. liquid-charged sensing bulb
the Off cycle. B. liquid cross-charged sensing bulb
B. A capillary tube positioned so that a C. gas-charged sensing bulb
portion of it is in contact with the suction D. All of the above.
line functions as a heat exchanger for
improved system efficiency. 9. Which of the following statements regarding
C. Having a proper refrigerant charge is less automatic expansion valves is not true?
critical in a system with a capillary tube A. An AXV closes as evaporator pressure
than it is in a system with a thermostatic rises and opens as evaporator pressure
expansion valve. drops.
D. The performance of a capillary tube is B. Automatic expansion valves must be
determined by its inside diameter, its adjusted for atmospheric pressure.
length, and the number of turns. C. The evaporator of a system equipped with
a properly operating automatic expansion
4. The top of a thermostatic expansion valve's valve will not become entirely filled with
diaphragm is exposed to ___J which works liquid refrigerant.
to close the valve. D. Sensing bulb pressure acts to close the
A. atmospheric pressure valve and low-side pressure acts to open
B. high-side pressure the valve.
C. low-side pressure
D. sensing bulb pressure 10. Which of the following statements regarding
stepper motor EEVs is not true?
5. The adjustor on a thermostatic expansion A. Its controller will occasionally fully close
valve changes the _ _. the valve by sending the stepper motor
A. diameter of the valve's inlet passage more step signals than it can use.
B. diameter of the valve's outlet passage B. A stepper motor can rotate in small,
C. magnetic strength of the coil. precise, and repeatable increments.
D. tension on the superheat spring C. A stepper motor EEV has a gear train and
threaded piston that convert the motor's
rotation into linear movement of the valve.
D. A stepper motor regulates flow as it
responds to a PWM signal by opening and
closing rapidly.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 20 Metering Devices 509

11. A _ _ varies refrigerant flow by varying the

speeds at which a solenoid-operated valve
opens and closes.
A. dual-pressure EEV
B. float-operated EEV
C. pulse-width modulating EEV
D. variable-frequency solenoid EEV
12. Which of the following statements regarding
a low-side float system is not true?
A. The evaporator has a large receiver that
holds liquid refrigerant.
B. The float can be a sealed ball or an open
pan.
C. The high-side and low-side pressures
balance during the Off cycle.
D. These systems are often referred to as
flooded systems.
13. Which device is used to reduce pressure drop
across a large evaporator?
A. bleeder or bypass

I
B. distributor
C. heat exchanger
D. pressure limiter
14. In heat pump systems, which metering device
uses a movable piston that allows full flow in
one direction and causes a pressure drop for
flow in the other direction?
A. automatic expansion valve
B. capillary tube
C. metering orifice
D. thermostatic expansion valve
15. A high-side float is a float-type metering
device that regulates refrigerant flow into
the evaporator based on the _ _ of liquid
refrigerant in the high-side receiver.
A. pressure
B. subcooling
C. temperature
D. volume

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER21 Heat Exchangers

Chapter Outline
21.1 Evaporators
21.1.1 Air-Cooling Evaporators ;, Learning Objectives
21.1.2 Liquid-Cooling Evaporators
. h" h pter will enable you to:
21.1.3 Fin-and-Tube Evaporators :: Information int is c a . oling and liquid-cooling
21 _1.4 Plate Evaporators • Compare and contrast air-co
21 1 5 Microchannel Evaporators evaporators. d
· · Domestic Refrigerator
21.1.6 · Eva porators • Explain the construction of fin-and-tube, p 1ate, an
21 1 7 Air-Conditioning Evaporators microchannel evaporators. .. .
21 ·_1·_8 Commercial Re f rigera
. t·ion Is
Evaporators • Compare an d contrast domestic, air-cond1t1oning,
t
21 1 9 Evaporator Defrost Contra and commercial refrigeration evapora ors.
· · Evaporator Defrosting · Methods
21.1.10 =
:: • Summariz . e the operation of evaporator defrost
21.2 Condensers
21.2.1 Air-Cooled Condensers
5 controls and defrosting methods.
=== • Describe the d"ff
I eren t t y pes of water-cooled
21.2.2 Water-Cooled Condensers
21.2.3 Evaporative Condensers condensers. .
21.2.4 Residential Condensers ii • Explain the modes of operation of evaporative
21 2 5 Commercial Condensers . condensers. .. .
21 :2:6 Air-Cooled Condenser Construction Compare an d con t ra St domestic ' air-cond1t1oning,
21 3 Head Pressure Control A. • d commercial refrigeration condensers.
. 21.3.1 Head Pressure Contra I- Condenser 1r an
• Descri"be the construction of the different types of
Louvers d Control air-cooled condensers. I that
21.3.2 Head Pressure Control-Fan Spee
h d f head pressure contra
and Cycling . t • Explaindthe met _o 1iu~ers fan speed and cycling,
use con enser air ,
21.3.3 Head Pressure Control-Electric Hea
and electric heat. .
21.4 Other He~t Ex~hanL?er~d Line Heat Exchangers .
21.4.1 Suction Line- 1q~1 . . uid Line • Summarize the operation an d purposes of suction
mercial
21.4.2 Commercial Refrigeration Liq line-liquid line heat exchangers and com
Subcoolers liquid line subcoolers. I h t
21.4.3 Plate Heat Exchangers • Explain the construction an d o peration of p ate ea
21 .4.4 Heat Recovery Systems exchangers and heat recovery systems.
 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 511

Technical Terms • The volume of a gas is directly related to the

temperature of the gas and inversely related to the
air defrosting plate heat exchanger pressure acting on the gas. (Chapter 5)
air-cooled condenser pump-down defrost • Pascal's law states that pressure applied upon
air-cooling evaporator pump-down solenoid a confined fluid is transmitted equally and
baffles reverse cycle hot-gas undiminished in all directions. This law applies to
brine solution defrost both liquids and gases. (Chapter 5)
combined-flow shell-and-coil condenser
• The higher the pressure is on a substance, the higher
condensate pump shell-and-tube condenser
the temperature needed to bring about a change of
counterflow subcooler
physical state. The reverse is also true. The lower
defrost ti mer suction line-liquid line
the pressure applied to a substance, the lower the
eddy currents heat exchanger
temperature needed to bring about a change of
electric heat defrost sweet water
physical state. (Chapter 5)
evaporative condenser sweet water bath
fin-and-tube evaporator time-initiated, pressure- • Gay-Lussac's law states that if volume is held
terminated defrost constant, the temperature of a gas varies directly
gravitational circulation
timer with its pressure. As one variable rises, the other
head pressure control

I
time-initiated, variable rises. As one drops, the other drops.
heat recovery system
(Chapter 5)
hot-gas defrost temperature-terminated
hot water reclaim tank defrost timer • A saturated vapor describes an enclosed quantity
immersed evaporator time-initiated, time- of a vaporized fluid that could condense if heat
Iiqu id-cooling evaporator terminated defrost were removed or pressure increased. Saturated
microchannel timer vapor often exists alongside a liquid form of the
nonfreezing solution tube-within-a-tube same substance. This is common in evaporators and
defrost condenser condensers during refrigeration system operation.
off-cycle defrost water defrost (Chapter 5)
overdefrosti ng water-cooled condenser
plate evaporator
Introduction
Review of Key Concepts A heat exchanger is any device that transfers heat
from one medium to another. In a refrigeration system,
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help low-pressure refrigerant flows through an evaporator and
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter: absorbs heat from indoor air. This heat is later released
• Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. from the now high-pressure refrigerant in a condenser to
Energy is the ability to perform work or the ability to outside air. Both evaporator and condenser are examples
cause a change in matter. There are three methods of of heat exchangers. A heat exchanger uses two separate
heat transfer: radiation, conduction, and convection. mediums. One medium is releasing heat, and the other
(Chapter 4) is absorbing heat. In many cases, these two mediums are
• Latent heat is heat absorbed or released as a refrigerant and air. However, different types of systems,
substance changes state. Latent heat has no effect such as chillers and hydronic systems, use water as a
on the temperature of a substance. Sensible heat is medium. Heat exchangers in forced-air heating systems
the heat energy absorbed or released to change the are dependent on the method of heat production. Those
temperature of a substance. (Chapter 4) will be covered in the heating chapters.
512 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

21.1 Evaporators Because the density of air is relatively low, heat

transfers through it slowly. After heat has been absorbed
Evaporators and condensers are the most com- into the metal, it travels efficiently and quickly. Upon
monly recognized heat exchangers in HVACR systems. reaching the interior surface of the tubing, heat can
They can be categorized multiple ways and applied to again have difficulty in reaching the liquid refrigerant
systems to meet specific purposes. Many are built sim- in the system. Gas bubbles clinging to the internal sur-
ilarly (fins and tubes) and with the same types of mate- face of the tubing, along with an oil film, reduce the
rials (copper and aluminum) and even look similar to heat flow.
each other, Figure 21-1. Evaporators can be further categorized into three
There are two basic types of evaporators, as cat- groups, based on their use and case temperatures
egorized by the medium they are designed to cool: maintained:
• Air-cooling evaporators are used to directly cool
the air within a cabinet or other conditioned space.
• Liquid-cooling evaporators are used to cool a body
of liquid that is then used to cool other substances.

21.1.1 Air-Cooling Evaporators

Air-cooling evaporators are evaporators that are
designed to directly cool the air in a conditioned space.
In a system with an air-cooling evaporator, air is the
primary medium for cooling the conditioned space
and its contents.
An air-cooling evaporator transfers heat from the
air circulating over it to the refrigerant inside its tubing.
As the warmer air comes in contact with the evapora-
tor, the air molecules transfer some of their heat to the
fins on the evaporator. This heat, in turn, is conducted
through the fins to the tubing. The heat then passes to Blissfield Manufacturing
the liquid refrigerant inside the tubing, vaporizing and Figure 21-2. A fin-and-tube style air-cooling evaporator made
superheating it, Figure 21-2. of copper and aluminum.

Lordan A.C.S. Ltd

Figure 21-1. A variety of evaporators and condensers for different applications.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 513

• Low-temperature (-10°F to 28°F)-frozen foods, The process of allowing the heat from the air
such as ice cream, frozen dinners, and frozen in the conditioned space to melt the frost from the
vegetables. evaporator coils is called air defrosting. It clears the
• Medium-temperature (28°F to 40°F)-fresh foods, evaporator surfaces of frost, restoring efficient heat
such as eggs, vegetables, and lunch meat. transfer. It also keeps a high relative humidity (about
90% to 95%) in the conditioned space. However, this
• High-temperature (40°F to 60°F)-perishables,
approach requires a relatively small temperature dif-
such as flowers, candy, and cakes.
ference between the evaporator and the air in the
The conditions under which an evaporator must
cabinet. Since the temperature difference between the
work determine what class of evaporator is chosen.
evaporator and the conditioned air is lower, the evap-
These conditions include the desired cabinet tempera-
orator must be larger in order to produce the same
ture range and the temperature difference between the
amount of cooling.
evaporator and the cabinet.
Evaporators in medium-temperature applica-
Low-Temperature Applications tions may occasionally have trouble getting rid of
Evaporators used in low-temperature applica- moisture. After frost near the top of the evaporator
tions, such as commercial freezers, continuously build melts, it flows downward over the rest of the evapo-
up frost when the compressor is operating. As the frost rator surface. Sometimes, before this moisture can

I
grows thicker on an evaporator coil, it reduces the drain away, it freezes around the lower part of the
heat transfer between the refrigerant in the evaporator evaporator. This ice accumulation on the evaporator
and the ambient air. Frost acts as a thermal insulator, fins may eventually block air circulation around the
reducing cooling capacity. Since the system has a cut-in evaporator. Such blockage interferes with proper
temperature below freezing, the frost that builds up on refrigeration.
the evaporator will not melt during the Off cycle.
Heat must be applied to low-temperature evapora- High-Temperature Applications
tors for defrosting. Otherwise, the refrigeration system Evaporators in high-temperature applications
would need to be left off until the temperature of the operate at temperatures above 32°F (0°C). Frost,
air in the conditioned space could rise above freezing therefore, does not normally form on the evaporator.
and melt the frost. In most low-temperature applica- Occasionally, the evaporator may frost up slightly
tions, leaving the refrigeration system off and allowing just before the compressor shuts off. However, this
the temperature in the conditioned space to rise above frost quickly melts during the Off cycle. Since the
freezing would be unacceptable, as it could spoil or evaporators do not frost over, they remove little
ruin the products being refrigerated. Therefore, evapo- moisture from inside the cabinet. Therefore, a rela-
rators used in low-temperature applications must be tive humidity of 75% to 85% is maintained in these
equipped with some form of defrost system. cabinets. This helps to keep produce fresh and stops
shrinkage weight loss.
Pro Tip
Natural-Draft and Forced-Draft Evaporators
Frost and Humidity
In addition to their operating temperatures, air-
Frost that forms on the evaporator comes from cooling evaporators can be further categorized based
moisture in the air. As moisture forms into frost, the cab-
on their means of circulating conditioned air. There are
inet air becomes drier. Dry air rapidly dries out food that
is not sealed. A larger temperature difference between
two main subclasses of air-cooling evaporators:
the evaporator and air will increase frost buildup and • Natural draft.
decrease humidity in the space. A lower temperature • Forced draft.
difference between the evaporator and air will slow frost
buildup and not reduce humidity in the space as much. A natural-draft evaporator is an evaporator that
depends on gravity for air circulation. Gravitational
circulation occurs because cold air is denser than
Medium-Temperature Applications warm air and sinks below the warmer, less dense air.
In a medium-temperature application, the evapo- Hot air rises as cold air falls.
rator operates at temperatures below 32°F (0°C). This A forced-draft evaporator is an evaporator unit
causes frost to accumulate on the evaporator. However, equipped with a fan. The fan blows air over the evapo-
after the compressor shuts off, the evaporator coil may rator coil's compact arrangement of refrigerant-cooled
warm up above 32°F (0°C). The frost then melts, even tubes and fins. The evaporator coil and fan are usually
without the aid of a defrost system. enclosed in a metal housing.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

514 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

21.1.2 Liquid-Cooling Evaporators characteristics of the water. Firstly, it raises the temper-
ature at which the water will boil. Secondly, it lowers
Liquid-cooling evaporators are evaporators that the temperature at which the water will freeze. See the
are designed to cool a liquid rather than air. The cooled Appendix for tables of brine solutions with a freezing
liquid then acts as the primary medium for cooling point and specific gravity for each.
the conditioned space and its contents. Liquid-cooling
evaporators can be either immersed or tube-within-a-tube. Immersed Evaporator (Sweet Water)
An immersed evaporator is a plain coil that is Some refrigeration and air conditioning installa-
submerged and mounted inside a container filled with tions immerse the evaporator in tap water, adding no
a liquid that provides good heat transfer. The cooled salt or other substance. Tap water used in this manner
liquid is circulated and can be used for various pur- is referred to as sweet water. A setup with an evapora-
poses. This liquid may be water or a brine. Immersion tor immersed in sweet water is called a sweet water
evaporators are more efficient than air-cooling evapo- bath.
rators because liquids transfer heat faster than air. Sweet water baths are often used in soda foun-
Multiple evaporator systems use either a low-side tains. A coil of tubing containing the liquid to be
float in a flooded evaporator or a thermostatic expan- cooled and consumed by the customer is submerged
sion valve metering device. Smaller, self-contained in the same water as the evaporator coil. This design
installations may use a capillary tube metering device. allows the sweet water to freeze around the evaporator
during the On cycle. The light ice accumulation acts as
Immersed Evaporator (Brine) a reserve of refrigeration, Figure 21-3.
Some refrigeration and air conditioning applica- The evaporator should reach to the bottom of
tions require that water be kept from freezing at tem- the bath if the bath temperature is to be less than
peratures considerably below the normal freezing 39.1°F (4°C). As water cools from 39.1 °F (4°C) to 32°F
temperature of 32°F (0°C). Other applications require (0°C), it expands and rises. Therefore, the coldest
that water at atmospheric pressure be kept from boil- water will be at the top. This is why an evaporator
ing at temperatures above 212°F (100°C). coil must be located at the bottom of a sweet water
Adding certain substances to water creates a bath in order to cool the water and beverage prop-
brine solution and changes at least two important erly and evenly.

Ice reserve

• Low-pressure liquid refrigerant Sweet water bath

D Low-pressure vapor refrigerant • Beverage
D Ice

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 21-3. Sweet water (tap water) baths are often used for soda fountains.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 515

21.1.3 Fin-and-Tube Evaporators Fin Arrangements

Various methods are used to bond evaporator
The major types of air-cooling evaporator con- fins to the evaporator tubing. Some manufacturers
struction are fin-and-tube, plate, and microchannel. attach the fin to the tubing with a press fit, Figure 21-5.
The most widely used and recognized is the fin-and- Another method of bonding tubing to off-center fins
tube style of evaporator. Fin-and-tube evaporators is shown in Figure 21-6. Flanging can be used to auto-
have metal fins of various styles and types connected to matically space fins, as shown in Figure 21-7.
the evaporator tubing. These evaporators are available Fin spacing varies between 1/2" and 1 1/2" (1 cm
in different arrangements. The parts most commonly and 4 cm) for natural-draft evaporators and 1/16" to
varied are the fins, fittings, and tubing. Materials vary 1/4" (2 mm to 6 mm) for forced-draft evaporators. This
as well, for different applications. Some common com- spacing impacts the number of fins that can be used
binations of materials used include copper tubing with and the amount of surface area exposed to the air that
aluminum fins, copper tubing with copper fins, and
steel tubing with aluminum fins (for ammonia R-717),
Figure 21-4.

0 0
u u 1
1 2

I I I

3
0 4
I
Peerless of America, Inc.
Figure 21-6. Mechanically bonding tubing to off-center
fins. 1-0riginal tubing and fin. 2-Tubing is formed into an
Lordan A.C.S. Ltd elliptical shape. 3-Tubing is inserted into the fin opening.
Figure 21-4. Evaporator fins can be made of different material 4-A fixture holds the fins while the tube is pressed into the
based on the needs of a given application. same shape as the fin openings.

Pipe

Fin

Step 1: Step 4:
Setup Fin bending Bending back Completed mechanical
the fins fin and tube connection
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-5. One method of mechanically bonding evaporator fins to_ tubin_g i_nvolve~ dishing the f~ns to expand the fin hole for
the tubing. After the tube is inserted, a mandrel is used to flatten the fin so It firmly pinches the tubing.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

516 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

is being cooled. A manufacturer can adjust the cool- individual refrigerant circuits that run in parallel with
ing ability of an evaporator by changing the spacing each other. Each refrigerant circuit is fed from a dis-
and number of fins in the design. Adding more fins tributor attached to the outlet of the metering device,
increases the exposed surface area and results in and each circuit feeds into a suction line header. This
greater cooling ability, Figure 21-8. design evenly distributes heat absorption throughout
Fin spacing is also adjusted to compensate for the the evaporator and reduces pressure drop across the
depth of the evaporator. The deeper the evaporator, evaporator, Figure 21-10.
the greater the fin spacing (to minimize air restriction). Some evaporator manufacturers use special
Evaporators that have (!' to 8" (15 cm to 20 cm) depth usu- designs inside the tubing. These inner designs may
ally have 1" (2.5 cm) spacing. Those with 18" to 20" (38 be incorporated to increase the surface area contact
cm to 51 cm) depth often have 1 1/2" (4 cm) spacing. Fin between the tubing and the refrigerant. Other designs
spacing of 1" or less decreases air turbulence. The tubing are intended to swirl the refrigerant. This improves
used usually is 5/8" (16 mm) OD. However, 3/4" (19 mm) heat transfer from the circulating air to the boiling
OD tubing is used in large evaporators, Figure 21-9. refrigerant and helps the refrigerant carry oil.

Tubing Arrangements
Some companies use one continuous piece of
tubing for the complete evaporator. Others make the
bends separately and then braze straight lengths of
tubing to them. Many evaporators are composed of

-Fins

\ (
-----.,.....J t
Lordan A.C.S. Ltd
Figure 21-9. Layers of fins being assembled on the tubing of
a large heat exchanger.
Tubing

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-7. Flanged fins mounted on a section of tubing. The
flanges determine the fin spacing.

Lordan A.C.S. Ltd

Figure 21-8. Fin space differs for heat exchangers based on its Lordan A.C.S. Ltd
application. Since evaporators run the risk of becoming blocked Figure 21-10. By connecting headers and return bend
with frost or ice buildup, they cannot always have fins as close connectors in different ways, the refrigerant circuit can be
together as condensers, which have no risk of frosting. shorter, longer, or designed for specific applications.

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 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 517

Baffles
Baffles are surfaces in and along air ducts that direct cases an external female nut is placed on the tubing
airflow through the evaporator and throughout the cabi- before it is flared. Some manufacturers use a male flare
net. They are designed to guide forced air all around the fitting brazed to the end fin. Figure 21-11 shows the
interior of the conditioned area. This eliminates dead air two types of evaporator fittings.
spots or areas where warm air can collect.
Any horizontal baffle or drain pan should be insu- 21.1.4 Plate Evaporators
lated. The top surface may be in contact with cold air.
The under part of the baffle may be in contact with Plate evaporators are heat exchangers fabricated
relatively warm air. If the baffle were not insulated, from two metal sheets, welded together, that form a
this temperature difference could cause condensation. series of passages through which refrigerant flows.
Eddy currents (small circular flows of air) would also Plate evaporators can be designed for use as forced-
disturb airflow in the cabinet. draft evaporators or can be used as natural-draft
Multiple-baffled evaporators often circulate air evaporators, as seen in some domestic refrigerators
using natural drafts. The air flows around the cabi- and freezers. A serpentine flow configuration provides
net because of the weight differences of the cold air high internal flow velocities and high heat transfer
and the warm air. Warm air is lighter and, therefore, rates, Figure 21-12.
rises in the box. This natural circulation must not be
blocked or the cabinet temperature will not be con-
stant. Baffling the evaporators promotes and acceler-
ates this natural circulation of the air. Baffles may also
serve as drain pans.

Fitting Arrangements
21.1.5 Microchannel Evaporators
Microchannel evaporators are more compact and
efficient than fin-and-tube evaporators. Microchannel
describes a construction in which fluid passages are
less than 1 mm in diameter. These small refrigerant
I
Many evaporators are equipped with fittings that passages are surrounded by tightly packed fins that
are used to connect tubing to the evaporator. In some further increase surface area for efficient heat transfer.

Male fitting brazed

to tubing and -
fin evaporator f---L----'-1.J..LI.J.I..U..L.l.J,;IL.-.............,._~ _ _ ___.

Female fitting
(flare nut)
flared to evaporator tubing
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-11. Fittings used to attach refrigeration lines to an evaporator.

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518 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Danfoss
Suction Distributor Liquid line Figure 21-14. Cutaway of microchannel evaporator tubes and
manifold fins. Tightly packed fins provided increased convection.
Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
Figure 21-12. A serpentine coil plate evaporator.

Microchannel evaporators are made of extruded

aluminum to create small passages through a flat tube
as shown in Figure 21-13. Refrigerant flows through
the header and into the small holes in the tubes. By
using flat tubes, the microchannel evaporator has more
tube surface contacting the fins. This improves conduc-
tion. There is also a greater number of fins per square
inch, which improves convection, Figure 21-14.
Microchannel evaporators are up to 30% more effi-
cient that the traditional copper fin-and-tube evapora-
tors, so their size can be relatively small for the same
cooling capacity as fin-and-tube. The use of lightweight
aluminum is also a benefit of this design, Figure 21-15.

A/coil
Figure 21-15. A flat panel microchannel evaporator.

21.1.6 Domestic Refrigerator Evaporators

Domestic refrigerator and freezer evaporators
are usually of two designs: natural-draft and forced-
draft. Natural-draft evaporators are also known as
plate evaporators. They transfer heat by conduction of
the warm cabinet air to the cooler evaporator plate and
the refrigerant path formed between the two plates. A
plate evaporator consists of an upper plate, a refriger-
ant path, and a bottom plate. This "sandwich" allows
Figure 21-13. Note the small refrigerant passages in this efficient heat transfer from the surface of the plates to
microchannel evaporator. the refrigerant path within the plates, Figure 21-16.

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 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 519

Plate evaporators can be designed to surround the This increase in airflow across the evaporator speeds
walls of a freezer section. up the heat transfer process through the use of convec-
Natural-draft evaporators have the advantage of tion. By using an evaporator fan, the evaporator coil
not requiring an evaporator fan. Conduction is used can be placed behind the refrigerated cabinet in a pro-
to transfer heat from the cabinet to the evaporator. The tected area that is not exposed as a plate evaporator is.
disadvantage of a plate evaporator is that the refrig- Figure 21-17 shows a typical forced-draft evaporator in
erant tubing is exposed in the case. Care needs to be a domestic appliance.
taken not to puncture the evaporator when cleaning or Most forced-draft evaporators use automatic
working on the unit. defrosting to remove ice buildup. The defrost cycle is
usually timed to occur at regular intervals to ensure
Pro Tip that adequate airflow is allowed to pass over the
Plate Evaporator Care evaporator coils. For more information on evaporators
and defrosting in domestic refrigerators and freez-
Some plate evaporators require manual defrosting.
As ice forms around the evaporator, the ability to trans-
ers, see Chapter 23, Overview of Domestic Refrigerators
fer heat from the cabinet is reduced. Poor cooling per- and Freezers and Chapter 24, Systems and Components of
formance is often a result of "ice block" formation. The Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers.
unit must be shut down and defrosted. To do this safely,
place a pan of hot water in the case and close the door
for a period of time. Use a sponge and rags to wipe up
all melted water. Never use a sharp metal object to "chip"
at the ice. This may result in puncturing the evaporator.

Forced-draft evaporators require airflow to be

moved around the cabinet to transfer heat to the coil.
21.1.7 Air-Conditioning Evaporators
Most residential air-conditioning evaporators are
direct expansion and forced-draft type. Construction
is generally fin-and-tube. A blower fan circulates air
through the fins where heat is absorbed from the air
into the refrigerant within the tubing. Many evapora-
I
Forced-draft evaporators are commonly designed with tors for air conditioning applications are A-coil evapo-
fins mounted on their tubing. The purpose of the fins is rators, Figure 21-18.
to expose a greater surface area to the cabinet air. The
warm air from the cabinet transfers heat to the fins,
which then transfer this heat to the refrigerant in the Evaporator fan Evaporator
tube. Conduction is the method of heat transfer from
the fin to the tube.
Forced-draft evaporators include an evaporator
fan to circulate the cabinet air across the evaporator.

Plate evaporator

Maytag Maytag
Figure 21-16. Typical plate evaporator in a domestic Figure 21-17. Forced-draft evaporators may be located behind
refrigerator-freezer. a panel in the cabinet area of domestic appliances.

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520 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

evaporator is large. A large evaporator operates with a

small difference (10°F to l2°F) between the air and refrig-
erant temperatures. It should also circulate air slowly.
In some cases, drying is not harmful and air can
be allowed to flow through the evaporator rapidly. In
such installations, small evaporators are practical. They
are operated at a greater temperature difference, such
as 20°F to 30°F (11°C to l7°C). Thermostatic expansion
valve metering devices are usually used with forced-
Blower
draft evaporators.
An evaporator's fan motor may be any size and,
in coolers, may run continuously. The fan motor could
also be controlled by either the evaporator tempera-
Suction ture or fixture temperature. Refrigerant temperature is
header usually kept quite low. Rapid air circulation keeps the
evaporator from frosting up. However, considerable
condensation does occur, so drainage tubing should be
connected to these evaporators, Figure 21-20.

Return
bends

Distributor

Tecumseh Products Company

ClimateMaster
Figure 21-19. A typical commercial refrigeration forced -draft
Figure 21-18. The evaporator in this upflow residential air evaporator designed for ceiling mounting. Air enters at the
handler is a modified A-coil. The lengths of return bends along back and exits at the fans.
the side indicate the location angles of the refrigerant coils.

A distributor is often used to divide the incom-

ing liquid refrigerant into separate parallel circuits
throughout the evaporator. This helps to provide a more
uniform temperature throughout the coil. Superheated
vapor gathers in a suction header that passes the refrig-
erant along to the suction line.

21.1.8 Commercial Refrigeration

Evaporators
Many types of evaporators are used in commer-
cial mechanical refrigeration. Customers demand great
variety in commercial refrigeration. Therefore, special
evaporator designs are required for many installations.
Evaporator coils are generally designed to take up little
space, Figure 21-19. Bally Refrigerated Boxes, Inc.
Forced-draft evaporators have a tendency to cause Figure 21-20. Note the evaporator drain tube connection for
rapid dehydration (drying) of foods. Special care must be removal of condensation and defrost water on this forced-air,
taken to avoid this. Drying will be minimized if the multi-fan evaporator unit.

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 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 521

Forced-draft evaporators operated at low refriger-

ant temperatures should have some form of defrosting
control. Frost or ice buildup can drastically interfere
with heat transfer. Evaporators that are designed for
low-temperature applications have cooling fins that are
spaced further apart than the cooling fins on evapora-
tors for medium- and high-temperature applications.
The additional space between the fins allows air to flow
around the fins even when there is some frost buildup.
Forced-draft evaporators are used in medium-
and low-temperature walk-in coolers. They are built
in a variety of capacities, depending on the evaporator
load required. Large evaporators may contain up to six
evaporator fans. If used, a microprocessor can control
the operation of the expansion valve, the defrost sys- A
tem, and the fan.
Conditioned space cabinets may have limited
room. A few common mounting locations for forced-
draft evaporators in walk-in coolers include the upper
corners of the cabinet, the wall opposite the windows or
the reach-in doors, and along the ceiling, Figure 21-21.
Display cases are narrow and there is little
room for the evaporator. Many of the cases are open.
Figure 21-22 shows a single evaporator installation for
a double-duty case with sections for display and stor-
age. A display case using a forced-draft evaporator is
shown in Figure 21-23.

21.1.9 Evaporator Defrost Controls

Many evaporators operate at temperatures below B
freezing. The demand for open display cases for fro-
zen food requires these low-temperature systems. The
evaporators operate at refrigerant temperatures of 0°F
(-18°C), -10°F (-23°C), and even-20°F (-29°C) and use a
forced-draft circulation.
Operation of evaporators in low temperatures
causes frost buildup between the evaporator fins.
Although the fins of evaporators used in low- temper-
ature applications are spaced wider than those used
in medium- or high-temperature applications, frost
still builds up in the space between the fins. Frequent
defrosting is needed to prevent the air passages
between the fins from becoming clogged with frost. A
defrosting system must be able to remove frost buildup
from the evaporator without causing an unacceptable
rise in cabinet temperature.
Automatic defrost systems need a control to start C
U.S. Coaler Campany
the defrost cycle. HVACR systems often use defrost
Figure 21-21. Forced-draft evaporator mounting locations.
timers to fulfill this role. A defrost timer is a control
A-Forced-draft evaporator mounted in the upper corner of
device that starts and stops a system's defrost cycle, a cabinet. B-Two-fan forced-draft evaporator mounted on
Figure 21-24. the back wall of a bakery storage room. C-Forced-draft
The complexity of defrost timer wiring depends evaporators mounted along the ceiling of a florist storage
on the number of functions controlled during the room.

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522 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Conditioned Defrost interval

air (23-25°F) 24-hour clock switches
Return air
(30-33°F)

Wiring terminals
A
24-hour clock
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-22. A cross section showing the airflow pattern of
a double-duty display case. Note the temperature differences
between the display section and the storage section.

Lighting
fixture

••Evaporator
Case ground Wiring terminal block

• •• B
Grass/in Controls Corporation; Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
Figure 21-24. Defrost timers. A-This electronic defrost timer
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher has 15-minute interval defrost switches set along its 24-hour
Figure 21-23. The diagram shows an open display case with clock. B-This mechanical defrost timer is time-initiated and
a forced-draft evaporator located in the base of the cabinet. time-terminated.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 523

defrosting process. Some defrost timers open the hot- day. The length of defrost time can be adjusted on most
gas solenoid valve, stop the fan motors, energize auxil- systems. A defrost timer may activate the defrost cycle
iary electric heater elements, and run the compressor. at preset times of the day or after a given number of
A defrost timer also may be used to prevent the start hours of compressor operation.
of the normal refrigeration cycle until the evaporator Some defrost timers count down to the next
temperature is low enough. The more devices a defrost defrost cycle continuously, others count down only
timer controls, the more complicated its wiring will be. when the compressor is running. These defrost tim-
Some basic electrical circuits with defrost timers are ers are wired in parallel with the system compressor.
shown in Figure 21-25. In this way, the defrost timer and compressor are both
Each evaporator design has its own requirements supplied with the same power for the same amount of
for successful operation. Some evaporators need to be time. These defrost timers will start the defrost cycle
defrosted after each refrigeration cycle and some every after a set amount of compressor running time has
few hours. Others need defrosting no more than once a been recorded.

Line
Motor load to

208-240V,
60 Hz
Line
Defrost heater
to 4000W
Line

208-240V,
60 Hz

Line
or
hot-gas valve
2 hp fan

I
Compressor to
2 hp or starter coil
D
Line Compressor to
2 hp or starter
coil
208-240V,
60 Hz
Compressor
Line to 2 hp or
Line
starter coil
120V,
60 hz
Common

Line

Line 120V, 2 hp fan

60 hz motor
120V,
60 Hz Common
E

Line

120V, 60 Hz

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-25. Wiring diagrams for several types of defrost control arrangements. A-Circuit controlled by an SPDT (single-pole,
double-throw) switch that activates an electric heater defrost as it shuts off the compressor. B-Circuit controlled by a DPST
(double-pole, single-throw) switch that only shuts off the refrigerating unit. C-Circuit controlled by a DPDT (double-pole, double-
throw) switch. It shuts off a compressor and a fan and turns on two electrical heater defrost circuits. D-Circuit for delayed fan
shutoff during defrost and for turning on one defrost circuit. E-Circuit controlled by a DPDT (double-pole, double-throw) switch
for delayed fan shutoff and two defrost circuits.

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524 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Three variables are used to control defrost timer

operation: time, temperature, and pressure. Different
combinations of these variables are monitored and
used in starting and stopping defrost cycles. Three
common combinations of defrost timer operation con-
trol are the following:
• Time-initiated, time-terminated.
• Time-initiated, temperature-terminated.
• Time-initiated, pressure-terminated.

Time-Initiated, Time-Terminated Defrost Timers

A time-initiated, time-terminated defrost timer
turns on defrost operations at a preset time and ends
the defrost operation at a preset time. These timers Johnson Controls, Inc.

are used only on systems where the length of time for Figure 21-26. Defrost control with a timer and sensing bulb.
defrosting and the length of time between defrosting The timer starts the defrost action. Located on the evaporator,
the sensing bulb signals the control when the frost has melted
can be determined and will remain constant.
so the system can be returned to cooling mode.
While many defrost timers initiate a defrost cycle
by time, they often terminate the defrost cycle based on
temperature or pressure. A defrost timer often has a time
termination setting, but this may be best used as a backup Temperature-terminated defrost control can also
or safety measure to ensure that the evaporator is not be accomplished using thermistors that react to the
overdefrosted. Overdefrosting is a condition in which a temperature of the evaporator. If the temperature of
defrost cycle continues long enough to raise the tempera- the evaporator drops below the defrost cut-in tempera-
ture of the conditioned space too high. This temperature ture, a signal from the thermistor tells the defrost con-
rise can begin to thaw products in a refrigerated or frozen trol to start the defrost cycle. When the evaporator coil
display case. The formation of ice crystals on the outside reaches the defrost cut-out temperature (around 40°F)
of a product indicates the product began to thaw and then the signal from the thermistor tells the defrost control
refroze during the refrigeration cycle. to end the defrost cycle. Normal operation of the refrig-
To prevent overdefrosting, defrost timers often eration system begins again.
use temperature termination or pressure termination
to stop the defrost cycle before the timer stops the cycle. Time-Initiated, Pressure-Terminated
This practice conserves energy and prevents thawing Defrost Timers
and refreezing of products, which can spoil or damage A time-initiated, pressure-terminated defrost
some products. timer turns on defrost operations at a preset time, and
it turns off defrost operations when a preset pressure
Time-Initiated, Temperature-Terminated is reached. Pressure termination of the defrost cycle is
Defrost Timers often done using a sensing bulb and pressure switch.
A time-initiated, temperature-terminated When pressures correspond to a temperature in which
defrost timer turns on defrosting operations at a preset all the frost has been melted, pressures will be high
time and stops defrosting operations when the evapo- enough to return the system to the refrigeration cycle.
rator reaches a preset cut-out temperature. A timer
starts the defrost cycle. The control returns the system Condensate Pumps
to normal operation when the evaporator temperature Moisture produced from defrost condensation
reaches the cut-out temperature, Figure 21-26. The should be removed from the evaporator and condi-
defrost cut-out temperature should be set high enough tioned space. Often, condensation is removed through
that it allows the frost to melt and drain off the coil. drain piping. When condensation cannot easily flow
A defrost termination switch is installed in a location downward through a drain, it may need to be pumped
where the last of the frost will leave the evaporator elsewhere. A condensate pump is designed to pump
before defrosting is complete. Once temperature rises condensate from the system to a drain, Figure 21-28.
high enough, the defrost control will switch the system A condensate pump is used when condensate can-
back to the cooling mode. An electrical diagram for a not drain properly due to gravity alone, but must be
time-initiated, temperature-terminated defrost timer pumped up to a higher elevation or remote location
is shown in Figure 21-27. where a drain is available.

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 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 525

Line voltage

Magnetic Defrost
starter heater Line
voltage

Compressor
Temperature
switch

Defrost timer-------+:
A
Timer motor --L---~

Sens;ng element=
y
Paragon, Invensys Climate Controls Americas •
Figure 21-27. This wiring diagram for a defrost control has the timer motor start the defrost cycle, and a temperature switch
returns the system to normal operation. The temperature switch is wired into the compressor control circuit.

Check valve ?n Electronic A condensate pump is mounted on the drain and

outlet connection controls is self-priming. It is air cooled and is capable of oper-
ating continuously, providing the vents are not cov-
ered. A float switch activates the pump when the water
depth is sufficient and shuts the pump off when the
condensate has been removed.

Pro Tip
Condensate Pumps in Air Conditioning and Heating
Condensate pumps are also used to drain con-
densate produced by comfort cooling systems and the
slightly acidic condensate produced by high-efficiency
gas furnaces. Therefore, condensate pumps often have
two intakes: one for an evaporator condensate drain line
and the other for the furnace.

DiversiTech Corporation
Figure 21-28. System design often necessitates the use of a Caution
condensate pump to remove moisture. Condensate Cleaning
Since defrosting results in moisture that could pro-
Code Alert mote the growth of bacteria, mold, mildew, and algae,
it is important to clean the evaporator, drain pans, and
Condensate Removal drain lines frequently.
Local building codes will specify the requirements
and restrictions for condensate drainage. Codes will
describe the acceptable disposal methods, acceptable 21.1.10 Evaporator Defrosting Methods
piping materials and designs, and any special provi-
Defrosting systems heat the evaporator from either
sions for both evaporator condensate and condensate
from high-efficiency furnaces. the inside or outside to melt the frost. There are six main
defrosting methods used in commercial evaporators:

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526 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Hot-gas defrost. and the evaporator fans stop turning. Hot, compressed
• Nonfreezing solution defrost. vapor rushes through the hot-gas defrost valve and
into the evaporator, melting accumulated frost. The
• Water defrost.
refrigerant then returns to the compressor through the
• Electric heat defrost. suction line, Figure 21-29.
• Off-cycle defrost. A hot-gas defrost system will usually defrost
• Pump-down defrost. the evaporator in 5 to 10 minutes. Defrost water
must be kept from freezing in the drain pan and
Some of these methods can be combined for more
tube. Therefore, part of the hot-gas defrost line may
effective defrosting.
be installed under the drain pan and the drain pipe.
Hot-Gas Defrost System Otherwise, a small electric heater may be installed in
In a hot-gas defrost system, the evaporator is this location, Figure 21-30.
defrosted by a hot-gas refrigerant vapor pumped directly A system similar to hot-gas defrost is a hot-gas
from the compressor discharge line into the evaporator bypass system. It performs a similar function but for a
tubing. The line from the compressor discharge is usually different purpose. Refer to Chapter 22, Refrigerant Flow
connected between the metering device and the evapora- Components, and Chapter 49, Commercial Refrigeration-
tor. It is opened and closed by a solenoid valve. System Configurations for additional information on
At a predetermined time, usually when the sys- hot-gas bypass systems.
tem is not in use, a defrost timer initiates defrosting. Low-Pressure Adjusting Hot-Gas Defrost
For hot-gas defrosting, the following operations occur: One type of hot-gas defrost valve operates by
the compressor runs, the hot-gas solenoid valve opens, reacting to low-side pressure. It opens wider as low-side

Low-temperature
evaporator
Liquid line solenoid
valve (closed)

Hot-gas solenoid ~ Hot-gas defrost valve

L lve(open)
Suction line

~~~~~~~- Condenser
. Compressor

D Low-pressure vapor • Low-pressure liquid

Liquid receiver D High-pressure vapor • High-pressure liquid

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-29. System diagram showing hot-gas defrosting. Hot-gas refrigerant flows from the compressor discharge to the inlet
of the low-temperature evaporator.

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 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 527

pressure drops and closes as low-side pressure rises. Reverse Cycle Hot-Gas Defrost
These often have an adjustable bellows connected to A variation of the standard hot-gas defrost sys-
the sensing element to change the opening pressure. tem is the reverse cycle hot-gas defrost system, which
Refer to a refrigerant table in a manufacturer manual defrosts an evaporator by reversing the flow of refrig-
showing the opening pressures and ranges before cali- erant through the system. During reverse cycle, the
brating such valves, Figure 21-31. evaporator functions as a condenser to melt the accu-
mulated frost.
A system that uses reverse cycle hot-gas defrost is
Electric heating element shown in Figure 21-32. One diagram shows the refrig-
eration cycle. The other diagram shows the defrost
cycle. A timer starts the defrost action:
1. When defrosting starts, a solenoid valve opens
a line connected between the top of the liquid
receiver and the suction line near the compressor
inlet.
2. A crankcase pressure regulator reduces the high-
pressure gas from the liquid receiver before it

I
enters the compressor inlet.
3. A three-way solenoid valve closes the passageway
from the suction line to the compressor inlet. It
also opens a passageway allowing hot gas from
the compressor discharge bypass line to enter
the suction line and flow backward through the
evaporator. The hot gas condenses as it warms the
evaporator and melts the frost.
4. The condensed refrigerant bypasses the TXV
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
through a check valve connected in parallel with
Figure 21-30. Drain/condensate pan with a built-in electric
heater to prevent accumulated moisture from freezing.
the TXV and the liquid line solenoid valve. The
condensed refrigerant travels to the liquid receiver
flowing backward through the liquid line.
5. A check valve in the condenser drain tube keeps
refrigerant from backing up into the condenser
from the liquid receiver.
6. A pressure-regulating valve maintains proper hot-
gas pressures and temperatures on the high and low
sides. This valve is located at the condenser inlet.
7. A defrost thermostat monitoring evaporator
temperature returns the system to normal operation.
A variation of a reverse cycle hot-gas defrost sys-
Connection to tem is designed using a four-way reversing valve.
low side These reversing valves are installed much like those
used in heat pumps. Heat pump operation is described
in detail in Chapter 40, Heat Pumps.
Reverse Cycle Hot-Gas Defrost for Multiple
Evaporators
In commercial refrigeration systems having mul-
tiple evaporators, each evaporator is defrosted one
at a time using the reverse cycle hot-gas defrosting
method. While one evaporator is defrosting or acting
Parker Hannifin Corporation as a condenser, the other evaporators act as evaporators
Figure 21-31. Hot-gas bypass valve controlled by low-side absorbing heat to use in defrosting the single evapora-
pressure. tor. Operating in this manner, the liquid refrigerant
coming from the defrosting evaporator is evaporated,

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

528 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Liquid solenoid
valve (open) TXV

Evaporator

Bypass
check valve

t
Condenser

Crankcase
Check valve ------+- .J --- pressure
regulator

~ Three-way
solenoid valve

Liquid receiver
A
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-32. System diagrams for normal two-pipe, reverse cycle hot-gas defrosting system. A-For the cooling cycle, note the
direction of refrigerant flow through the compressor and to the condenser. B-For the defrost cycle, note that the hot gas from
the compressor and receiver travels backward to the evaporator through the suction line. Condensed liquid refrigerant exiting the
evaporator travels around the TXV through a bypass check valve and returns to the liquid receiver through the liquid line.

ensuring that no liquid refrigerant will reach the low differential valve (Ll) creates a 20 to 40 psi drop to
side of the compressor. Refer to Figure 21-33 while allow defrost and regular operational flow.
reading the steps that describe how reverse cycle hot- 2. The hot-gas solenoid on evaporator 3 (HGS 3)
gas defrost works on multiple-evaporator systems. opens, while the suction line solenoid valve
1. A timer triggers each evaporator to defrost at a (SLS 3) for the same evaporator closes, causing hot
different time. If evaporator 3 (EV 3) is to defrost, at gas from the compressor to rush into evaporator 3
the start of the defrost cycle, the liquid line pressure flowing backwards. The liquid line solenoid valve

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 529

Liquid solenoid
valve (closed)

Evaporator
t
t Bypass
check valve

Condenser

Crankcase
t
I
Check valve ------+- ,J - - pressure
regulator

Low-pressure vapor
Liquid receiver Low-pressure liquid
B
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 21-32. Continued

(LLS 3) regulating evaporator 3 closes to prevent 4. After flowing through evaporator 3, the liquid
TXV 3 from trying to meter refrigerant into the refrigerant enters the liquid line through
evaporator. evaporator 3's bypass check valve (C3), bypassing
3. In evaporator 3, the frost melts by absorbing the heat evaporator 3's thermostatic expansion valve
of the hot-gas refrigerant. This heat transfer condenses (TXV 3) and closed liquid line solenoid (LLS 3).
the hot gas into a liquid. In this way, evaporator 3 acts 5. Because of continued high-side refrigerant flow
as a condenser during its defrosting. through L1 and C4, the liquid refrigerant exiting

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

530 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

LLS3
(closed)

t Check valve
(C4)

L1
(creates 20 psi to
40 psi pressure drop)

Accumulator

LLS-liquid line solenoid

HGS-hot gas solenoid Condenser
SLS-suction line solenoid
Compressor Liquid receiver
C-check valve
EV-evaporator

D High-pressure vapor D Low-pressure vapor

• High-pressure liquid • Low-pressure liquid
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-33. Diagram for a reverse cycle hot-gas defrost system for a multiple-evaporator refrigeration system, showing how
two evaporators act as evaporators, while the defrosting evaporator acts as a condenser.

evaporator 3 cannot flow back through the liquid the refrigerant absorbs heat and evaporates into a
line. It moves through the liquid line solenoid gas. While evaporator 3 acts as a condenser during
valves (LLS 1 and LLS 2) into evaporators 1 and 2. its defrosting, the other evaporators continue to
6. Liquid line solenoids 1 and 2 (LLS 1 and LLS 2) lead function as evaporators.
the liquid refrigerant through the thermostatic 8. Exiting evaporators 1 and 2, the vapor refrigerant
expansion valves (TXV 1 and TXV 2) and into flows through the suction line. Hot-gas solenoids
evaporators 1 and 2. 1 and 2 (HGS 1 and HGS 2) both remain closed,
7. The thermostatic expansion valves (TXV 1 and so the refrigerant vapor flows through suction line
TXV 2) reduce the flow and pressure of the solenoids 1 and 2 (SLS 1 and SLS 2).
refrigerant as it enters evaporators 1 and 2. There,

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 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 531

9. The vapor refrigerant flows through the Solenoid

accumulator before the last length of suction line
leads to the compressor.
For reverse cycle hot-gas defrost on multiple-
evaporator systems, a single valve may replace a hot-
gas solenoid valve and a suction line solenoid valve
for each evaporator, Figure 21-34. Both the suction line
solenoid valve and the hot-gas solenoid valve share a
common connection at the evaporator outlet. However,
the suction line solenoid valve connects to the com-
pressor inlet (through the suction line), and the hot-
gas solenoid valve connects to the compressor outlet
(through the discharge line). Since there are only three
separate connections among the two valves, only three
ports are necessary for a single replacement valve.
In this type of valve, refrigerant enters from the
evaporator outlet connection and exits through the
suction line connection during the normal refrig-
eration cycle. During defrosting, hot gas enters at the
discharge line connection and exits at the evaporator
outlet connection. When this solenoid valve is de-ener-

I
gized, there is an open passageway between the evap- Discharge line
orator and the suction line. The valve to the discharge connection
line is closed. The internal construction of a hot-gas,
suction-line combination solenoid valve can be seen in "'"'' Ha,om, c,~oralloo
Figure 21-35. Figure 21-34. Solenoid valve that combines the function of
When the solenoid valve is energized, high-pres- the suction line solenoid valve and hot-gas solenoid valve.
sure gas from the discharge line flows through the
bleed tube and pushes down on the double valve. This
action closes the top passageway, leading to the suction defrost cycle begins, the nonfreezing solution is thor-
line. It stops flow from the evaporator into the suction oughly preheated.
line, and opens the bottom passageway connected to For electric heating, electric heaters in the non-
the discharge line. High-pressure hot gas flows from freezing solution's container are energized. These heat-
the discharge line through the valve and into the ers warm the solution during the refrigeration cycle.
evaporator. When defrosting begins, the solution is preheated.
When the refrigeration system cycles off for
Nonfreezing Solution Defrost defrosting, a defrost timer closes the liquid line sole-
The nonfreezing solution defrost system circu- noid valve and shuts off the evaporator fan. The non-
lates a heated, nonfreezing solution in tubing near and freezing solution is pumped through its own piping
around the evaporator during the Off cycle to melt ice along the drain line, drain pan, and evaporator tubing.
and frost. This system has been used for years. An Then it returns to its heated container. Figure 21-36
additional component used in this system is a con- shows a diagram for a defrost cycle using electrically
tainer in which most of the brine or nonfreezing solu- heated nonfreezing solution.
tion is stored and heated. There are two methods for
heating the nonfreezing solution: hot gas and electric Water Defrost
heat. A water defrost system works by running tap
For hot-gas heating, the system's nonfreezing solu- water over the evaporator when the refrigeration sys-
tion container is a heat exchanger. This heat exchanger tem is off. This is done either manually or automati-
has separate passages for the refrigeration system cally. During this operation, the evaporator louvers are
refrigerant that are isolated from the nonfreezing solu- closed. The water may be sprayed over the evaporator
tion. Hot-gas refrigerant from the compressor is piped or fed to a pan located over the evaporator. Holes in
through the nonfreezing solution's container during the pan feed the water evenly over the evaporator sur-
the refrigeration cycle. The hot-gas refrigerant heats face. The water is warm enough to melt the ice. The
the solution for the entire refrigeration cycle. When a water then drains away into the evaporator drain pan.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

532 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

--- Solenoid

Suction line
connection

Evaporator outlet
connection

Discharge line
connection

Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 21-35. Internal construction of a hot-gas defrost solenoid valve. Note the small tubing connection from the discharge
connection to the pilot valve bleed.

Drainage from the water lines must be complete before solenoid valve to supply water for the defrosting opera-
the unit is turned on or the water may freeze and cause tion. Small copper tubing connects the water line to the
a blockage in the drain. drain. When the timer closes the solenoid valve at the
In a manual system, an operator opens a manual end of the defrost operation, the water in the system
water line valve to supply the water for the defrosting gradually drains through the small diameter tubing.
operation. To manually drain a system, the operator Special systems have been designed to defrost
closes the water line valve and opens a drain valve. by spraying a lithium chloride brine solution over the
This empties the water line going to the evaporator. evaporator. The brine solution is collected at the bot-
When the system is drained, it can be returned to cool- tom of the evaporator, and a pump returns the solution
ing mode, Figure 21-37. back to the spray head. Eliminator plates are needed at
In an automatic system, a timer initiates and the evaporator outlet to prevent brine spray from pass-
terminates the defrost operation. The timer opens a ing into the refrigerated space. The eliminator plates

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 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 533

240V Magnetic contactor

for fan motor

Heat exchanger

Motor
Magnetic
contactor

I
Defrost
timer

Condenser

Self-contained
glycol heater Refrigerant flow
through inner fins Heated glycol
Compressor through inner tube

D High-pressure vapor • High-pressure liquid

D Low-pressure vapor • Low-pressure liquid
• Warm glycol • Cool glycol
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-36. Nonfreezing solution defrost system. During defrosting, glycol solution is pumped through tubing running within the
evaporator tubing and along the drain piping.

are wire screens that cause any mist in the conditioned the coil, under the drain pan, and along the drain pipe.
air to coalesce into water droplets, which then drop out A defrost timer stops the refrigeration cycle and closes
of the airstream and are drained away. the liquid line. It then directs the compressor to pump
the refrigerant out of the evaporator and into the liquid
Electric Heat Defrost receiver. Then, the electric heaters are turned on.
Electric heat is popular for defrosting low-tem- Heaters melt the frost from the evaporator, and the
perature evaporators. In electric heat defrost, electric water drains away. Evaporators become warm enough
heating coils are installed in an evaporator, around it, to ensure that all frost is gone. After the evaporator has
or within the refrigerant passages and energized to been defrosted, a thermostat on the evaporator returns
melt ice and frost buildup. the system to cooling mode, but delays fan operation
One method uses electric heating elements until the evaporator temperature falls.
mounted in front of the evaporator coil, underneath

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534 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Water line
valve • : • : -+---- Evaporator coil

Water line
valve • : • : -+---- Evaporator coil

1/4" O.D.
copper tube

To fan motors
I To compressor motor

( / or refrigerant
/ solenoid valve

Automatic 7Solenoid
water defrost [ ] L__ _ _____ _
valve.,..Jiii-----..,7 -+---- Evaporator coil
timer ==~ ---- - ---- -
Water
supply
to unit

Safety
float switch
from unit
C
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-37. Water defrost system diagrams. Three methods of operation are shown. A-Manual defrost and manual drain.
B-Manual defrost and automatic drain. C-Automatic defrost.

Another way of using an electric heat defrost sys- Off-Cycle Defrost

tem is with a double-wall tube or a tube-within-a-tube An off-cycle defrost system circulates air from
evaporator. The evaporator refrigerant passes through the conditioned space over the evaporator during
the passageway between the tubes during normal the Off cycle. During the On cycle, frost accumulates
refrigeration. The center tube contains electric heat- on the evaporator as it circulates the below-freezing
ing elements. For the defrost operation, the system is refrigerant that removes heat from the conditioned
stopped, and the electric heating elements are turned space. However, when the compressor stops, heat is
on. Thereby, the evaporator tubes cause defrosting no longer removed, and the temperature begins to
from the inside, Figure 21-38. rise. During the Off cycle, evaporator fans continue

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 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 535

heat builds up, the temperature rises, and the circu-

lated air defrosts the evaporator. Eventually, the rising
temperature will initiate the thermostat, which will
energize and open the pump-down solenoid valve.
Outer Refrigerant will flow through the metering device and
tube into the evaporator and suction line. Suction pressure
will rise, and low pressure controls will allow the com-
pressor to turn on for another refrigeration cycle when
the thermostat calls for cooling.
The best location for storing the refrigerant dur-
ing a pump-down defrost is in the liquid receiver on
Inner the high side of the system. It is important that the
fin system remove the refrigerant from the evaporator.
Refrigerant absorbs heat, which can create frost on the
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
evaporator tubing.
Figure 21-38. As shown here, some electric defrost systems have
Pump-down defrost systems have an extra relay
electric heating elements installed inside the evaporator tubing. wired into the compressor circuit in parallel to the
normal relay. It is connected to the thermostat circuit.
The extra relay operates the start button on the normal
to circulate air. The heat in the circulated air melts starting relay. Therefore, the compressor cannot restart
the frost. until the thermostat points close, even if pressure rises . •
Thermostats on refrigeration systems that use This extra relay is called a nonrecycling relay.
off-cycle defrost provide a wide temperature differen- Pump-down defrost can be used in conjunction
tial. The compressor cut-in temperature is high, and with electric heat defrost. Removing refrigerant allows
the cut-out temperature is low. The large temperature electric heaters to produce heat without having any of
differential allows enough time for the evaporators that heat wasted by being absorbed into the refrigerant
to defrost before the compressor cycles on again. Off- in the system.
cycle defrost may also be called warm air defrost. This
type of defrost system can be used only if the air in the
conditioned space is above freezing. 21.2 Condensers
While an evaporator is designed to absorb unwanted
Pump-Down Defrost heat, a condenser is designed to expel unwanted heat.
In a pump-down defrost system, refrigerant is High-temperature, high-pressure vapor refrigerant enters
removed from the evaporator to expedite the defrost- the condenser from the discharge line of the compressor.
ing process. With no refrigerant in the evaporator to Heat is rejected from the refrigerant as it flows through
absorb heat, the ice and frost on the outside of the evap- the condenser. This causes the refrigerant to change state
orator absorb more heat and melt more quickly. from a vapor to a liquid. As it continues to lose heat, its
Pump-down defrost begins as a refrigeration sys- temperature drops somewhat. As the refrigerant exits
tem is cycling off. As the evaporator fan circulates air the condenser, it is a warm, high-pressure liquid. The job
and the compressor circulates refrigerant, the tempera- of the condenser is to release the heat that was absorbed
ture in the conditioned space drops to a cut-out point. from the conditioned space. Condensers operate under
When the thermostat is satisfied, it opens the circuit much higher pressure than evaporators, so they are built
controlling a solenoid valve in the liquid line, called with stronger tubing.
a pump-down solenoid. The pump-down solenoid There are three basic types of condensers: air-
closes, which stops refrigerant from passing through cooled, water-cooled, and evaporative. Water-cooled
the TXV into the evaporator. However, the compressor condensers use various tube designs and arrange-
and evaporator fan continue to operate. Since the com- ments. Evaporative condensers spray water over the
pressor continues to operate, refrigerant from the evap- condenser tubes to cool them down.
orator and low side is removed and pumped down into
the liquid receiver.
Removing refrigerant from the low side drops 21.2.1 Air-Cooled Condensers
suction pressure. Eventually, a low pressure control Air-cooled condensers are condensers that use
will sense cut-off pressure and turn off the compres- the air movement of either natural convection or forced
sor. The evaporator fan continues to circulate air. As drafts to remove heat from a system's refrigerant.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

536 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

These are quite common in residential and commer- Fans Electrical disconnect
cial systems. Cooling water may be too corrosive or
expensive and difficult to arrange. Smaller units use
static condensers with thermal airflow (naturally ris-
ing air). Most air-cooled condensers are located out-
side. Outdoor air-cooled condensing units may be
mounted on the roof, on the outside wall, or at ground
level, Figure 21-39.

21.2.2 Water-Cooled Condensers

Water-cooled condensers are condensers that
use water as the medium into which system heat is
expelled. Water-cooled compressors are sometimes
used with water-cooled condensers. With few excep-
tions, the water flow is through the condenser first. It
then flows through the compressor cylinder head and
finally into a drain. Water flow is often regulated by an
automatic water valve.
Water-cooled condensers are most feasible when
inexpensive and usable water is available. Water-
cooled condensers require less power than for simi-
larly sized air-cooled condensers. This is due to better
heat transfer and lower condenser temperatures and
pressures. The saving of electrical power helps com-
pensate for the cost of water used for cooling. Water-
cooled condensers are generally built in three styles: Liquid and
suction lines
• Shell-and-tube.
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
• Shell-and-coil. Figure 21-39. This forced- air condenser for a commercial air
• Tube-within-a-tube. conditioning application is installed on the building's roof.

Shell-and-Tube Condensers Water Safety valve Water Refrigerant

A shell-and-tube condenser is composed of a long outlet connection pipes inlet
refrigerant cylinder filled with straight copper tubes
filled with cooling water. Water circulates through the
tubes, condensing the hot refrigerant vapor into liquid
in the cylinder. The bottom part of the shell serves as
the liquid receiver, Figure 21-40.
The shell-and-tube condenser is compact, needs no
fans, and combines the condenser and liquid receiver
into one unit. It uses numerous straight tubes inside
the receiver with a water manifold on both ends. When
these manifold ends are removed, the water tubes can
easily be cleaned of deposits. The cylinder body is usu-
ally made of steel. Shell-and-tube condensers are also
sometimes called shell-and-pipe condensers. I
Water Refrigerant Service
inlet outlet socket
Shell-and-Coil Condensers Alfa Laval Inc.
A shell-and-coil condenser consists of a coil of Figure 21-40. A typical shell-and-tube condenser-liquid receiver.
copper water tubing winding around the inside of a Note the straight water pipes running lengthwise. On some
metal refrigerant shell. It is very much like the shell- models, the water pipes may be finned to improve heat transfer.
and-tube water-cooled condenser. It serves as both a The condenser end caps are removable to allow access for
condenser and a liquid receiver, Figure 21-41. cleaning.

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 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 537

condenser, as there is always a significant temperature

difference between the two fluids. It is the temperature
difference between two substances that allows the
Discharge transfer of heat. In electrical terms, temperature differ-
Cooling - line
water inlet
ence is like the potential difference between two points
outlet that produces the current or the flow of electrons.
As in air-cooled condensers, the greater the sur-
face area, the greater the heat transfer. Some tube-
within-a-tube condensers use inner tubing with 6-lead
or 8-lead grooves. This design increases heat transfer
by increasing the surface area of the tube between the
water and refrigerant, Figure 21-44.
Cooling
Tube-within-a-tube condensers can also be made
water - with hard copper pipe. The rectangular tube-within-
inlet a-tube condenser uses a straight, hard, copper pipe
Liquid
- refrigerant
with manifolds on the ends. When the manifolds are
outlet removed, the water pipes may be cleaned mechanically.

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-41. Shell-and-coil water-cooled condenser.
21.2.3 Evaporative Condensers
Evaporative condensers provide an efficient
means of rejecting unwanted heat from a refrigerant.
Housed in an enclosure similar to a cooling tower, an
evaporative condenser uses sprayed water droplets
I
The shell-and-coil condensers are often used in and drafts from fans to produce an evaporative cooling
smaller commercial units. They are less costly to man- effect on its coils that flow with hot refrigerant vapor,
ufacture; however, they cannot be cleaned mechani- Figure 21-45.
cally. The water tube must be cleaned with chemicals. In the system shown in Figure 21-46, the refrig-
erant vapor is circulated through a condensing coil,
Tube-within-a-Tube Condensers which is continually wetted on the outside by the spray
A tube-within-a-tube condenser consists of an
inner tube through which water flows in one direction
and a surrounding outer tube through which refriger-
ant flows in the opposite direction of the water flow. Water
Water circulates through the inside tube. Hot, com- outlet
pressed vapor circulates through the space between
the inner and outer tubes, Figure 21-42.
Condensers of this design generally transfer heat
very efficiently. Water passing through the inside tube
cools the refrigerant in the outer tube. The outside tub-
ing is also cooled by air in the room. Tube-within-a-
tube condensers may be constructed in a cylindrical,
spiral, or rectangular style, Figure 21-43.
Water and refrigerant flow in opposite directions Water
through the separate passageways. Water enters the inlet
condenser tube body at the point where the refriger-
ant exits. The water leaves the condenser at the point
where the hot refrigerant vapor enters. This is called a • Cold water D High-pressure vapor refrigerant
counterflow design.
D Warm water • High-pressure liquid refrigerant
Counterflow is when two fluids flow in opposite
direction of each other. This allows the warmest water Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
to be adjacent to the warmest refrigerant and the coolest Figure 21-42. Diagram showing how the refrigerant flows
refrigerant to be next to the coolest water. Counterflow through a tube-within-a-tube condenser in the opposite
allows a steady transfer of heat throughout the entire direction as the water.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

538 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Refrigerant
Water
out

6-Lead 8-Lead
Grooves Grooves
Packless Industries
Figure 21-44. End view of a tube-within-a-tube condenser
shows six- and eight-lead (groove) designs to increase heat
transfer from the refrigerant to the water.

Refrigerant Water
in out
A

SPX Corporation
Figure 21-45. Cutaway of an evaporative condenser.

B
Packless Industries; ClimateMaster of a recirculating water system. Air is blown over the
Figure 21-43. A-Tube-within-a-tube condenser shaped into coil, causing a small portion of the recirculating water
a spiral coil. B-Tube-within-a-tube condenser installed as to evaporate. The evaporation removes heat from the
part of a commercial heat pump. vapor in the coil, causing it to condense.
In Figure 21-47, the water that passes over the con-
denser coil is then directed over a wet deck surface to
be cooled before returning to the basin. As air blown
over the wet deck evaporates more of the water, the
water that remains will be cooled.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 539

Warm air
out

Drift
eliminators <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
Water distribution system

Vapor in

Condensing coil
..
Liquid out

I
Air in

Spray pump

Baltimore Aircoil Company

Figure 21-46. Diagram showing the operation of a single-inlet, counterflow evaporative condenser.

Evaporative Condenser Configurations conditions. If refrigerant control requires a reasonably

Traditional evaporative condensers utilize a constant condensing pressure, some form of capac-
counterflow design. As described in the tube-within- ity control is required. Capacity control is typically
a-tube condenser section, counterflow means that two accomplished by regulating airflow through the unit
fluids are flowing in opposite direction of each other. by opening and closing the louvers, cycling off the
In evaporator condensers, the air flows in the opposite fan, or varying fan speed (variable frequency drives or
direction of the water. In most counterflow evaporative multispeed motors).
condensers, air is drawn in from near the bottom of the If the refrigerant must be subcooled as it leaves the
condenser and exhausted out the top. liquid receiver, the liquid line may be routed through
Some evaporative condensers are designed for a heat exchanger inside the evaporative condenser.
combined-flow, using both a condensing coil and fill This heat exchanger circulates liquid line and suction
surface for heat transfer. The addition of fill surface to line refrigerant through separate but adjacent piping.
the traditional evaporative condenser design reduces The cool suction line vapor absorbs heat from the liq-
evaporation in the coil section. This reduces the oppor- uid line. This subcools the liquid line refrigerant and
tunity for scaling and fouling. Combined-flow evapo- superheats the suction line refrigerant. Using this heat
rative condensers employ parallel flow of air and spray exchanger, the temperature of the liquid line refriger-
water over the coil. In addition, there is a crossflow of ant can be subcooled by l0°F (6°C). When the tempera-
air and water through the fill surface. Usually, evapora- ture reaches 45°F (7°C) or lower, the water is shut off.
tive condensers are mounted outdoors. However, they However, the condenser can still carry the load as an
may be installed indoors and ducted to the outside. air-cooled condenser.
Some evaporative condenser systems have water
Operational Considerations reservoirs inside the building to protect the water from
Most systems are subject to wide load varia- freezing weather. The reservoirs must be large enough
tions and substantial changes in ambient temperature to hold all the water in the system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

540 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Water
distribution
system
Belt and
pulley

Fan motor

Air inlet
louvers
Cold
water
basin
Spray
pump

Baltimore Aircoil Company

Figure 21-47. Diagram of the operation of an evaporative condenser system specifically shows how cooling water is chilled using
evaporative cooling.

21.2.4 Residential Condensers

Condensers for residential systems vary by manu-
facturer. Many are air-cooled condensers. Traditionally,
these are square, rectangular, or cylindrical. A cool-
ing fan mounted in the center beneath a grille draws
air in through the sides of the condenser and expels
it upward and out. Louvers, cages, or other structures
protect the tubing and fins from damage, Figure 21-48.
Newer residential condensers are available in dif-
ferent designs, such as the slim stack, as seen on some
ductless split air-conditioning systems, Figure 21-49.
Ductless systems have become more widely installed.
Size and shape of these condensers also varies by manu-
facturer. More information on ductless systems can be
found in Chapter 31, Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems.

21.2.5 Commercial Condensers

Commercial condensers operate much like their Tempstar
domestic and residential counterparts. These devices Figure 21-48. Air-cooled condenser for a residential air-
circulate superheated, high-pressure refrigerant that conditioning application using a cage design to protect the
must expel latent and sensible heat to condense and tubing.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 541

subcool the refrigerant. However, commercial con-

densers must often expel larger quantities of heat
than domestic and residential models. To handle these
larger heat loads, several different methods of heat
rejection have been developed. These methods include
using different heat-carrying mediums and varying
the condenser's designs, such as its shape, construc-
tion, and fin arrangement.
Commercial systems use several types of
condensers:
• Air-cooled, fin-and-tube, natural-draft.
• Air-cooled, fin-and-tube, forced-air.
• Water-cooled, shell-and-tube.
• Water-cooled, shell-and-coil.
• Water-cooled, tube-within-a-tube.
• Evaporative.

Commercial Air-Conditioning Condensers

Many commercial air-conditioning condensers

I
use a motor-driven fan for air movement. Fan efficiency
may be increased by placing a metal shroud around an
air-cooled condenser to direct airflow. Designs vary by
manufacturer. Units can be mounted and supported in F,1,t,e G,,..1 Am'""' '"'
various ways, depending on the system, Figure 21-50. Figure 21-49. A slim -stack air-cooled condenser.

RectorSeal
Figure 21-50. A group of air-cooled condensers for a commercial air-conditioning application mounted on vibration-abating legs
and feet.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

542 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Commercial Refrigeration Condensers • The completed condensing unit must be

The size, range of conditioned space temperatures, constructed and installed so it is virtually
and tremendous heat loads handled in commercial weatherproof.
refrigeration have led to great variation in condensers. Outdoor air-cooled condensers may not func-
Though some are water-cooled, many are air-cooled. tion adequately in strong winds when ambient tem-
Commercial fin-and-tube, forced-air condensers are perature is low. Under these conditions, the built-in
built much the same as similar residential condensers. capacity to overcome low ambient temperatures
However, they are larger in commercial applications. may not be sufficient to overcome the cooling effect
Outdoor units require about 1000 cfm of condenser air produced by the strong winds. Windy conditions
circulation per horsepower. Figure 21-51 shows an air- can disrupt proper louver and fan operation. The
cooled condenser that uses six fans. cooling effect may be more than an electric heat-
Many HVACR systems include the compressor ing element can overcome. Condensing units must
and condenser in the same package. However, some be installed in a position to minimize the harmful
commercial refrigeration systems may have the com- effects of strong, cold winds. They should also be
pressors indoors (such as a parallel rack in a mechani- weatherproofed as well as possible-particularly
cal room) and the condensers remotely located the electrical components.
outdoors. The compressor discharge line carries the
hot high-pressure vapor to the outdoor air-cooled con-
denser. Condensed liquid is piped back into the build-
21.2.6 Air-Cooled Condenser
ing. These units use devices to protect the condenser Construction
and to maintain good head pressures in low ambient The construction of most air-cooled condensers is
temperatures. They typically provide protection in fin-and-tube or microchannel design. Copper and alu-
temperatures around 50°F (10°C) Or lower. minum are some of the more commonly used materials.
Commercial air-cooled condensers must have four Like forced-draft evaporators, air-cooled condensers
major provisions: often have fins attached to their tubing that enlarge
• There must be a head pressure control if the unit their surface area, allowing faster transfer of heat with
is exposed to outdoor weather that may go below ambient air. Condenser tubes and fins are frequently
the operating cabinet temperature (often seen in arranged in double or triple rows. Many fin designs
climates with a cold season). and constructions have been used, Figure 21-52.
• One or more methods of preventing short cycling As the amount of heat to be rejected increases, it is
must be designed into the system. necessary to add a fan to increase the rate of heat dissi-
pation from the condenser. Most domestic refrigerators
• A means must also be provided to prevent dilution
and air conditioners use a condensing unit that con-
of the compressor oil by liquid refrigerant.
sists of a compressor, condenser, and condenser fan.
Many air-cooled condensers are made in a par-
ticular shape, such as cylindrical, rectangular, or

t square. The condenser fan is located in the center of

the unit. It draws in air through the fin-and-tube con-
struction along the sides of the condenser and blows it
out through the top. Shaping the condenser this way
forms a large surface area to maximize heat transfer
from refrigerant to the air, Figure 21-53.
In an effort to maximize refrigerant-to-tube heat
transfer, manufacturers have created different grooves,
ridge, and pattern surfaces on the inside surface of con-
denser tubing. Though this feature is not seen by the
customer, it increases the heat transfer and overall sys-
tem efficiency, Figure 21-54.
Not all air-cooled condensers are fin-and-tube.
Many manufacturers have begun adapting micro-
Bally Refrigerated Boxes, Inc. channel technology to their condensers. Microchannel
Figure 21-51. For this air-cooled condenser, fans draw in air condensers can be large or small and made in different
from beneath and exhaust it out the top. shapes for specific applications, Figure 21-55.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 543

E
A

F
B

I
H
D
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-52. Various fin arrangements used in air-cooled condensers. A-Fins are part of the tubing. B-Fins are pressed onto
tubing. C-Fins are fastened by crimped tubing. D-Flanged fins are pressed onto the tubing. E-Coiled -wire fin. F-Circular fin.
G-Crimped circular fin. H-Side view showing a large plate fin that serves six tubes.

Luvata
Lordan A.C.S. Ltd Figure 21-54. Various patterns inside tubing for increased
Figure 21-53. Air-cooled fin -and-tube design. heat transfer.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

544 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Figure 21-56 illustrates refrigerant and airflow

through a microchannel condenser. Refrigerant enters
through the header and then flows through the micro-
channels. The heat travels from the microchannels to
the fins. Air flowing across the fins moves the heat to
the surrounding air. With so much surface area con-
tacting refrigerant and ambient air, heat transfer is
incredibly efficient.

21.3 Head Pressure Control

Many commercial refrigeration systems with air-
A cooled condensers include some form of head pressure
control. Head pressure control refers to methods of
controlling head pressure under varying conditions.
These conditions could be rain or high winds, but the
main reason for the need for head pressure control is
low ambient temperature. This occurs in geographic
areas with cold winters.

Microchannels

Fins <

B
A/coil
Figure 21-55. Various microchannel condensers. A-Mini
microchannel condensers. B-Flat panel microchannel
condensers. Header~

A/coil
Figure 21-56. Note airflow through the fins and refrigerant
flow through the microchannels of this condenser.

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 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 545

If we apply Gay-Lussac's law to an air-cooled refrigerant through the condenser and liquid
condenser, very low ambient temperatures can receiver in order to maintain proper head pressure
cause low head pressure. Remember that in a fixed under varying conditions. Head pressure control
volume, pressure and temperature rise and fall through refrigerant flow control may be done using
together. The high side acts as a fixed volume, so two separate valves: a condenser pressure regula-
when ambient temperature lowers the temperature tor and a receiver pressure regulator, or it may
of the refrigerant on the high side, the pressure also be a combined condenser pressure regulator and
drops. This pressure may drop so low it may even receiver pressure regulator in a single valve body,
stop the flow of refrigerant through the metering often called a head pressure control valve or low-ambi-
device into the evaporator. ent control, Figure 21-57.
There are several methods of controlling head Head pressure control valves will be covered in
pressure, such as using electric heating elements, detail in Chapter 22, Refrigerant Flow Components. This
fan cycling and speed control, louver control, chapter will cover head pressure control using meth-
and pressure-regulating valves to control the flow of ods that do not directly affect the flow of refrigerant.

Sight
@ glass

Condenser
Filter-
drier
I
Head pressure
control valve

Liquid receiver

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-57. Head pressure control is important in commercial refrigeration systems in low ambient conditions. Such control
valves are one of several ways to maintain sufficient head pressure year-round.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

546 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

21.3.1 Head Pressure Control- The closed louvers limit air movement, which would
otherwise carry away heat expelled by the condenser.
Condenser Air Louvers With static air, heat expelled by the condenser begins
Another way to raise low head pressure in low to accumulate in the condenser housing. In a constant
ambient temperatures is to close the condenser hous- volume, such as a condenser, a substance's temperature
ing airflow louvers. A tap on the high side provides and pressure simultaneously rise and fall. As heat accu-
high-pressure refrigerant to one end of a pressure-sen- mulates and condenser temperature increases, head
sitive device, such as a bellows. The other end of this pressure also increases. As head pressure increases, the
pressure device is connected to the louvers by rod and bellows push the rod outward causing the linkage to
linkages to control their movement and position. Head open the louvers, as Figure 21-59 shows.
pressure pushes against the bellows on one end, and The condenser fans may operate when louvers are
atmospheric pressure pushes against the bellows on closed or they may be shut off when the louvers near
the other end. As head pressure decreases, the bellows the closing point. Not all louver controls are based on
contract, which moves the rod and closes the louvers, the pressure differential between atmosphere and head
Figure 21-58. pressure. Some controls react to ambient temperatures.

Pressure element
Adjustable which positions
louver the louver

..---------,t
Liquid receiver

TXV-+-_.,..,
I
I
I
I

Evaporator ---:
I
I
I
I
t
D Low-pressure vapor

• Low-pressure liquid

D High-pressure vapor
Compressor
• High-pressure liquid

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 21-58. The air-cooled condenser in this drawing is equipped with a pressure-operated louver. As head pressure
decreases, the louver starts to close, reducing condenser airflow and allowing head pressure to build.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 547

Louver assembly
1/4" tubing Condenser

Compressor

Liquid
receiver
Pressure
operator

Evaporator

Linkage
'
Expansion
valve
D Low-pressure vapor D High-pressure vapor
• Low-pressure liquid • High-pressure liquid
Siebe Environmental Controls, Invensys Climate Controls Ameacas
I
Figure 21-59. The positioning cylinder (pressure operator) on the left side of the drawing reacts to pressure from the condenser.
An increase in pressure moves the rod outward, which operates the linkage to open the louvers.

21.3.2 Head Pressure Control-Fan 21.4 Other Heat Exchangers

Speed Control and Cycling Evaporators and condensers are the two most promi-
Outdoor, air-cooled condensers with multiple nent heat exchangers in HVACR systems. However, there
fans may cycle off individual fans or groups of fans are other applications for heat exchangers. These may be
in response to low head pressure. The lower the head to increase system efficiency, protect the compressor, heat
pressure, the fewer the number of fans remaining in building water, or more than one of these purposes.
operation. As head pressure rises, more fans are cycled
back into operation, Figure 21-60. 21.4.1 Suction Line-Liquid Line Heat
Other systems reduce fan speed in response to
low head pressure. These may use a variable frequency Exchangers
drive to lower fan speed as head pressure drops. A suction line-liquid line heat exchanger is a
Electrically controlled speed-modulated fans are used component that brings the liquid line and suction line
for this purpose. This system operates with a thermis- in contact with each other so that the warmer liquid
tor on the condenser, Figure 21-61. line transfers heat to the cooler suction line. Refrigerant
vapor in the suction line and liquid refrigerant in the
21.3.3 Head Pressure Control-Electric liquid line travel through a heat exchanger in opposite
directions, Figure 21-62.
Heat Although a suction line-liquid line heat exchanger
Electric heating elements are sometimes placed simply moves heat from one refrigerant line to another,
in or around the liquid receiver. This keeps the liquid it serves more than one purpose in an HVACR system:
receiver temperature warmer than the condenser cabi- • It subcools liquid refrigerant in the liquid line,
net temperature. If it were allowed to become too cold, reducing the risk of flash gas in the liquid line and
the liquid receiver would act like a condenser. increasing system efficiency.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

548 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Fan controls

Head pressure Condenser

sensor fan

t
Discharge
line

Compressor

Suction line

Liquid
line

TXV
Liquid
receiver

D Low-pressure vapor D High-pressure vapor

t
• Low-pressure liquid • High-pressure liquid
Ranco, Invensys Climate Controls Americas
Figure 21-60. This diagram shows a refrigeration system with a fan-cycling pressure control that senses head pressure.

• It superheats vapor refrigerant in the suction line,

preventing refrigerant in the suction line from
condensing and protecting the compressor from
slugging.
A suction line-liquid line heat exchanger promotes
complete vaporization of refrigerant in the suction line
and cooler liquid refrigerant in the liquid line. Typically,
this subcools the liquid refrigerant by l0°F to 20°F (5.5°C
to 11°C) at the prevailing head pressure, which allows the
refrigerant to absorb more heat as it changes to a vapor
in the evaporator. This additional subcooling increases a
system's cooling capacity and efficiency.
If the refrigerant in the liquid line is too warm,
flash gas can form in the liquid line or a more than
normal amount of flash gas can form when the refrig-
erant enters the evaporator. Flash gas is refrigerant
that vaporizes suddenly but does not absorb latent
heat from the conditioned space. A limited amount of
flash gas created in the evaporator can serve a useful
function; however, any flash gas created in the liquid
Control Resources, Inc. line reduces the overall effectiveness of the system. A
Figure 21-61. Fan speed control unit is equipped with a suction line-liquid line heat exchanger allows the cool
thermistor. refrigerant vapor in the suction line to absorb some

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 549

Liquid line such as display cases and freezers in large commercial

outlet refrigeration applications.
Mechanical subcooling is accomplished by refrig-
erating a portion of the liquid line of a low-temperature
system in a subcooler using a high-temperature HVAC
system, such as an air conditioning unit. A subcooler
is a heat exchanger through which flows liquid line
refrigerant of a low-temperature system in one circuit
and the low-side refrigerant of a high-temperature sys-
tem in another circuit. Each system's refrigerant flows
through a separate but adjacent pathway where they
exchange heat. A subcooler acts as the evaporator of
the high-temperature system. Subcoolers are often
Heat Exchanger Suction line tube-within-a-tube or plate heat exchangers.
outlet High-temperature systems remove heat three
times more efficiently than low-temperature refrigera-
tion systems. The high-temperature air conditioning

I
and the low-temperature freezer cases work together
in a subcooler as a variation of a cascading system. The
two systems increase the overall efficiency of the refrig-
eration process. Liquid line subcooling systems can be
added to existing commercial refrigeration systems.
line inlet Figure 21-63 shows a subcooler installation diagram.
line outlet

• High-pressure liquid D Low-pressure vapor 21.4.3 Plate Heat Exchangers

Engineers and designers are constantly improv-
Cross Section of Heat Exchanger
ing methods of heat transfer. In many larger systems,
Packless Industries; Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
designs have called for plate heat exchangers. A plate
Figure 21-62. In a suction line-liquid line heat exchanger,
heat exchanger is a heat exchange device composed
refrigerant vapor flows in the opposite direction of liquid
refrigerant. The design of the inner tube causes the refrigerant
of a set of thin metal sheets that form two separate
vapor and liquid refrigerant to swirl, improving heat transfer. passageways that share a significant amount of com-
mon surface area. These plates are manufactured with
different designs and patterns depending on the heat
transfer needs and fluids to be circulated, Figure 21-64.
heat from liquid refrigerant in the liquid line, reducing In HVACR, plate heat exchangers may be used in
the risk of flash gas formation in the liquid line. heat recovery systems, liquid line subcooling, high-side
Suction line-liquid line heat exchangers also help intercooling, water-cooled condensers, water-source
to prevent sweat backs or frost backs on the suction line. heat pumps, cooling towers, and similar applications.
Because this device superheats the refrigerant vapor in the Presently, these are used in more commercial systems
suction line, it counteracts the formation of frost or con- than in small residential systems. Plate heat exchang-
densation on the suction line. The additional superheat ers can be manufactured in different sizes for different
also helps prevent the refrigerant vapor from condensing heat loads, Figure 21-65.
in the suction line and slugging the compressor. Plate heat exchangers are not just used in HVACR
applications. They are found in the food and beverage
21.4.2 Commercial Refrigeration Liquid industry, petroleum and chemical processing, phar-
maceutical production, power generation, and other
Line Subcoolers industrial applications. Like all heat exchangers, plates
The process of subcooling reduces liquid line can become fouled, depending on the circulating flu-
refrigerant temperature below its saturated tempera- ids. In some cases, the plates may be dismantled for
ture. The lower the temperature in the liquid line, the cleaning or maintenance. Evaporators, condensers,
greater the system's heat removal capacity. This will and plate heat exchangers should be kept clean and
result in a more efficient system. Mechanical subcool- free of anything that may inhibit free exchange of heat,
ing is used on low-temperature refrigeration systems, Figure 21-66.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

550 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Low-Temperature
Refrigeration System Subcooling Installation
Compressor
,--------- ----7
Compressor I Suction line
Subcooler I + :
I I
I I
Warm
I
Condenser I
liquid line
t I
+ I
r,=.======V-i Condenser
I
I
I I
I ~----+I- Liquid receiver

Liquid -++---------s~,
receiver
Subcooled
:
I

I TXV
I
+ I
Liquid line

liquid line
L ______________ _J

Suction
line

Cooling case Cooling case Cooling case

Standard Refrigeration Co.

Figure 21-63. This diagram shows a subcooling installation on a commercial refrigeration system to subcool the liquid lines
leading to the three display cases.

GEA Heat Exchangers

Figure 21-64. Plate heat exchanger patterns.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 551

Dantoss
Figure 21-65. Plate heat exchangers may be used to transfer
heat between various fluids in numerous system applications.

21.4.4 Heat Recovery Systems

A heat recovery system is a collection of devices
used to reclaim waste heat for a building's reuse as cli-
mate control heating or water heating. These devices
typically include extra tubing, solenoid valves, and heat
exchangers or condensers. These devices are often used in
supermarkets, restaurants, and other commercial applica-
tions. A heat recovery system may also be referred to as a
h,eat reclaim system or a h,eat reclamation system.
For heat recovery systems used for climate control
heating, the high-side refrigerant is routed to a condenser
within the conditioned air ducts. There the refrigerant
expels heat to warm circulating building air. Though a
heat recovery system can be used for comfort heating, it is
more often applied to warming or preheating a building's
hot water. This may be done through hot water reclaim
tanks or plate heat exchangers.
A hot water reclaim tank is a cylinder filled with
water that absorbs heat from the hot-gas refrigerant
flowing through a refrigeration system's discharge
line. Hot water reclaim tanks are often used in com-
mercial applications as an energy efficient solution to
heating a building's water, Figure 21-67.
Hot-gas refrigerant in the discharge line is redi-
rected by a three-way solenoid valve to a reclaim con-
denser where heat is expelled into a useful medium.
High-side piping and condensers can be arranged
in series or in parallel. When a heat recovery system
is arranged in series, all of the discharge refrigerant
B
flows through the reclaim condenser and then through GEA Heat Exchangers
the normal condenser. In this series arrangement, the Figure 21-66. Plate heat exchanger maintenance.
reclaim condenser only desuperheats (removes some A-Cleaning the plates. B-Hanging plates for assembly.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

552 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

sensible heat from) the refrigerant. It does not condense

the refrigerant. In a series arrangement, it is only when
the refrigerant flows through the normal condenser
that it condenses and subcools, Figure 21-68.
When a heat recovery system is arranged in
parallel, the three-way solenoid valve directs the
hot-gas refrigerant into either the normal condenser
or the reclaim condenser. During normal opera-
tion, refrigerant flows only through the normal con-
denser and expels the waste heat, Figure 21-69A.
For heat reclaim operation in a parallel arrange-
ment, the three-way solenoid valve diverts high-
side refrigerant into the reclaim condenser where
the heat is recovered and used for comfort climate
heating or water heating. In this parallel arrange-
ment, the reclaim condenser must be able to
BouMatic displace the entire heat load of the system to desu-
Figure 21-67. Hot-gas refrigerant from a compressor's perheat, condense, and subcool high-side refriger-
discharge line is piped through a hot water reclaim tank before ant, Figure 21-69B.
going to a condenser.

Condenser

Discharge
Reclaim
line
condenser
t Check Condenser
valve pressure

l t
-
Receiver regulator
pressure (ORI valve)
regulator
Three-way Solenoid
(ORD valve)
solenoid valve valve
(closed)
I Liquid
receiver

Evaporator

Liquid line
Compressor

t
Suction
Distributor Sight glass Liquid line
filter-drier
TXV
line

D Low-pressure vapor D High-pressure vapor • Low-pressure liquid • High-pressure liquid

Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 21-68. In a series arranged heat recovery system, high -side refrigerant first flows through the reclaim condenser to
desuperheat and then through the normal condenser to condense and subcool.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 553

Condenser

L
Reclaim condenser (evacuated
Three-way
solenoid
L during normal operation)
t
valve
Check valve

Receiver pressure
regulator (ORD valve)
Condenser pressure
regulator (ORI valve)

Liquid

Compressor

Suction line -
Evaporator

Liquid line I
TXV

D Low-pressure vapor D High-pressure vapor • Low-pressure liquid • High-pressure liquid

A
(Continued)
Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
Figure 21-69. In a parallel arranged heat recovery system, high-side refrigerant flows through only one of the two condensers:
normal or reclaim. A-Normal operation. B-Heat recovery operation.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

554 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Condenser (evacuated during heat

reclaim operation)

Reclaim condenser
Three-way
solenoid t
valve
Check valve

Receiver pressure
regulator (ORD valve)
Condenser pressure
regulator (ORI valve)

Liquid

Evaporator

Liquid line
Compressor

Suction line -

TXV
B
Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
Figure 21-69. Continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
each other so that the warmer liquid line can
Summary transfer heat to the cooler suction line.
• Air-cooling evaporators are designed to cool • Plate heat exchangers are composed of a set
the air circulating through a conditioned space. of thin metal sheets that form two separate
These can be either natural-draft or forced- passageways that share a significant amount of
draft. common surface area.
• Liquid-cooling evaporators are designed to • A heat recovery system reclaims heat from hot
cool a liquid. Most liquid-cooling evaporators refrigerant for a building's reuse as climate
are immersed evaporators, which consist of control heating or water heating.
evaporator coils immersed in a basin filled with
a liquid.
• There are three main types of air-cooling Review Questions
evaporator construction: fin-and-tube, plate,
and microchannel. Fin-and-tube is the most Answer the following questions using the information in
widely used. this chapter.
• Plate evaporators consist of sheets of metal 1. Gravitational circulation of air is used by
welded together to form passages for _ _ evaporators.
refrigerant flow. A. forced-draft
• Microchannel evaporators consist of fin B. immersed
C. microchannel

I
arrangements attached to tubes with numerous
refrigerant passages that are less than 1 mm in D. natural-draft
diameter. 2. A small, plain, tube evaporator submerged
• For hot-gas defrost, hot-gas refrigerant is and mounted inside a container filled with a
pumped through tubing that runs directly liquid that provides good heat transfer is a(n)
from the compressor discharge line to the _ _ evaporator.
evaporator inlet. A. forced-draft
B. immersed
• For nonfreezing solution defrost, a heated fluid
C. microchannel
is circulated in tubing near and around the
D. natural-draft
evaporator to melt any ice and frost. For water
defrost, tap water is run over the evaporator 3. An evaporator fabricated from two metal
when the compressor is cycled off. sheets, welded together, that form a series
• Electric heat defrost melts frost using electric of passages through which refrigerant flows
heating elements in and around the evaporator. describes a(n) _ _ evaporator.
A. fin-and-tube
Off-cycle defrost circulates air from the
conditioned space over the evaporator coil B. immersed
during the Off cycle. C. microchannel
D. plate
• Pump-down defrost removes refrigerant from
the evaporator to expedite the defrosting 4. An evaporator with refrigerant passages that
process. are less than 1 mm in diameter is a(n) _ _
evaporator.
• Condensers can be air-cooled, water-cooled, or
A. fin-and-tube
evaporative.
B. immersed
• The three main designs of water-cooled C. microchannel
condensers are shell-and-tube, shell-and-coil, D. plate
and tube-within-a tube.
5. The three variables by which defrost timers
• In an evaporative condenser, fans produce an operate include all of the following, except
evaporative cooling effect by blowing across
refrigerant-filled tubes that are sprayed with A. humidity
water droplets. B. pressure
• Suction line-liquid line heat exchangers bring C. temperature
the liquid line and suction line in contact with D. time

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 555

556 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

6. Excess moisture produced by a defrosting 12. Water-cooled condensers are built in all the
evaporator may be removed from a following designs, except _ _.
conditioned space or cabinet using a(n) _ _ A. shell-and-tube
when the available drain is elevated or at a B. shell-and-coil
remote location. C. tube-within-a-tube
A. set of baffles D. wetdeck
B. condensate pump 13. A condenser that uses sprayed water
C. desiccant droplets and drafts from fans to produce an
D. pump-down solenoid evaporative cooling effect on its coils that
7. Evaporator defrosting that involves pumping flow with hot refrigerant vapor is a(n) _ _
refrigerant directly from the compressor condenser.
discharge line into the evaporator tubing A. air-cooled
describes a(n) _ _ defrost. B. evaporative
A. hot-gas C. microchannel
B. nonfreezing solution D. water-cooled
C. pump-down 14. The purpose of grooves, ridges, and pattern
D. off-cycle surfaces on the inside surface of condenser
8. Evaporator defrosting that involves tubing is to _ _.
circulating a heated solution in tubing near A. increase heat transfer
and around the evaporator during the Off B. look cool
cycle describes a(n) _ _ defrost. C. prevent tubing corrosion
A. hot-gas D. reduce heat transfer
B. nonfreezing solution 15. The primary need for head pressure control
C. pump-down in commercial refrigeration systems is due to
D. water
9. Evaporator defrosting that involves running A. high winds
tap water over the evaporator when the B. low ambient temperature
refrigeration system is off describes a(n) _ _ C. rain
defrost. D. refrigerant overcharge
A. hot-gas 16. With condenser louver head pressure
B. electric controls, as head pressure rises, the louvers
C. nonfreezing solution
D. water A. begin to close
10. An evaporator defrosting system that B. begin to open
circulates air from the conditioned space over C. remain stationary
the evaporator during the Off cycle is a(n) D. None of the above.
defrost. 17. When using fan speed control and cycling
A. hot-gas for head pressure control, a drop in head
B. nonfreezing solution pressure will cause _ _.
C. pump-down A. all the fans to cycle on
D. off-cycle B. fan speed to increase
11. For _ _ defrost, refrigerant is removed C. fans to slow down or cycle off
from the evaporator in order to increase heat D. Both A and B.
transfer to the frost buildup. 18. A suction line-liquid line heat exchanger
A. hot-gas performs which of the following functions?
B. nonfreezing solution A. It increases the formation of flash gas in
C. pump-down the liquid line.
D. electric B. It subcools refrigerant in the suction line.
C. It increases a system's efficiency.
D. It prevents refrigerant in the suction line
from evaporating.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 21 Heat Exchangers 557

19. A heat exchanger through which flows the

liquid line refrigerant of a low-temperature
refrigeration system and the low-side
refrigerant of a high-temperature system is
called a(n) _ _.
A. overchiller
B. superheater
C. subcooler
D. undercooler
20. A heat recovery system uses the heat from a
system's _ _ line.
A. discharge
B. liquid
C. suction
D. water

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER22 Refrigerant FlovV
Cotnponents

~ Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
Chapter Outline • Explain the two primary functions of refrigerant loop
22.1 Refrigerant Loop Components components.
22.2 Storage and Filtration Components • Describe the purpose and uses of liquid receivers.
22.2.1 Suction Line Filter-Driers :: • Differentiate between the distinct duties of filters and
22.2.2 Liquid Receivers = driers.
5
22.2.3 Liquid Line Filter-Driers
22.2.4 Sight Glasses
22.3 Refrigerant Flow Valves
~ . Explain the function of suction line and liquid line
filter-driers
22.3.1 Refrigerant Line Valves ii • Explain how sight glasses can be used to indicate the
22.3.2 Shutoff Valves amount of moisture in a refrigeration system.
22.3.3 Service Valves • Describe the operation and use of refrigerant line
22.3.4 Check Valves valves, shutoff valves, service valves, check valves,
22.3.5 Solenoid Valves solenoid valves, hot-gas defrost valves, hot-gas
22.3.6 Hot-Gas Defrost Valves bypass valves, and liquid injection valves.
22.3.7 Hot-Gas Bypass Valves • Explain the operation and purpose of crankcase
22.3.8 Liquid Injection Valves pressure regulators (CPRs).
22.4 Pressure-Regulating Valves
• Compare the operation of the different types of
22.4.1 Crankcase Pressure Regulators (CPRs)
evaporator pressure regulators (EPRs).
22.4.2 Evaporator Pressure Regulators (EPRs)
22.4.3 Relief Valves • Compare and contrast the different types of relief
22.5 Head Pressure Control Valves valves available.
22.5.1 Head Pressure Control-Pressure-Regulating • Describe the different head pressure control valves
Valves and condenser arrangements and explain how they
22.5.2 Head Pressure Control-Condenser Splitting operate to maintain head pressure.
 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 559

Technical Terms • An electronic expansion valve (EEV) is a type of

metering device using a needle valve that is most
check valve open on rise of inlet often positioned using a stepper motor. The valve
condenser pressure pressure (ORI) valve responds to signals from an electronic controller that
regulator pressure-regulating valve may be using measured temperature, pressure, or
condenser splitting receiver pressure regulator both. (Chapter 20)
evaporator pressure refrigerant line valve • When a motor is subjected to a heavy load, such
regulator (EPR) refrigerant migration as high low-side pressure entering a compressor, a
electric evaporator relief valve higher current is drawn by the power circuit. Heavy
pressure regulator riser loads causing high current draw can cause an
(EEPR) riser valve electric motor to overload. (Chapter 13)
hot-gas bypass valve rupture disc
• Air-cooled condensers that operate in very low
hot-gas defrost valve shutoff valve
ambient temperature must often use head pressure
liquid injection valve sight glass
controls to maintain high enough head pressure
liquid line manifold snap-action evaporator for proper system operation. This is most often
low-ambient control (LAC) pressure regulator
necessary for commercial refrigeration systems that
manifold valve solenoid valve
operate year-round in a climate with a cold season.
metering evaporator split condenser valve
(Chapter 21)
pressure regulator spring-loaded relief valve
moisture indicator
open on rise of differential
pressure (ORD) valve

Review of Key Concepts

starved evaporator
summer condenser
summer/winter condenser
Intl: ~d~ ;~~~j~e~ dng dev;ces, many d;ffecent types
of mechanical and electromechanical devices are used
to regulate refrigerant flow, pressure, quality, and stor-
I
age. They ensure that the correct amount of clean oil and
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
refrigerant are circulated in the system for safe operation.
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
In addition to the many automatic valves used through-
• Maintaining proper pressures, clean oil, and
out a system, manual valves also allow access for service,
moisture-free refrigerant in a system is critical
repair, and maintenance.
for long-term, trouble-free system operation.
(Chapter 19)
• According to Gay-Lussac's law, in a fixed volume,
pressure and temperature exhibit a direct
relationship. As pressure rises, temperature rises. As
temperature drops, pressure drops. (Chapter 5)
• A pump-down is the relocation of a system's entire
refrigerant charge into the liquid receiver, which
allows a technician to repair leaks and replace
components without having to recover a system's
refrigerant charge. (Chapter 11)
• A thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) is a liquid
metering device that operates based on superheat.
(Chapter 20)
560 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

22.1 Refrigerant Loop Components 5 microns in size, as well as acids, sludge, and moisture
from entering the compressor.
The basic refrigeration loop consists of the pri- A suction line filter-drier should be replaced if it
mary four components: compressor, condenser, meter- produces a measureable pressure drop. Because many
ing device, and evaporator. These are all the refrigerant filter-driers have access ports at both inlet and outlet, it
components necessary for a basic refrigeration system. is possible to compare pressure readings with a gauge,
As the application of HVACR systems grows to meet Figure 22-1.
more specific and demanding needs, additional com-
ponents are added to the refrigerant loop. This could Caution
mean additional evaporators, larger refrigerant capac-
Suction Line Low-Pressure
ity storage systems, extreme ambient operating condi-
tions, and automatic defrost controls introduce new Pressure drops from a filter or other suction line device
can hinder the return of oil to the compressor. Be sure suc-
devices into the refrigerant loop. As systems get larger
tion line filter-driers and other devices are not undersized.
and serve commercial and industrial functions, differ- Undersized filter-driers reduce system efficiency.
ent components are added.
However, behind the many different refrigerant Figure 22-2 shows a filter body for a commercial
flow components in the most advanced refrigeration and refrigeration system. It has a bolted assembly to permit
air conditioning systems is the basic refrigerant loop. replacement of the filter element. The service connec-
Refrigerant loop components have two primary functions: tion allows the technician to check the pressure drop
• Control refrigerant flow. across the filter-drier. Compare pressure readings
• Maintain proper refrigerant quantity and quality upstream and downstream of the filter-drier. There
in the system. should not be a measureable pressure difference while
Examples of refrigerant flow control devices are sole- the system is running. If there is a measureable pres-
noid valves, check valves, pressure-regulating valves, and sure drop, replace the filter element.
any other mechanical or electromechanical valve regu-
lating refrigerant flow. Devices used to maintain proper Pro Tip
refrigerant quantity and quality are refrigerant storage Filter for a New Compressor
and cleanliness devices, such as liquid receivers, filter- The replacement of all system filters is required
driers, and sight glasses. Their function is to ensure that during a compressor replacement. Always be sure to
the proper amount of clean, dry refrigerant and oil are cir- replace the suction line and liquid line filter-driers fol-
culated throughout the refrigerant loop at all times. lowing a compressor burnout or replacement. This will
ensure that no contaminants are left in the system.

22.2 Storage and Filtration

Components Access ports
The refrigerant loop contains several components
used to filter and store the circulating fluid. These com-
ponents are found on both low and high sides.

22.2.1 Suction Line Filter-Driers

Filter-driers are often mounted in the suction line to
prevent foreign particles and moisture from entering the
compressor. Replacement of these filter-driers is neces-
sary following a compressor burnout. They may also be
installed temporarily following a compressor burnout
and removed when the system has been cleaned.
Filter-driers are composed of two different
devices, each with a different purpose. The main task
of a drier is to adsorb moisture and other contaminants
that could mix to create acids. The main task of a filter Dantoss
is to catch foreign materials circulating in the refrig- Figure 22-1. Having access valves mounted on suction line filter-
erant. Together these two devices stop particles over driers allows a technician to easily check for pressure drops.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 561

line. The greater the refrigerant velocity, the larger

the filter-drier required to prevent pressure drop.
Therefore, suction line filter-driers are larger than
those in the liquid line.

Caution
Alcohol Additives and Filter-Driers
Alcohol additives should not be added to a
moisture-ridden system. Modern desiccants can adsorb
these additives even more readily than they adsorb
moisture. If alcohol is added, the desiccant may release
moisture into the system. Desiccant that has already
captured moisture could release some of that moisture
and replace it with the alcohol additive, further reducing
the effectiveness of the desiccant.

22.2.2 Liquid Receivers

A liquid receiver is a refrigerant storage tank con-
nected between the outlet of a condenser and a liquid
line. On large commercial systems, the liquid receiver
provides reserve liquid refrigerant when needed and
stores the rest when not needed. The outlet to the liq-
uid line is submerged in the liquid refrigerant. This
I
ensures that the liquid line will only circulate sub-
cooled liquid refrigerant, not vapor refrigerant. A
Emerson Climate Technologies
liquid receiver must provide enough storage for a sys-
Figure 22-2. Suction line filter-drier with a bolted flange that tem's entire refrigerant charge during automatic and
permits easy replacement of the filter element. The service
connection equipped on top allows for pressure readings to
manual pump-down (for defrost purposes, when some
tell when the filter element should be replaced. of the evaporators are not in use, and system service
procedures), Figure 22-3.
When a commercial refrigeration system cycles
The element in a drier that collects and holds into defrost or the cooling thermostat is satisfied, the
moisture is the desiccant. A desiccant's capacity to liquid line solenoid valve de-energizes and closes.
absorb and hold moisture is temperature-dependent. Even after this happens, the compressor stays in opera-
The colder the desiccant, the more moisture it can hold. tion and pumps down the system until the pressure in
Thus, a filter-drier should be installed in a relatively
cool location to be most effective.
Refrigerant inlet
Caution ~ and outlet ~

Brazing Near a Drier

It is important to remember that a drier's capacity
is temperature-dependent. Do not remove a filter-drier
using a torch. Heat from the torch would drive moisture
out of the desiccant and into the system. This defeats
the purpose of having a drier and could damage the
system. It is better to use tubing cutters to remove filter-
driers from systems, rather than a torch.
Liquid level gauge
A suction line filter-drier removes water, dirt, and Westermeyer Industries, Inc.
acid. Its primary purpose is to protect the compressor Figure 22-3. Liquid receivers are often engineered as vertical
from potential damage. Suction line refrigerant veloc- or horizontal cylinders. This horizontal cylinder also has a
ity is approximately six times the velocity in the liquid liquid level gauge.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

562 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

the evaporator drops to a low pressure (usually around Filter-driers are usually installed in the liquid
2 psi). Then a low-pressure control shuts off the com- line. Disposable filter-driers are used in systems 20
pressor. The majority of the refrigerant is removed tons and less. Systems over 20 tons use canister style
from the evaporator coil and the section of the liquid filter-driers with replaceable cores. Sizing of a drier is
line beyond the liquid line solenoid valve. This refrig- based upon the capacity rating of a system. Refer to
erant has been pumped down into the condenser and manufacturer recommendations for sizing. If correctly
liquid receiver. This prevents refrigerant from flood- sized, a filter-drier can keep the refrigerant both clean
ing the compressor from the evaporator during the Off and dry. A filter-drier should be replaced any time the
cycle. This type of system is mandatory if the compres- system is opened for service. For large systems, it is
sor is located outdoors where it could be in a colder recommended that the filter-drier be replaced yearly or
environment than the evaporator coil. when opened for service.
Some systems that have an outdoor air-cooled Cleaning a refrigeration system involves four
condenser need room in the liquid receiver for extra basic tasks:
refrigerant. Without extra room, liquid refrigerant • Removing moisture.
partly fills the condenser when head pressure is too
• Removing acid.
low. Without high enough head pressure, this liquid
will not move through the condenser. • Filtering out circulating solids.
• Measuring when the drying job is completed.
Filter-driers perform the first three tasks. A mois-
22.2.3 Liquid Line Filter-Driers ture indicator is required for the fourth. Filter-driers
The efficient operation of a commercial system should be left in a system permanently since oil loses
depends greatly on the internal cleanliness of the unit. its moisture slowly. Also, insulation in hermetic com-
Only clean, dry refrigerant and clean, dry oil should pressors and in small crevices may release moisture
circulate in the system. All impurities, such as dirt for long periods. A drier is like a sponge, absorbing
and water, must be removed. Contaminants must be moisture from the refrigerant. However, it can become
trapped in some part of the system where they can- saturated if the drier is sized too small. This will leave
not do harm. Devices used for removing moisture and the refrigerant with a high level of moisture that can
devices used for removing contaminants may be in become problematic. A moisture indicator is the only
separate cylinders; however, they are often built into sure means of recognizing a high-moisture condition.
a single cylinder (called a filter-drier) that filters and These will be covered later in this chapter.
adsorbs, Figure 22-4. All filter-driers use screens or strainers to trap
Adsorption is the ability to collect and retain gas or solids in the refrigerant. There are several types of
vapor substances on the surface of a solid or liquid in a screens or strainers. They are usually made of bronze,
condensed layer through physical attraction and capil- brass, stainless steel, or Monel wire. They should be
lary action. Enough drying material must be used for 100 to 120 mesh. That is, there should be 100 open-
both the high and low moisture ranges. ings along a 1" rule length (10,000 holes per square
inch). Popular screens are 100 by 90, 100 by 100, 120 by
108, and 120 by 120. The wire is usually .004" to .005"
diameter. In this size wire, the openings are about
.005" square.
Filter materials vary and may include felt, wool
batt, and processed coarse cotton yarn wound in a dia-
mond pattern over a metal frame. Some filters make
use of powdered metal pressure castings.
A conventional straight-through filter-drier is a
cylinder made of brass, copper, or steel. The drier is
filled with a desiccant chemical, such as activated alu-
mina, silica gel, or zeolite. These chemicals can adsorb
12% to 16% of their weight in water. Both ends of a
filter-drier's cylinder usually contain filter elements.
The end caps are fitted with either flare or soldered
Emerson Climate Technologies connections.
Figure 22-4. Clear canister liquid line filter-drier shows that it Refrigerant with safe amounts of moisture avoids
uses compacted beads as a desiccant. many problems in the system. Experience shows that

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 563

corrosion, oil breakdown, and motor burnouts are

almost eliminated if filter-drier manufacturer guide-
lines are followed. Indicators of when a filter needs to
be replaced include:
• A moisture indicator shows high moisture content.
• A pressure drop across the filter (as indicated by
bubbles in the sight glass or a temperature drop as
measured across the filter).
• A main component of the system, such as the
compressor, has been replaced.
• The refrigerant circuit is opened, such as when an
expansion valve is replaced.
A
Caution
New Filter-Driers
A technician should never reuse a used filter-drier.
A used filter-drier will release moisture into the circulat-
ing refrigerant.

One design of a liquid line filter-drier allows the

casing to stay in the liquid line. Only the drier car-
tridge needs to be changed, leaving the tubing and
the cylinder assembled in place in the liquid line.
Figure 22-5 shows a replacement drier core and take-
apart filter-driers.

22.2.4 Sight Glasses

A sight glass is a small viewport installed in a
refrigerant line. It allows an HVACR technician to B
visually inspect the circulating fluids (refrigerant or
oil) in a system. A sight glass is usually installed in a
commercial refrigeration system's liquid line. In some
cases, if a system is low on refrigerant, bubbles can be
seen through the sight glass.

Pro Tip
Sight Glass Bubbles
Bubbles in a sight glass do not always indicate a
shortage of refrigerant. When a system starts or stops,
a sight glass may show a few bubbles. These are nor-
mal equalizing actions and do not indicate a shortage of
refrigerant. Bubbles may also appear if the compressor
is partially unloaded or if there is a restriction in the line
ahead of the sight glass, such as a partially clogged
filter-drier. C
Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation;
Emerson Climate Technologies; Danfoss
Most sight glasses have long extensions that allow
the connections to be brazed without damage to the Figure 22-5. In some commercial applications, more than
one replacement drier core is used in large take-apart filter-
sight glass. Some liquid line filter-driers have a sight driers. A-Cutaway showing two filters in a single assembly.
glass built into their outlets. Although sight glass B-Replacement drier core. C-Take-apart filter-driers have a
connections are typically limited to diameters under removable cover with a port for installing an access valve near
2 1/2': they can still be used in systems that have a the inlet.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

564 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

liquid line with a larger diameter. This is done by

Color-changing
installing smaller-diameter tubing and a sight glass
element
parallel to the liquid line, as shown in Figure 22-6.
If there are bubbles in the liquid line, some of them
will be diverted through the smaller tubing and sight
glass.
A moisture indicator is a sight glass with a
color-changing element that is used to indicate a sys-
tem's moisture content. The color-changing element
changes color based on the amount of moisture in
the refrigerant. Some types of moisture indicators
undergo a single color change when the moisture in
the refrigerant exceeds a maximum limit. Another
type of moisture indicator changes color progres- connections
sively based on the moisture content of the refriger-
ant. See Figure 22-7.
Emerson Climate Technologies
Pro Tip Figure 22-7. A moisture indicator that changes color
progressively from blue, to purple, to pink as the moisture
Oil and Moisture Indicators
content of the refrigerant increases.
Circulating refrigerant oil can turn a moisture indi-
cator tan. Flushing the indicator with clear refrigerant
will remove the color. However, if the indicator continues Caution
to turn tan, the system has too much oil.
Color Codes
While most moisture indicators are the in-line Moisture indicators made by different manufactur-
style that are installed as part of the main liquid line, ers may have varying color codes for indicating mois-
ture in a system. Be certain to check the manufacturer's
they may also be socket types attached to liquid receiv-
specifications. With some moisture indicators, the words
ers or other pressurized vessels. Moisture indicators
"wet" or "dry" appear when the chemical in the indicator
are often installed just after the filter-drier in the liquid changes color.
line, Figure 22-8.

Sight glass

Horizontal Installation
1/4" copper
tube

t
Vertical Installation
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 22-6. A sight glass installed in smaller tubing that is parallel to the larger liquid line. Connections are usually brazed.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 565

Moisture Indicator Color Code

Blue-Very Dry Pink-Wet
Refrigerant (ppm H2 0) (ppm H2 0)

75°F 100°F 12s°F 75°F 100°F 12s°F

R-22 25 35 50 145 205 290

R-134a 20 35 60 130 160 190
R-404A 15 25 45 120 150 180
R-407C 26 40 64 150 230 370
A R-410A 30 55 75 165 290 420
R-502 2.6 5 8 50 90 150
R-507A 15 25 45 120 150 180
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 22-9. Table showing the effect of temperature on moisture
indicators. As the temperature increases, the amount of moisture
can increase while the indicator still shows a "dry" condition.

Although there are many different types of valves

used in refrigeration systems, they can be categorized
into a relatively small number of classifications based
on their function and the ways in which they operate.
I
See Figure 22-10.
B
Danfoss
Figure 22-8. A-Moisture indicators are often available with Valve Types and Their Functions
flare or brazed connections. B-ln-line moisture indicator
cutaway.
Valve Type Position 1 Position 2

Pro Tip
Temperature and Moisture Indicators
Shutoff
(two-way) -c}- -cJ==
The higher the liquid refrigerant temperature, the

~ ~
higher the moisture content needed to produce a color
Bypass
change in a moisture indicator. An indicator, if hot, can (three-way)
show a "dry" condition even though the system has too

-cs -cs
much moisture. For accurate readings, the liquid line
should be as near 75°F (24°C) as possible, Figure 22-9.
Reversing
(four-way)

22.3 Refrigerant Flow Valves Pressure

Refrigerant flow valves are used to regulate the
flow of refrigerant. They can stop the flow, change the
regulating
(modulating)
-c}- -c}-
direction, or control the volume of refrigerant in sec-
tions of the refrigerant loop. Valves are used at other
locations in the system to regulate the flow of refriger-
Check -c}- ==[)-
ant for other purposes. These valves are used for such Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
tasks as opening and closing bypass lines, isolating Figure 22-10. Five common types of valves. Position 1
sections of the system for service, and controlling the represents the normal condition of the valve. Position 2 shows
refrigerant flow to multiple evaporators. how operating the valve affects refrigerant flow.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

566 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Valves can be classified according to their build, Valve stem

how they operate, and the function they perform
within a refrigeration system. The following content
covers various refrigerant flow valves found in HVACR
!
systems. Additional information about these and other
types of valves will be presented in later chapters.

22.3.1 Refrigerant Line Valves

Refrigerant line valves control the flow of refrig-
erant through system piping. These valves can be
closed to cut off refrigerant flow through a section of
the system. Two styles of refrigerant line valves are Straight Two-Way Refrigerant Line Valve
available: two-way valves and three-way valves.
A two-way refrigerant line valve has a straight or
elbow-shaped valve body. It stops the flow of refriger-
ant when it is turned clockwise (front seated). A three-
way refrigerant line valve has a tee-shaped valve body.
It is used to shut off just one of the three connections to
the valve. The other two connections, remaining open,
permit the passage of refrigerant to the rest of the sys-
tem. See Figure 22-11.

22.3.2 Shutoff Valves

Shutoff valves are a common type of two-way
valve used to shut down flow through a refrigerant
line. This type of valve might be used to isolate compo-
nents of a system for service. These valves are designed
to be turned easily so that they can be operated by
hand, Figure 22-12.
Commercial refrigeration systems with multiple
evaporators are usually equipped with shutoff valves Angled Two-Way Refrigerant Line Valve
that block or permit refrigerant flow through the indi-
vidual evaporators. Shutoff valves used in these appli-
cations are often classified as either riser valves or
manifold valves.

Manifold Valves
Shutoff valves installed near suction line and liquid
line manifolds are called manifold valves. In multiple-
evaporator systems, smaller suction lines run from
each evaporator to a manifold. A single, larger suction
line runs from the manifold to the compressor inlet.
Manifold valves are mounted between the manifold
and each of the individual suction lines from the evap-
orators. These manifold valves permit any one of the
suction lines to be closed without interfering with the
operation of the others. Three-Way Refrigerant Line Valve
A similar arrangement is used on the high side Mueller Industries, Inc.
of a system. A liquid line manifold distributes high- Figure 22-11. Different types of refrigerant line valves.
pressure liquid refrigerant to separate metering devices
and their corresponding evaporators. Manifold valves
at each manifold outlet are used to block or allow

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 567

Handwheel system for taking pressure readings, adding or remov-

ing refrigerant or oil, and other service work. Several
types of service valves are available. Larger service
valves may have handwheels on their valve stems, but
most valve stems are made so that a refrigeration ser-
vice valve wrench is needed to turn them. Valve bod-
ies are usually made of drop-forged brass, and valve
stems are made of steel or brass. Packing and a packing
nut are installed around the valve stem to keep it from
leaking.
Service valves are fastened to tubing or pipe
using flared or brazed connections. They may also be
attached by pipe threads or bolted flanges. Most sys-
tems have service valves installed in the suction and
discharge lines at the compressor. Many systems are
also equipped with additional service valves, such as
a service valve at the outlet of the liquid receiver (king

I
valve) and the inlet of the receiver (queen valve). See
Chapter 10, Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant
Handling and Service, for additional information about
service valves.

Brazed connections 22.3.4 Check Valves

Mueller Industries, Inc.
Check valves are valves that permit fluid flow in
Figure 22-12. Manual shutoff valves are used in multiple-
only one direction. They play an important function in
evaporator systems to control refrigerant flow to each
evaporator. refrigeration systems by preventing the flow of liquid
and vapor refrigerant in the wrong direction. In larger
commercial refrigeration systems, check valves pre-
refrigerant flow to the individual evaporators. These vent unwanted refrigerant migration during the Off
valves are often mounted in a cabinet or on a special cycle, Figure 22-13.
valve board near the condenser. A check valve may use either a disk or a solid ball
to seal the valve opening. Some use a spring or magnet
Riser Valves to keep the valve against its seat. Others are mounted
A riser is a length of vertical refrigerant line. so that the weight of the valve keeps it against its seat.
Shutoff valves that control refrigerant flow through This type of check valve is sometimes referred to as a
liquid risers and suction risers are commonly referred weight valve. A weight valve is frequently installed on
to as riser valves. Riser valves can be elbows or tees. the evaporator inlets of high-side float systems if the
For an elbow-type riser valve, front seating the float assemblies are located away from the evaporators.
valve shuts off flow through the valve. For a tee-type
riser valve, front seating the valve closes the opening Pro Tip
that is at a right angle to the other two.
Check Valve Noise
Riser valves are usually made of drop-forged
Check valves can be a source of noise in a refrig-
brass to reduce leakage through the valve body, and
eration system, because they open and close with a
the valve stem may be either brass or steel. Riser valves
metallic click or bang. Valves have been designed to
may have packing around the valve stem to prevent minimize this noise problem. However, there is also
leakage, or they may be the packless type. Packless noise associated with the inefficient operation of a
valves use a bellows or a diaphragm as a sealing device valve. A "hammering" noise occurs when the valve does
rather than packing. not completely close off the reverse flow.

22.3.3 Service Valves Multiple-Evaporator Applications

Service valves enable technicians to seal off parts of Check valves are often used to stop refrigerant
a refrigeration system and provide a connection to the migration, which is the movement of refrigerant in a

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

568 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Angleway check valve- Straightway check valves- system during the Off cycle. Many commercial sys-
brazed connections brazed connections tems have multiple evaporators that connect to a single
condenser. These evaporators usually operate at dif-
ferent temperatures and different pressures, which
can cause problems on the low side of the system. As
a result, each evaporator, except for the evaporator
operating at the lowest pressure, has an evaporator
pressure regulator (EPR) connected at its outlet. EPRs
maintain a minimum pressure in each evaporator
and prevent them from operating at the lowest pres-
sure being pulled by the compressors. Remember the
principles of Gay-Lussac's law, so that the evaporator
with the lowest pressure also operates at the lowest
temperature. This lowest-temperature evaporator has
a check valve installed at its outlet, instead of an EPR.
The check valve prevents excess warming during the
Off cycle.
After the compressor has stopped, one of the
EPRs may open before the compressor turns on again.
This action floods the low side with warm refrigerant
vapor, which migrates along the suction line. If there
Straightway check valves-
were no check valve, this warm refrigerant could enter
flared connections
the coldest evaporator. If the warm refrigerant vapor
Types of Check Valves enters the coldest evaporator, it will start condensing
and releasing heat. Since refrigerant can only flow
through a check valve in one direction, the check valve
installed at the outlet of the coldest evaporator pre-
vents the warm refrigerant vapor from warming up
the evaporator.
Check valves must have tight seals to prevent
refrigerant from leaking past the valve seat against
the desired direction of flow. Such leakage is an exam-
ple of refrigerant migration. Check valves should also
be quick to open when refrigerant flow in the desired
direction is required. If the valve opening is too small
or if the valve opens with difficulty, it will act as a
throttling device and create a large pressure drop.
The result will be poor refrigeration in the coldest
evaporator.

Heat Pump Applications

Check valves are also frequently used in heat
pump systems to bypass one of the expansion
valves. Some heat pumps use two separate metering
devices. Each one is set up to operate for only one
Valve seat mode of operation. One expansion valve operates
Cross Section of Check Valve during heating mode, and the other operates during
Danfoss; Superior Refrigeration Products
cooling mode.
Figure 22-13. Check valves allow refrigerant flowing in one
When one of a heat pump's expansion valves
direction to pass while blocking refrigerant flow in the opposite should not be in operation, refrigerant flows around it
direction. in a bypass refrigerant line that is regulated by a check
valve. When the expansion valve should be in opera-
tion, the check valve closes to force refrigerant to flow
through the expansion valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 569

22.3.5 Solenoid Valves

A solenoid valve is an electromagnet with a
movable core (called a plunger) that opens and closes
a fluid passage. Solenoid valves are used in many
HVACR applications. They are used to automatically
close or open refrigerant circuits and are frequently
activated and deactivated by a thermostat or other
control device. A solenoid valve is easily installed and
requires only simple electrical circuits. Coil
A solenoid's plunger is usually made of an iron
alloy and is sealed into the valve body, where it is
free to slide up and down inside the plunger tube. An
electromagnetic coil is positioned around the plunger
tube. The components of a typical solenoid are shown
in Figure 22-14.
Gravity or spring pressure forces a solenoid's
plunger into its seat, closing the valve. When the coil is
energized, a magnetic field is generated. This pulls the
plunger upward toward the center of the coil, open-
ing the valve. The valve stays open until the circuit is
C)

I
opened and the coil is de-energized. When power to
the coil is interrupted, gravity causes the plunger to
drop, closing the valve. The basic operation of a sole-
noid valve is shown in Figure 22-15.
When a solenoid is de-energized and its valve is
closed, it is referred to as a normally closed (NC) sole-
noid valve. Many solenoid valves are NC. However,
some solenoid valves are available that remain open
when de-energized and close when the solenoid wind-
ing is energized. This type of valve is referred to as
a normally open (NO) solenoid valve. Solenoid valves
can be further classified as two-way, three-way, or
four-way valves based on the number of inputs and
outputs.
Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
Figure 22-14. Solenoid valve components.

Circuit Open; Valve Closed Circuit Closed; Valve Open

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 22-15. The two positions of a solenoid valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

570 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Two-Way Solenoid Valves valve from intermittently opening, a three-way sole-

Two-way valves control the flow of refrigerant noid valve can be used to divert high-side pressure
through a single route. Two-way valves have a single to the underside of the thermostatic expansion valve's
inlet and a single outlet. They are used to block refrig- diaphragm during the Off cycle. This forces the TXV
erant flow through a single circuit on demand. See closed, and keeps it closed, Figure 22-18.
Figure 22-16. In these types of designs, a three-way solenoid
A common application of a two-way solenoid valve is connected into the equalizer tube. The elec-
valve is in the liquid line of systems that pump down trical circuit to the solenoid valve is interrupted when
during the Off cycle. During the On cycle, the solenoid the compressor shuts down. This causes the solenoid
valve opens to allow full flow. During pump-down for valve's position to change, closing the passage between
the Off cycle, the solenoid valve closes to block the liq- the suction line and the equalizer tube. This action
uid line. Two-way solenoid valves are also common on opens a passage between the liquid line and the equal-
hot-gas defrost systems. izer tube. High-pressure refrigerant then enters the top
of the solenoid valve. The refrigerant passes upward
Three-Way Solenoid Valves through the equalizer tube. This forces the TXV's dia-
Three-way valves have a single inlet and two phragm up, closing the valve.
outlets. They control refrigerant flow in two different
lines. Three-way solenoid valves are used mainly on Reversing Valves (Four-Way Valves)
commercial refrigeration systems. They may be used Four-way solenoid valves are often called revers-
to control two separate refrigerant circuits for defrost- ing valves. Reversing valves reverse the flow of refriger-
ing or for two-temperature evaporators. Figure 22-17 ant through a system. They are frequently used in heat
shows a three-way solenoid valve intended for use in a pumps. They are available in a variety of sizes, and are
hot-gas defrost application. used chiefly on heat pumps to switch between heating
A thermostatic expansion valve may open inter- and cooling modes as needed, Figure 22-19.
mittently (opening and closing frequently) during
the Off cycle. This is caused by temperature fluctua-
tions, such as when the door of a refrigerated display
case is opened. To prevent the thermostatic expansion

jTo oondense,

Danfoss
Figure 22-17. Typical three-way solenoid valve used for hot-
gas bypass systems. Note the inlet from the compressor,
Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation the outlet to the condenser, and the hot gas outlet to the
Figure 22-16. A two-way solenoid valve. evaporator.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 571

~ !1201bs)
Head
pressure

Solenoid
valve ~

u
Danfoss
Figure 22-19. Typical solenoid -operated four-way reversing
valves.

Evaporator
pressure Reversing valves are commonly solenoid oper-
ated. Many now use a solenoid valve to operate a pilot

I
valve. The pilot valve in turn uses high-pressure vapor
from the compressor to operate the four-way valve.
A Operation of a typical reversing valve is shown in
Figure 22-20.
A reversing valve consists of a cylinder with a pis-
ton inside. The piston has three different internal pas-
sages. When the system is in cooling mode, the solenoid
is de-energized. High-pressure vapor is directed to
~ !1201bs)
Head
pressure
I push the piston so that passage has refrigerant flowing
from the indoor coil to the compressor's suction side.
The indoor coil functions as an evaporator and the out-
door coil is the condenser, as shown in Figure 22-20A.
Solenoid When the system is switched to the heating mode,
valve ~ the solenoid is energized. High-pressure vapor moves
the piston so that the outdoor coil is connected to the
compressor's suction side. The outdoor coil becomes
the evaporator and the indoor coil becomes the con-
denser, as shown in Figure 22-20B.

Pro Tip
Evaporator Direct-Acting and Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valves
pressure
When a solenoid operates the valve mechanism
directly, the valve is referred to as a direct-acting sole-
noid valve. If the solenoid is used to operate a small pilot
B valve, which in turn operates the main valve, the unit is
referred to as a pilot-operated solenoid valve.
Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
Figure 22-18. In this drawing, a three-way solenoid valve
is used to keep the thermostatic expansion valve tightly 22.3.6 Hot-Gas Defrost Valves
closed during the Off cycle. A-When the compressor is If a conditioned space reaches temperatures below
on, the solenoid valve is energized. Suction line pressure
freezing, the refrigeration system serving the space
is transmitted through equalizer tube to the thermostatic
expansion valve, and On cycle operation is normal.
should have defrosting capability. A quick and effec-
B-When power to the compressor is cut, the solenoid tive method of defrosting is running hot-gas refriger-
valve is de-energized. The solenoid valve's plunger ant from the compressor discharge line through the
changes position, allowing high-pressure refrigerant to flow evaporator. This process is known as hot-gas defrost,
up the equalizer tube to close the expansion valve. Figure 22-21.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

572 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

A bypass line between the compressor discharge line A hot-gas bypass valve is a valve that regulates
and the evaporator is often regulated by a solenoid valve certain amounts of hot refrigerant vapor from the
that serves as the hot-gas bypass valve. When a hot-gas discharge line to enter the low-side of the system for
defrost valve opens, it allows hot-gas refrigerant from the the sake of capacity control. Its inlet is connected to
discharge line to enter the evaporator and flow through the discharge line after the oil separator, and its out-
the low side of the system. The heat from the hot-gas let normally connects to the suction line or evapora-
refrigerant quickly heats and melts any frost or ice accu- tor distributor. When low-side pressure drops too low,
mulation on the evaporator. The refrigerant vapor flows a hot-gas bypass valve opens, allowing a measured
back to the compressor through the suction line. amount of hot-gas refrigerant to enter the low side to
raise pressure. The hot bypass gas warms the cool suc-
tion gas, raising the pressure in the suction line.
22.3.7 Hot-Gas Bypass Valves
Operating and load conditions in commercial Pro Tip
refrigeration systems may cause the temperature and Hot-Gas Valves
pressure in the suction line and low-side components to It is important to differentiate between hot-gas defrost
drop too low. These low-pressure and low-temperature and hot-gas bypass. While a hot-gas defrost valve is used
conditions can result in damage to the compressor or to provide a lot of hot-gas refrigerant to defrost an evap-
can cause a system to cycle off prematurely. To allevi- orator quickly, a hot-gas bypass valve is used to provide
ate such conditions, a regulated amount of high-side smaller amounts of hot gas to alleviate low-load conditions.
refrigerant can be directed into the low side, bypassing Bypassed hot gas prevents compressor damage and
avoids prematurely cycling off the system.
the system's condenser and refrigerant control.

Compressor
Compressor
discharge
discharge

Cylinder

...

Solenoid

piston
Cooling Mode Heating Mode
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 22-20. Reversing valve operation. Cooling Mode-The solenoid is de-energized. The pilot valve diverts high-pressure vapor
to the right side of the reversing valve's cylinder, which pushes the reversing valve's piston to the left. This directs high-pressure
vapor from the compressor to the outdoor coil and allows the compressor to draw in from the indoor coil. Heating Mode-The
solenoid is energized, pulling the pilot valve piston to the right. High-pressure vapor pushes the reversing valve piston to the right.
This directs high-pressure vapor from the compressor into the indoor coil and allows the compressor to draw in from the outdoor coil.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 573

There are two basic types of hot-gas bypass valves low-side pressure drops below the valve's setting, it
that are classified by the variable on which they oper- will open to meter hot gas to the low side. These valves
ate: pressure and temperature. Many hot-gas bypass look and operate much like automatic expansion
valves function like a constant pressure valve. If valves, Figure 22-22.

~ Liquid line
solenoid valve

Evaporator pressure
regulator

L __________________ j

,---------------,
I t===:::::;:::===~
I TXV
I Liquid
I

I
Check valve
Iinjection
I II valve·,---11---. I

- I
I
L ______________ ..JI

Hot-gas
Liquid line
manifold

Suction line defrost valve

manifold

Accumulator

Sight
glass

Hi-lo pressure
.------1 control Condenser Filter-
drier
Vibration ~--------ttVibration Head pressure
absorber control valve

Crankcase
pressure
regulator
Liquid receiver

Compressor D High-pressure vapor • High-pressure liquid

D Low-pressure vapor • Low-pressure liquid
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 22-21. The combination of components in this commercial system makes the unit work more efficiently. The inclusion of
certain components, like various service valves, makes this system easier to service.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

574 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Stepper motor

Outlet

Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 22-22. This hot-gas bypass valve operates based on
pressure, much like an automatic expansion valve (AEV).

Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Temperature-operated hot-gas bypass valves use
a temperature sensor and a controller to determine Figure 22-23. This hot-gas bypass valve operates based on
temperature, much like an electronic expansion valve (EEV).
when and how much refrigerant to meter from high
to low sides. These valves look and operate much like
electronic expansion valves EEVs, Figure 22-23.

Pro Tip
Hot-Gas Bypass Valves
The phase hot-gas bypass describes what the
valve does, not the type of valve mechanism used.
Different modulating valves can be set up to function as
hot-gas bypass valves. Knowing how a hot-gas bypass
valve operates within a system is necessary to install-
ing, commissioning, and troubleshooting.

Danfoss
22.3.8 Liquid Injection Valves
Figure 22-24. These liquid injection valves operate based on
At times, bypassed discharge hot gas may be too superheat, much like a thermostatic expansion valve (TXV).
hot for the low side. To reduce the temperature of the
hot gas, a liquid injection valve opens to allow warm
liquid refrigerant from the liquid line to mix with and Pro Tip
cool the bypassed hot-gas refrigerant vapor. This cool- Liquid Injection Valves
ing of vapor using liquid desuperheats the hot gas The term liquid injection valve describes the function
(reduces its temperature). A sensing bulb allows a liq- of the valve, not a specific type of valve body. Injecting liq-
uid injection valve to operate based on the superheat uid into the low side desuperheats (reduces the sensible
(sensible temperature) that it is sensing on the suction heat of) the hot-gas refrigerant from the discharge line.
line. Many liquid injection valves look and operate For this reason, liquid injection valves are also commonly
referred to as desuperheater valves, Figure 22-25.
much like thermostatic expansion valves, Figure 22-24.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 575

22.4 Pressure-Regulating Valves compressor crankcase. This prevents a compressor's

motor from overloading due to high suction pressure,
Pressure-regulating valves modulate refriger- Figure 22-26.
ant flow to maintain a desired pressure. Commercial A CPR closes as pressure in a compressor's crank-
refrigeration systems use many types of pressure- case increases. Low-side pressure exerts force both
regulating valves. These valves perform a variety of upward on the underside of a CPR's bellows and
tasks, including controlling pressure in the evaporator, downward on the topside of the seat disc. Therefore,
pressure in the crankcase, discharge bypass pressure, inlet pressure from the suction line cancels out itself
and head pressure. Some of these valves have access and has no effect on the operation of a CPR. That leaves
ports for gauge mounting. only the pressure of the spring to push open the seat
disc, Figure 22-27.
22.4.1 Crankcase Pressure Regulators When crankcase pressure is low enough, spring
pressure pushes open the valve seat, allowing vapor
(CPRs) refrigerant to flow into the compressor. When crank-
A crankcase pressure regulator (CPR) is a case pressure rises too high, it pushes back against
pressure-regulating valve installed between a suction the seat disc and closes the valve, stopping the flow of
line and a compressor inlet. It limits the pressure in the vapor refrigerant from the suction line.

External equalizer tubing Evaporator

I
Liquid injection valve
(desuperheating TXV)

Hot-gas Liquid line

solenoid valve ,.....-, ..,~--- solenoid
Hot-gas ==::::nl===~=c:::[::::J:::::]:::~ valve
bypass-ri-------,~
valve External equalizer
tubing

Condenser
Liquid line
Suction
filter-drier -
line

Compressor

D Low-pressure vapor D High-pressure vapor Liquid receiver

• Low-pressure liquid • High-pressure liquid
Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
Figure 22-25. Diagram showing the arrangement of a refrigeration system using a hot-gas bypass valve and a liquid injection
valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

576 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Equalizer tube Sight glass

D Evaporator

D
Suction line
Filter-drier

Condenser Liquid receiver

Crankcase pressure
regulator

Compressor

• High-pressure liquid D High-pressure vapor

• Low-pressure liquid D Low-pressure vapor
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 22-26. A compressor pressure regulator (CPR) is located in the suction line of this system and throttles refrigerant flow to
prevent high pressure from causing the compressor motor to overload.

service technician to set the CPR according to the rated

Pro Tip
load amperage (RLA) of the compressor's motor.
Control Valve Names By maintaining a reduced pressure load that the
Control valves in the HVACR field can be called by compressor motor must act against during starting,
many names. Sometimes the focus of the name is on their a crankcase pressure regulator limits the high cur-
function in the system or based on how they operate. A rent necessary for the compressor motor to operate.
crankcase pressure regulator may also be called by the fol- Lower pressure means less current. Less current
lowing names: crankcase pressure-regulating valve, suc-
means less chance of an electrical overload happen-
tion regulator valve, compressor low-side pressure control
ing to the compressor motor. A crankcase pressure
valve, and reverse metering, evaporator control valve.
regulator reduces the higher suction line pressure
that is present during and after the defrost cycle, after
Crankcase pressure regulators are needed for situ- a normal shutdown period, and for a hot pull down
ations in which the compressor runs too long before (starting a system with its conditioned space at ambi-
the low side drops to a pressure that will not over- ent temperature).
load the compressor motor. The suction line pressure A crankcase pressure regulator's valve body is
may exceed the safe pressure. However, in this event, usually made of brass and a pressure-sensing element,
the crankcase pressure regulator throttles the path such as a diaphragm or bellows of phosphor bronze,
between the suction line and the compressor, protect- Figure 22-28. The needle and seat are usually made of
ing the compressor from a high pressure. A calibration wear-resisting steel alloy. Crankcase pressure regula-
screw on the crankcase pressure regulator allows a tors may also be manufactured as pilot valves.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 577

Adjustment screw

Spring
force

Inlet pressure canceling

its effect on valve operation

I -

~
I
Inlet
Spring

Seat disc

Crankcase
pressure
Access valve
(optional)

Outlet

Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 22-27. Cutaway showing the inside of a crankcase pressure regulator. Note that inlet (suction line) pressure is exerted
both on the bellows and on the seat disc, canceling out any effect it would have in opening the valve. Seat disc placement is
determined only by spring pressure and crankcase pressure.

22.4.2 Evaporator Pressure Regulators even when the suction line pressure drops lower than
evaporator pressure, Figure 22-29.
(EPRs) EPRs are used in multiple-evaporator systems
An evaporator pressure regulator (EPR) is a where each evaporator maintains a different tempera-
pressure-regulating valve that restricts the flow of ture. This is common in commercial refrigeration where
refrigerant coming out of the evaporator. An EPR main- display cases have contents requiring low-temperature
tains a set minimum pressure in the evaporator while and medium temperature cooling. EPRs are also used
the refrigeration system is operating. Remember how on chiller systems where evaporator temperature must
Gay-Lussac's law describes the relationship between not reach freezing temperatures.
pressure and temperature in a fixed volume, such as an The evaporators in multiple-evaporator installa-
evaporator. As pressure drops, temperature drops. As tions share a common suction line. This suction line
pressure rises, temperature rises. By controlling evap- has a low pressure that is common to all the evapo-
orator pressure, EPRs control evaporator temperature, rators. While many factors contribute to evaporator

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

578 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Adjustment screw -===-aa+- -- Adjustment

screw cap

Bellows

Outlet
(to suction line)
Diaphragm
~
Access
port

Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 22-28. Three variations of crankcase pressure
regulators. Danfass
Figure 22-29. An evaporator pressure regulator maintains
the desired evaporator pressure by metering the refrigerant
temperature, HVACR systems control evaporator tem- leaving the evaporator.
perature by controlling evaporator pressure. EPRs
are especially necessary when a multiple-evaporator
installation with a single suction line needs to operate evaporator. The higher pressure results in higher tem-
multiple evaporators at different temperatures. perature. While the compressor produces a low pressure
Thermostatic expansion valves are often the devices in the suction line and any low-temperature evapora-
controlling the refrigerant entering evaporators in a tors, an evaporator with an EPR can maintain a higher
multiple-evaporator installation. However, the tempera- pressure and a higher temperature.
ture difference among TXV-controlled evaporators in a An evaporator pressure regulator (EPR) restricts the
multiple-evaporator installation may not exceed 5°F (3°C). flow of refrigerant coming out of an evaporator in order
For a greater temperature difference, additional methods to prevent evaporator pressure from dropping below a set
must be used to control evaporator pressure. point. By maintaining a minimum pressure in the evapo-
To create a greater temperature difference, an evap- rator, EPRs ensure that the evaporator will not drop below
orator pressure regulator (EPR) is attached between the a minimum temperature. Maintaining a minimum pres-
suction line and the outlet of an evaporator that needs to sure in the evaporator is an EPR's only function. Pressure
be at a higher temperature. The EPR prevents pressure can rise so that the valve is pushed fully open, as if it were
in the warmer evaporator from going below a calibrated not even in the line. Generally, evaporator pressure regu-
low-pressure set point. By keeping an evaporator's lators are a type of modulating control that open and close
pressure higher than suction line pressure, an EPR can variably in response to evaporator pressure. However,
maintain a correspondingly higher temperature in its there are some evaporator pressure regulators that are

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 579

designed to either pop completely open or remain There are two general types of mechanically oper-
completely closed. ated evaporator pressure regulators: metering and
snap-action. Newer electric EPRs operated by stepper
Pro Tip motors are also available.
Evaporator Pressure Regulator Names
Metering Evaporator Pressure Regulators
HVACR is a broad industry with a diverse jargon. For
A metering evaporator pressure regulator var-
instance, evaporator pressure regulators may be referred
ies its valve opening in proportion to evaporator pres-
to by several other names. One such name is holdback
valve (the regulator "holds back" some of the refrigerant
sure. The higher the evaporator pressure, the more the
from the evaporator as it maintains its set pressure in the valve opens. In this way, a metering EPR has a variable
evaporator. An EPR may also be called an open on rise of response to evaporator pressure. The valve can occupy
inlet pressure (ORI) valve. This is because an EPR's valve
opens when the pressure of the evaporator rises to and
above the EPR's calibrated minimum pressure setting, as
pressure pushes against the valve inlet. Another name for
an EPR is two-temperature valve, because it is used in
multiple-evaporator systems to maintain at least two tem-
peratures in different evaporators. A higher temperature is
maintained in an evaporator with an EPR, and a lower tem-
perature is maintained in other evaporators. An EPR may
also be called a constant pressure valve, as it is used to l Spring
ensure a constant pressure in its evaporator. f pressure

An EPR consists of an adjustment spring, a bel-

lows or diaphragm, a needle, and a seat. Two opposing
forces work together to operate evaporator pressure Valve stem
regulators. The bellows or diaphragm operates by the
pressure of the adjustment spring in one direction try-
ing to shut the valve. The pressure from the evaporator
refrigerant pushes in the other direction trying to open
the valve, Figure 22-30.
When an HVACR system cycles on, the compressor
pumps, and low-side pressure begins to drop. Once the
Evaporator
low-pressure set point in an EPR-controlled evaporator is
reached, the adjustment spring in the EPR closes the valve.
This action stops the pressure in the warmest evaporators
t refrigerant
pressure

from going below the low-pressure set point. Pressure in

the evaporator builds up from refrigerant that continues
to vaporize in the evaporator. Once evaporator pressure
builds up high enough, it pushes against the adjustment
spring to open the valve and pass vapor on to the suction
line and compressor.

Caution
Evaporator Loading and EPRs
An evaporator controlled by an EPR should not
have more than 40% of the system's total load. If an
EPA-controlled evaporator is too large, erratic cycling
can result. If the controlled load is more than 40%, sep-
arate condensers should be used. If it is necessary to
determine whether an evaporator coil is the proper size Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
for the condensing unit being used, the technician will
Figure 22-30. Cross section of an evaporator pressure
need to use the model number of the evaporator coil
regulator showing its internal construction. Notice how spring
and the condensing unit to cross-reference coil design pressure and evaporator refrigerant pressure push to close or
specifications on the manufacturer's website. open the valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

580 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

any position ranging from fully closed to fully open. It Electric Evaporator Pressure Regulators
acts more as a throttling device than as a shutoff valve. Over time, the importance of food preservation
has prompted the continued innovation of HVACR
Pro Tip controls. While evaporator pressure is important, a
EPR Calibration Setting more important variable in refrigeration is evapora-
EPRs have an access port on the evaporator side.
tor outlet air temperature. Traditional spring-operated
This allows the technician to check and adjust the EPR's evaporator pressure regulators react to evaporator
pressure setting. pressure. However, electric evaporator pressure regu-
lators react directly to evaporator temperature.
An EPR's valve opening must be large enough An electric evaporator pressure regulator
to offer efficient vapor flow. Many of these metering (EEPR) is a control valve, installed between an evapo-
controls have a small adjustment range. Large sys- rator and a suction line, that proportionally modulates
tems must rely on forces other than springs to control its valve position in reaction to evaporator tempera-
pressure for efficient operation. The large capacity ture. Rather than moving its valve into position with
evaporator pressure regulator in Figure 22-31 uses a a spring, EEPRs use a stepper motor. EEPRs closely
solenoid-operated pilot valve to move its main valve. resemble electronic expansion valves (EEVs). However,
while EEVs are installed between a liquid line and an
Snap-Action Evaporator Pressure Regulators evaporator, an EEPR is installed between an evapora-
A snap-action evaporator pressure regulator has tor and a suction line, Figure 22-32.
a definite cut-in pressure and temperature, allowing A thermistor or other temperature-sensing device
the valve to have only two states: fully open or fully is installed in the conditioned space where it senses
closed. While metering EPRs can modulate their valve the air cooled by the evaporator. The thermistor is con-
opening, a snap-action EPR is either open or closed. nected to an electronic control module. When the con-
When a snap-action EPR closes, a significant pres- trol module transmits certain signals to the EEPR, the
sure rise occurs in the warm evaporator before the stepper motor moves the piston closer or further from
valve opens again. It is often used when defrosting is the valve seat to modulate refrigerant flow out of the
wanted on each cycle. A snap-action EPR is normally evaporator. The stepper motors used in these valves
used in multiple-evaporator systems that do not oper- provide very precise flow control, as they can move the
ate at a wide temperature difference. Such systems piston in very small increments, Figure 22-33.
include walk-in coolers and display cases. As with a The electronic control module contains specific
metering EPR, a snap-action EPR could be installed programming, called an algorithm, that compares the
between the evaporator outlet and the suction line. reading from the temperature sensor with a set point

--- Adjustment
screw

Suction line

Evaporator

Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation Figure 22-32. An electronic controller regulates a stepper
Figure 22-31. Large capacity evaporator pressure regulator motor to modulate refrigerant flow by moving a piston closer or
with a solenoid-operated pilot valve. further from the port by fine increments.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 581

Set point
adjuster
/

Thermistor

Electric evaporator
pressure regulator
(E E PR) -----------:...

Evaporator
Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation •
Figure 22-33. A standalone control system diagram for an electric evaporator pressure regulator (EEPR).

and modulates the valve position to achieve that set Relief valves are safety valves that prevent equip-
point. The set point itself can be selected by the user ment damage or personal injury by venting refrigerant
and can be changed at any time. when pressure exceeds the maximum safe limit. If a relief
When the temperature of the air, as felt by the sen- valve is in an enclosed space, a purge line is attached to
sor, is warmer than the desired temperature set point the relief valve's outlet to carry the vented refrigerant out-
in the controller, the valve is given a signal to open. side where it can be safely released. Relief valves are usu-
This allows refrigerant to evaporate at a lower suction ally installed on the liquid receiver above the liquid level
pressure. The lower pressure evaporates the refriger- so that they are exposed to vapor refrigerant, not liquid
ant at a lower temperature, cooling the evaporator to refrigerant. This can help to minimize the loss of refriger-
the set point. The controller modulates the valve to ant. Most codes governing the installation and operation
control temperature within very narrow limits. of compression refrigeration systems require a system to
Many systems are connected to energy manage- have relief valves under the following circumstances:
ment systems (EMS). The most common application of • If the unit is greater than a certain tonnage.
these systems is in supermarkets to maintain multiple
• If the amount of refrigerant exceeds specified
evaporators at different temperatures. Some systems,
minimums.
however, are standalone-that is, they operate on their
own according to their set point and are not connected • If the internal volume is large enough.
to an energy management system. Relief valves should be inspected every six to
twelve months and replaced every five years. Take the
appropriate corrective action if any of the following
22.4.3 Relief Valves conditions are discovered during inspection:
A compression refrigeration system, regardless • Missing or broken seal wires. Missing or broken
of size, is a sealed and pressurized system. Although seal wires indicate that a relief valve has been
pressures may vary, excessively high pressures can tampered with. Replace any relief valve with a
cause some part of a system to explode or burst open. missing or broken seal wire.
This might occur due to shutdowns, fires, extreme • Corrosion. Corrosion can prevent a relief valve
temperature conditions, or control malfunctions. Most from operating properly. Replace any valve
often relief valves are used on larger commercial or showing signs of corrosion.
industrial systems. Relief valves are generally located • Leakage. Replace any relief valve showing signs of
on a pressure vessel, such as a liquid receiver. leakage.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

582 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Proper nameplate. The size, pressure limit, date lower temperature than the outer shell. In case of a fire
of manufacture, and discharge capacity of a relief or extremely high operating temperatures, the metal
valve should be clearly visible. core melts and allows refrigerant in the system to
• Stacked spring-loaded relief valves. Stacking is escape before it reaches a dangerously high pressure.
the addition of a second spring-loaded relief valve A flare fitting at the end of the fusible plug is used to
to the outlet of an existing spring-loaded relief connect to the purge line, which carries the released
valve that is leaking. Stacking spring-loaded relief refrigerant outdoors, Figure 22-34.
valves is a common maintenance error.
Pro Tip
• Dirt or debris in the purge line. Check a relief
valve's purge line to see if rainwater or other Fusible Plug Considerations
foreign materials can be allowed in. Any dirt or When a fusible plug fails, it releases a system's
debris can interfere with relief valve operation. entire refrigerant charge. Fusible plugs are also prone
Also, purge lines should discharge refrigerant at to failure due to age or prolonged exposure to elevated
least 15' above ground level and at least 20' from temperatures and must be replaced regularly to ensure
proper operation. Because of these drawbacks, spring-
any door, window, or ventilation opening. Correct
loaded relief valves have replaced fusible plugs in many
any problems found with the purge line.
applications.
Relief valves should be replaced after they have
discharged or vented. Even spring-loaded relief valves,
which close after they have vented, must be replaced
because debris can get caught on the valve seat, pre-
venting a proper seal. This can lead to venting at pres-
sures considerably lower than the relief valve's rated
pressure. Even if a valve never discharges, it should
still be replaced every five years to ensure proper oper-
ation. Replacement schedules may vary depending on
applicable codes.

Code Alert
Spring-Loaded Relief Valves
Stacking spring-loaded relief valves is not permis-
sible by code. Stacked valves add back pressure above
the first relief valve piston, affecting the valves' pressure Purge line
settings. The criteria for selecting and installing relief connection
valves are described in ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15,
Fusible Plug
Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration.

Pro Tip
Relief Valve Sizing
In general, a relief valve should be sized to vent at
a pressure no less than 25% above the maximum sys-
tem operating pressure. It must also be sized to release Metal core
refrigerant at the proper rate. Relief valve flow capacities
are rated in pounds of refrigerant per minute (lb/min).

There are three principal types of relief valves:

• Fusible plug.
threads
• Spring-loaded relief valve.
• Rupture disc. Cross Section of Fusible Plug
Mueller Industries, Inc.
Fusible Plugs Figure 22-34. Fusible plugs are often installed on liquid
A fusible plug is a relief valve that consists of a receivers. The smaller threaded fitting connects to the
threaded plug with a metal core that melts at a much purge line.

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 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 583

Spring-Loaded Relief Valves Some manufacturers have integrated rupture

A spring-loaded relief valve vents refrigerant discs into their spring-loaded relief valves to prevent
under excessive pressure and then closes when enough potential leakage at the valve seat. These relief valves
refrigerant has been released from the system to lower also contain a filter trap that collects the fragments of
the pressure. When the system pressure overcomes the disc if it ruptures.
the pressure of the spring inside the valve, the piston
and valve disc are pushed away from the valve seat.
Refrigerant passes around the valve disc and escapes Purge line connection
through the hole in the adjusting gland. When the
system pressure drops back to a safe level, the spring
pushes the piston and valve disc back into their origi-
nal positions, reseating the valve and preventing more
refrigerant from escaping, Figure 22-35.
The opening pressure of a spring-loaded relief
valve is calibrated by the manufacturer by changing
the position of the adjusting gland. However, once the
Adjusting
valve's opening pressure is set, the valve is sealed to gland
prevent tampering. A spring-loaded relief valve's pres-
sure setting cannot be adjusted in the field. If the seal
is broken, the valve should be replaced with a correctly Spring
adjusted and sealed valve, Figure 22-36.
Spring-loaded relief valves usually close at 10% to
20% below their opening pressure. Since spring-loaded
relief valves are safety devices, it is absolutely critical
that the proper valve be installed. Note that a valve's
specifications are stamped on the side of the valve
body. Refer to Figure 22-36.
Piston

Valve seat
I
Rupture Discs
A rupture disc consists of a valve body containing
a thin metal disc that bursts before the pressure in a
system reaches dangerous levels. Rupture disc valve
bodies generally have a threaded port for permanently Valve disc
installing a pressure gauge. The gauge port is sealed Sherwood Valve
off from the system pressure unless the disc ruptures. Figure 22-35. Cutaway of a spring-loaded relief valve.
If the gauge displays high pressure, the rupture disc
has burst and must be replaced, Figure 22-37.
Rupture discs are typically installed between
a system and a spring-loaded relief valve. The rup-
ture disc blocks refrigerant from reaching the relief
valve under normal operating conditions. This elim-
inates the possibility of small amounts of refrigerant
leaking out through the relief valve during normal
system operation. However, if the system pressure
exceeds the maximum allowable limit, the rupture
disc bursts to expose the relief valve to system pres-
sure. The spring-loaded relief valve will then vent
refrigerant to bring the system pressure back into
the allowable range and will reseal once the pres- Valve specifications and
sure has been reduced. With the rupture disc burst, date of manufacture
the pressure gauge will show the pressure reading. Mueller Industries, Inc.
This indicates to the technician that the rupture Figure 22-36. After a spring-loaded relief valve has been
disc has burst, and the system may have lost some calibrated by the manufacturer, a seal is placed on it to
of its charge to venting. prevent tampering.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

584 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Pressure gauge
Rupture Disc Intact
Rupture disc
/ valve body

Burst Rupture Disc

Rupture Disc
Westermeyer Industries, Inc.; Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 22-37. Rupture discs are typically equipped with a pressure gauge and installed before a spring-loaded relief valve.

22.5 Head Pressure Control Valves through the system. This is especially critical for com-
mercial refrigeration systems that operate year-round
Another group of pressure-regulating valves and must function through a cold season. Several dif-
are head pressure control valves. These valves work ferent methods are available that can maintain head
together to control head pressure during periods of pressure:
low ambient temperature. A commercial refrigeration • Flooding the condenser with liquid refrigerant by
system with an outdoor, air-cooled condenser oper- using pressure-regulating valves.
ating in cold temperature often needs some form of
• Flooding the condenser with liquid refrigerant
head pressure control. There are numerous methods
by using a reduced condenser volume (condenser
of controlling head pressure. Some of the more com-
splitting).
mon methods use pressure-regulating valves. Two
popular options include using a condenser pressure • Partially or completely closing an air-cooled
regulator and a receiver pressure regulator or using condenser's louvers.
a low ambient control, which is a valve that performs • Stopping, slowing, or cycling off an air-cooled
the functions of both condenser pressure regulator condenser's fans.
and receiver pressure regulator. More information on • Heating the condenser or liquid receiver.
other methods of head pressure control can be found This chapter will cover methods of head pressure
in Chapter 21, Heat Exchangers. control that regulate the flow and pressure of refriger-
Many HVACR systems use air-cooled condens- ant through the high side of the system. Other meth-
ers. These condensers are subject to the temperature ods of head pressure control, such as opening and
and humidity of the outdoors. Low ambient tempera- closing air louvers, controlling fan speed and cycling,
ture can reduce head pressure. In extreme cases, this and heating the condenser or liquid receiver, are cov-
reduced head pressure can stop the flow of refrigerant ered in Chapter 21, Heat Exchangers.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 585

22.5.1 Head Pressure Control- Condenser and Receiver Pressure

Pressure-Regulating Valves Regulator Valves
For outdoor air-cooled condensers, condensing
The main concern with refrigeration systems with temperatures and pressures may be raised back to
outdoor condensers is keeping the TXV operating at proper operating levels by employing certain pressure-
full capacity during cold weather. Refrigeration sys- responsive valves, such as condenser pressure regula-
tems operate on the relationships of temperature and tors and receiver pressure regulators, Figure 22-38.
pressure. Refrigerant flow capacity depends on the A condenser pressure regulator is an open on rise
pressure difference across the TXV. If the condensing of inlet pressure (ORI) valve that opens on a rise of
pressure for R-134a reduces from 104 psi at 90°F (32°C) inlet pressure. It opens when condenser pressure rises
0
to 26psi at 30°F (-l C), the TXV capacity will drop. This to a proper level and closes to block the flow of refrig-
capacity drop occurs because the temperature and erant from the condenser to the liquid receiver when
pressure of the condenser will be much closer to evap- condenser pressure drops too low, Figure 22-38.
orator temperature and pressure than during warm The condenser pressure regulator closes when
weather. It will be much more difficult for this lower condenser pressure is less than the pressure exerted by
high-side pressure to overcome the force of the TXV's the regulator's adjustable spring. With the condenser
adjustment spring and low-side pressure. This much pressure regulator closed, the compressor continues
smaller pressure difference means that not enough to pump refrigerant into the condenser, causing con-

I
liquid refrigerant will be flowing into the evaporator. denser pressure to rise. Condenser pressure regulators
Also, a small pressure difference across the TXV may often look and operate similarly to evaporator pressure

cause/,t=h=e=c=o=m=p=re=s=s=o=r=t=o=s=h=o=r=t=cy=c=l=e=.=========r=e=g=u=la=t=o=r=s,=F=i~gure 22-39.

Distributor

Liquid line
Condenser --solenoid
valve

Suction Condenser pressure

line regulator (ORI valve)

Discharge Liquid line

line ....._ filter-drier

t Liquid
receiver
Receiver pressure

D
regulator (ORD valve)

Low-pressure vapor
!
• Low-pressure liquid
D High-pressure vapor
Compressor • High-pressure liquid

Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 22-38. Diagram of a system with an outdoor condensing unit showing a condenser pressure regulator (ORI valve) and
receiver pressure regulator (ORD valve). These devices are used to ensure proper head pressure during cold weather.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

586 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

~ Adjustment heat being released from the condenser, condenser

screw temperature rises. According to Gay-Lussac's law,
when the temperature of a substance within a constant
volume rises, pressure also rises. When condenser
pressure rises high enough, the condenser pressure
regulator opens.
Spring
pressure Remember that the problem with outdoor, air-
cooled condensers is that cold outdoor air can cause
head pressure to drop very low. This reduces the pres-
sure difference between the high and low sides across
the TXV. With a reduced pressure difference, refriger-
ant flow from high to low sides is severely reduced.
Condenser Condenser pressure regulators and receiver pressure
pressure regulators are used to raise head pressure and increase
receiver the pressure difference between the high and low sides
connection of the system.
Head pressure can be raised back to proper oper-
ating levels using a receiver pressure regulator. As
condenser pressure drops, the condenser pressure

Condenser
connection - -

Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 22-39. Review manufacturer literature before installing
and calibrating condenser pressure regulators.

A receiver pressure regulator is an open on rise

of differential pressure (ORD) valve that allows hot-
gas refrigerant from the compressor discharge line
to bypass the condenser and directly enter the liquid
receiver when a certain pressure difference occurs
between the discharge line and the liquid receiver. The
heat and pressure of the discharge gas raises the pres-
sure in the liquid receiver, Figure 22-40. The pressure
difference setting is usually between 20 and 30 psi.
Outdoor air-cooled condensers are designed so
that their tubes fill nearly full with liquid refrigerant
during low-temperature conditions. Just enough con-
denser surface is available to maintain proper pres-
sure. During low ambient conditions, pressure may
drop too low. When condenser pressure decreases too
low, the condenser pressure regulator at the outlet of
the condenser closes. With its outlet closed, the con-
denser then begins to fill with liquid refrigerant. As
more liquid than usual is occupying the condenser,
less condenser surface is available for the vapor refrig- Danfoss
erant. Having less condenser surface available makes Figure 22-40. Receiver pressure regulators are designed
it more difficult for vapor refrigerant to release its heat to allow flow in only one direction. Review product literature
through the condenser and into ambient air. With less before installing.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 587

regulator begins to close. While it is closing, the TXV

Pro Tip
is still open and allowing liquid refrigerant to pass to
the low side of the system. When a condenser pressure Head Pressure Valve Names
regulator begins to close, less refrigerant is being fed Refrigeration systems use numerous valves in a
into the liquid receiver than is being passed through variety of ways. Valves can be named after the way they
the TXV into the evaporator. This creates a pressure operate, the types of components they include, or their
drop in the liquid receiver. function in a system. Often, knowing a valve's function
While this is happening, the path between the in a system and how it operates is more important than
knowing every name it is called.
condenser and the liquid receiver is blocked by the
Condenser pressure regulators are named after
closed condenser pressure regulator. Therefore, pres- their function, as they regulate and respond to the pres-
sure no longer exists between the condenser and liquid sure of condensers. In regulating condenser pressure,
receiver. Instead, pressure is between the discharge line they also regulate head pressure. For that reason, they
of the compressor and the liquid receiver through the can also be called ORI head pressure regulators, as they
receiver pressure regulator. As seen in Figure 22-38, operate as ORI valves (open on a rise of inlet pressure)
the inlet of the receiver pressure regulator is connected and function to regulate head pressure. Other names
to the discharge line from the compressor, and the out- include condenser holdback valve, holdback pressure
let of the receiver pressure regulator is connected to valve, head pressure control valve, and limiter valve.
the liquid receiver. Receiver pressure regulators also have several
When the condenser pressure regulator closes, names based on operation and function. They function
to regulate receiver pressure and respond by opening
pressure in the liquid receiver will begin to drop. This
to a rise in pressure difference (ORD) between a dis-
pressure drop results from two causes. Firstly, the con-

I
charge line and a liquid receiver. Some other names for
denser pressure regulator has shut off flow into the liq- receiver pressure regulators include discharge vapor
uid receiver, so head pressure is no longer sustaining bypass valve, condenser bypass valve, ORD head
liquid receiver head pressure. Secondly, the TXV is still pressure regulator, and hot-gas condenser bypass
feeding refrigerant liquid into the evaporator, which valve .
reduces the amount of refrigerant in the liquid receiver
and reduces its pressure. The receiver pressure regula-
tor senses this lower pressure at its outlet as compared Low-Ambient Control (LAC) Valve
to the high pressure at its inlet from the discharge line. While some refrigeration systems with outdoor
Once a certain pressure difference is sensed (usually condensers solve the problem of head pressure control
around 20 psi), the receiver pressure regulator opens. using a condenser pressure regulator and a receiver
This feeds hot, high-pressure refrigerant vapor from pressure regulator, other systems use a single control
the compressor into the liquid receiver. This will raise device. Low-ambient control (LAC) is a combination
the temperature and the pressure in the liquid receiver, condenser-receiver pressure regulator, which is a sin-
keeping pressure high enough for the TXV to continue gle valve body that regulates both condenser and liq-
feeding refrigerant into the evaporator. uid receiver pressures, Figure 22-41.
If the receiver pressure regulator does not open at Low-ambient control closes the condenser outlet
the specified pressure difference, the pressure in the when head pressure drops too low and bypasses com-
receiver would drop so low that the TXV would begin pressor discharge gas into the liquid receiver at the
to close, reducing the flow of refrigerant and starving same time. This dual action raises low condenser pres-
the evaporator. sure and keeps liquid receiver pressure from dropping
The condenser pressure regulator and receiver simultaneously. Systems using low-ambient control
pressure regulator work together to maintain head operate the same as those with individual condenser
pressure on the high side of the system in low outdoor pressure regulators and receiver pressure regulators,
temperature. The condenser pressure regulator raises Figure 22-42.
condenser pressure to raise head pressure, and the
receiver pressure regulator raises liquid receiver pres- Pro Tip
sure to raise head pressure. Keeping head pressure at
proper levels maintains a proper flow of liquid refrig-
Combination Valve Names
erant into the evaporator. A drop in head pressure Low-ambient control (LAC) may also be called
combination condenser-receiver pressure regulator,
could result in a starved evaporator condition, where
combination ORI/ORD valves, combination head pres-
not enough refrigerant flows into the evaporator and
sure control, or low-ambient control (LAC) valves.
subcooling and superheat are too high.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

588 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Ambient most of the condenser in the winter. It must also safely

temperature- ~ hold the refrigerant during the warm season. The
sensing refrigeration system usually is charged with twice as
dome
much refrigerant as would be needed without the con-
denser flooding feature. Year-round operation requires
a liquid receiver with capacity to store all the extra
refrigerant during the summer.
In low-ambient conditions, small amounts of liq-
uid refrigerant may accumulate in the compressor
during the Off cycle. A trap may be needed in the com-
pressor discharge line to prevent the liquid from flow-

-
Discharge line ing back into the compressor.
connection
During a period of low-ambient temperature, all
of a system's refrigerant may transfer to the condenser.
This occurs because it will then be the coldest part of
Liquid receiver
the system. An inverted trap may be necessary at the
connection condenser outlet to prevent liquid refrigerant from
flowing back out of the liquid receiver and flooding the
condenser. A more effective alternative is installing a
check valve between the low-ambient control and liq-
Condenser
uid receiver. This prevents the flow of refrigerant from
connection the liquid receiver into the cold condenser.

t A
22.5.2 Head Pressure Control-
Condenser Splitting
Another method of maintaining head pressure
in low-ambient conditions is to flood the condenser
by splitting off and isolating part of its volume.
Condenser splitting is a method of head pressure con-
trol in low-ambient conditions in which a condenser is
divided into two separate spaces. One space is evacu-
ated and isolated from the system. It is only used in
warm weather. This condenser space used only during
warm weather is often called the summer condenser.
The flooded condenser space is used year-round in
Discharge line
connection all weather conditions. The condenser space that is
used year-round is often called the summer/winter
Condenser------+-
condenser, Figure 22-43A.
connection
In warm weather, a split condenser valve feeds
B refrigerant into both condenser spaces. The two con-
Courtesy of Spartan Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation densers are arranged in parallel, Figure 22-43B. The
Figure 22-41. Low-ambient control (LAC) modulates its two combined large volume of both condenser spaces is
inputs and one output using two springs and an ambient necessary to maintain a proper head pressure and dis-
temperature-sensing dome. place the heat load.
A split condenser has two separated condenser
volumes that are fed by a three-way solenoid valve
Specifications must be carefully followed when in the discharge line called a split condenser valve,
installing outdoor, air-cooled condenser systems. The Figure 22-44. A split condenser valve responds to con-
valves controlling the flow of bypass gasses and the trols sensing ambient conditions or high-side pres-
flow of liquid refrigerant from the condenser must be sure. It has two valve positions. When de-energized,
sized to the capacity of the system. Also, the liquid the valve's seat is in the up position, which allows
receiver must hold enough liquid refrigerant to flood discharge refrigerant to flow evenly divided between

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 589

the two condenser volumes. When energized, the pilot ing of the evaporator reduces compressor capacity.
valve opens to allow discharge pressure to push the To increase the amount of refrigerant that the TXV
valve seat closed. This blocks off the discharge line's can feed into the evaporator, head pressure must be
passage to the summer condenser. Therefore, the split increased. One method of increasing head pressure is
condenser valve's outlet to the summer/winter con- to raise condenser temperature by reducing the amount
denser is always open, but the outlet to the summer of heat expelled from the condenser. According to Gay-
condenser is either open or closed. Lussac's law, in a fixed volume, the higher a gas's tem-
In cool weather, the temperature difference perature, the higher its pressure.
between ambient air and condenser temperature is To increase head pressure, the split condenser
greater than in warm weather. Therefore, heat transfer valve responds to a control set at a predetermined
occurs more quickly and efficiently. In cold weather, threshold (low temperature or low pressure) and
this benefit of a large temperature difference for effi- closes the passage to the summer condenser. With
cient heat transfer becomes a problem, as it reduces half as much condenser space as previously, liquid
head pressure too low. refrigerant floods the summer/winter condenser
TXVs require head pressure in the liquid line to and head pressure increases. The smaller volume
be high enough to overcome the TXV's adjustment of only the summer/winter condenser is sufficient
spring to enter the evaporator. However, low-ambient to displace the heat load in cool weather when the
conditions decrease head pressure so much that very temperature difference is greater and heat transfer
little refrigerant is fed into the evaporator. This starv- occurs more easily.

D
Sight glass
t
I
-;:.-=~====-~r__.D
Condenser
Liquid line
solenoid
valve
Suction
line

Liquid line
filter-drier
Discharge
line

Low-ambient
control

D Low-pressure vapor
• Low-pressure liquid
D High-pressure vapor

Compressor • High-pressure liquid

Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 22-42. In this outdoor, air-cooled condenser system, head pressure control is regulated by low-ambient control (LAC),
a combination condenser-receiver pressure regulator. When condenser pressure is high enough to keep head pressure up, the
discharge bypass line is closed, and the TXV is feeding liquid refrigerant into the evaporator.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

590 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Split condenser systems include a check valve in condenser valve has closed off the summer condenser
the outlet of the summer condenser to prevent any to the discharge line, it has opened a small passage to
refrigerant from backflowing while the summer con- the bypass bleeder line. This allows the refrigerant in
denser is not in use. In cold weather, many installations the summer condenser to slowly flow back into circula-
reclaim the refrigerant from the summer condenser tion through the low-pressure suction line.
through a bypass bleeder line into the low side of the Another method of reclaiming refrigerant in the
system, as shown in Figure 22-43A. While the split summer condenser during cold weather is through a

Summer/winter condenser

L Cold l t
Check

..
Ambient
Split valve
condenser
valve
L Summer condenser
t
Check

Check
valve

'
In low ambient conditions,
refrigerant is drawn out of
the summer condenser
and into the suction
line through the split Receiver pressure
..
valve

Condenser
condenser valve. (ORD valve) pressure regulator
(ORI valve) -..
t

~Discharge Liquid
line Evaporator
receiver ~ -w-- - -a-n

\
Compressor
t Sight glass
Suction
line TXV

ID Low-pressure vapor • Low-pressure liquid D High-pressure vapor • High-pressure liquid I

A
Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
Figure 22-43. A split condenser system includes two condensers: a summer condenser and a summer/winter condenser.
A-During cold weather, the split condenser valve in the discharge line directs hot-gas refrigerant only into the summer/winter
condenser. B-During warm weather, both condensers are used to displace heat from the system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 591

solenoid valve-controlled bleeder line that runs from and include a solenoid valve before the summer con-
the outlet of the summer condenser to the suction denser and a check in its outlet piping. Use a thermo-
line or suction header. This method includes a check stat or low-pressure switch to control the opening and
valve in the bleeder line to prevent refrigerant from closing of the solenoid valve.
backflowing. An advantage of condenser splitting head pressure
An alternative to using a split condenser valve is control is that it requires much less refrigerant to flood
to install parallel piping to the two condenser spaces the condenser in use than the amount of refrigerant

Summer/winter condenser

L Warm
Ambient
l t
Check
valve
Split
condenser
valve
..
L Summer condenser
t
Check

Check
valve
• Receiver pressure
regulator (ORD valve)
..
valve

Condenser
pressure regulator
(ORI valve) --...
I
~Discharge Liquid
line Evaporator
receiver ~ ---- - --an

\
Sight glass
Suction
line TXV

Figure 22-43. Continued

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

592 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

used to flood a condenser using pressure-regulating

valves. In large systems, this can equate to more than
100 pounds of refrigerant. Using this much less refrig-
erant can be a significant cost reduction in supermar-
kets and other large refrigeration systems.
Bypass bleeder
line connection
Pilot
valve
tubing

Summer
condenser
connection

Discharge line
connection

Summer/winter
condenser connection ~

'
Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation
Figure 22-44. Three-way solenoid valve (split condenser
valve) distributes the hot-gas refrigerant from the compressor
discharge line into one or both of the condenser spaces,
depending on ambient temperature.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Pressure-regulating valves control refrigerant
flow to maintain a steady pressure in part of
• The basic refrigeration loop consists of the the system. A crankcase pressure regulator
compressor, condenser, metering device, and (CPR) limits the pressure in the compressor
evaporator. As an HVACR system is designed crankcase.
to achieve more specific requirements, more • An evaporator pressure regulator (EPR) restricts
control components are added. the flow of refrigerant coming out of the
• The two primary functions that refrigerant evaporator in order to maintain a set minimum
loop components must achieve are the control pressure (and temperature) in the evaporator
of refrigerant flow and the maintenance of while the refrigeration system is operating.
proper refrigerant quantity and quality in the • Electric evaporator pressure regulators
system. (EEPRs) react to evaporator temperature by
• A suction line filter-drier prevents foreign proportionally modulating their valves to
particles and moisture from entering the various positions, ranging from closed to open.
compressor. Filters capture foreign materials, • Relief valves vent refrigerant to prevent
while driers adsorb moisture to prevent the dangerously high pressure from building in a
formation of acids in the system. system. A fusible plug is a relief valve with a

I
• Liquid line filter-driers are installed between metal core that melts at elevated temperatures.
the liquid receiver (or condenser if the system A rupture disc is a relief valve with a thin metal
does not include a liquid receiver) and the disc that bursts before system pressure reaches
metering device. a dangerous level. A spring-loaded relief valve
vents refrigerant under excessive pressure and
• A moisture indicator changes color based on then closes when enough refrigerant has been
the moisture content of the refrigerant. released to lower the pressure.
• Refrigerant flow valves are used to regulate • Commercial refrigeration systems that operate
the flow of refrigerant for different purposes. during a cold season require some form of
Refrigerant line valves are manual valves head pressure control to maintain high enough
that control the flow of refrigerant through pressure difference for continued refrigerant
system piping. Shutoff valves are manual flow. This can be accomplished by splitting the
valves that are often installed on manifolds condenser or using pressure-regulating valves.
to allow individual evaporators to be isolated.
Service valves are manual valves that provide • A condenser pressure regulator is an open on rise
a connection to a system so that technicians of inlet pressure (ORI) valve located at the outlet of
can take pressure readings, charge the system, a condenser that opens when condenser pressure
or evacuate the system. Check valves allow is high enough and closes when condenser
refrigerant to flow in only one direction pressure drops too low. By closing, it allows
through a passage. condenser pressure to increase.
• Solenoid valves change valve position based • A receiver pressure regulator is an open on rise
on electrical signals. They may be two-way of differential pressure (ORD) valve located
(shutoff) valves, three-way (bypass) valves, or between the discharge line and liquid receiver.
four-way (reversing) valves. When it senses a drop in liquid receiver
pressure, it allows hot-gas refrigerant into the
• A hot-gas defrost valve directs vapor liquid receiver to increase head pressure.
refrigerant from the compressor discharge line
through an evaporator for quick defrosting. A • A low-ambient control is a combination
hot-gas bypass valve directs vapor refrigerant condenser-receiver pressure regulator that
to the low side for capacity control to alleviate performs as both condenser pressure regulator
low load conditions. and receiver pressure regulator.
• A liquid injection valve mixes liquid refrigerant • Condenser splitting increases head pressure in
from the liquid line with bypassed hot gas to low-ambient conditions by circulating high-side
desuperheat the hot gas. refrigerant through only half of the combined
condenser volume.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 593

594 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

7. In a multiple-evaporator system, a check

Review Questions valve is installed at the _ _.
Answer the following questions using the information in A. compressor inlet
this chapter. B. condenser inlet
C. outlet of the warmest evaporator
1. A measurable pressure drop between the D. outlet of the coldest evaporator
evaporator outlet and compressor inlet may
indicate that the _ _ should be replaced. 8. A solenoid valve that opens a small valve that
A. liquid line filter-drier
directs pressure to open and close a larger
valve is _ _.
B. liquid receiver
A. direct-acting
C. sight glass
D. suction line filter-drier B. normally closed
C. pilot-operated
2. Large systems store liquid refrigerant on the D. All of the above.
high side in the _ _.
A. liquid line filter-drier
9. Ice accumulation on an evaporator can be
B. liquid receiver quickly melted by automatically opening a
C. sight glass
system's _ _.
D. suction line filter-drier A. hot-gas defrost valve
B. liquid receiver
3. The best place to install a sight glass is _ _. C. manifold valve
A. between the metering device and D. moisture indicator
distributor
B. in the discharge line 10. A valve alleviates low pressure and
C. just after the liquid line filter-dri~r temperature conditions by diverting some
D. just after the suction line filter-dner refrigerant vapor from the compressor
discharge directly to the low side.
4. A riser valve is a valve installed _ _. A. desuperheater
A. in the compressor discharge line B. hot-gas bypass
B. in a length of vertical refrigerant line C. relief
C. on the condenser D. riser
D. in a liquid line manifold
11. A hot-gas bypass valve directs hot-gas
5. Which of the following statements regarding refrigerant from the discharge line to the _ _.
service valves is not true? A. condenser
A. Service valves are fastened to tubing using B. liquid line
soldered connections. C. liquid receiver
B. Service valves provide access for taking D. low side of the system
pressure readings.
C. Many systems have a service valve at the 12. A _ _ is used to desuperheat hot-gas vapor
outlet of the liquid receiver. from the discharge line.
D. Many service valve stems must be turned A. condenser pressure regulator
using a refrigeration service valve wrench. B. crankcase pressure regulator
C. liquid injection valve
6. A check valve might be used _ _. D. low-ambient control
A. to allow refrigerant to bypass one of two
metering devices in a heat pump system 13. The purpose of a crankcase pressure
B. in multiple-evaporator systems to prevent regulator is to _ _.
A. ensure that compressor discharge
refrigerant from warmer evaporators from
pressure is sufficiently high
backing up into colder evaporators . .
C. to prevent unwanted refrigerant migration B. increase liquid line pressure in low-
during the Off cycle of large commercial ambient conditions
C. maintain a sufficiently low pressure in the
systems
D. All of the above. compressor
D. show the flow of liquid refrigerant

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 22 Refrigerant Flow Components 595

14. A commercial refrigeration system with a 19. A device that allows hot refrigerant vapor
single suction line and multiple evaporators from the compressor discharge line to bypass
can maintain a different temperature at each the condenser and directly enter the liquid
evaporator by controlling and differing _ _. receiver when a certain pressure difference
A. crankcase pressure occurs between the discharge line and the
B. evaporator pressure liquid receiver is a _ _.
C. head pressure A. condenser pressure regulator
D. liquid line temperature B. crankcase pressure regulator
15. The purpose of an evaporator pressure C. receiver pressure regulator
regulator is to _ _. D. split condenser valve
A. bypass liquid line refrigerant around the 20. A method of head pressure control in low-
metering device ambient conditions in which a condenser is
B. control evaporator temperature by divided into two separate spaces (one space
controlling its pressure flooded, the other isolated) is called _ _.
C. isolate parts of the system for service A. combined flow
D. shut off the compressor if evaporator B. condenser splitting
pressure gets too high C. counterflow
16. Which of the following relief valves is designed D. drift
to vent refrigerant under excessive pressure and
then close when the system pressure has been

I
lowered?
A. Fusible plug.
B. Manifold valve.
C. Rupture disc.
D. Spring-loaded relief valve.
lZ Which of the following statements regarding
relief valves is not true?
A. A blown fusible plug must be replaced.
B. Relief valves should be replaced every five
years.
C. Relief valves should be vented to the
outdoors using a purge line.
D. Spring-loaded relief valves should be
stacked to prevent any leakage.
18. A device that opens when condenser pressure
rises to a proper level and closes to block
the flow of refrigerant from the condenser to
the liquid receiver when condenser pressure
drops too low is a _ _.
A. condenser pressure regulator
B. crankcase pressure regulator
C. receiver pressure regulator
D. split condenser valve

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER23 OvervievV of Dotnestic
Refrigerators and
Freezers

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Summarize the differences between domestic
refrigeration systems and commercial refrigeration
Chapter Outline systems.

23.1 Domestic Refrigeration • Recall the causes of food spoilage and explain how
23.1.1 Preserving Foods by Refrigeration and domestic refrigeration systems minimize spoilage.
Freezing • Summarize the operation of an automatic defrost
23.1.2 Storage of Fresh Foods in the Refrigerator system in a frost-free freezer.
23.1.3 Storage of Frozen Food in the Freezer • Illustrate airflow patterns in top, bottom, and side-
23.2 Refrigerators and Freezers by-side refrigerator-freezer units.
23.2.1 Freezers
• Explain how refrigerator and freezer cabinets are
23.2.2 Refrigerator-Only Units
constructed.
23.2.3 Refrigerator-Freezers
23.2.4 Cabinet Construction • Identify the features of gaskets used in refrigerator
23.3 Innovative Technologies and freezer doors.
23.3.1 Refrigerators with Media Capabilities • Identify innovative refrigeration and freezer units
23.3.2 Wine Coolers currently available in the marketplace.
 Chapter 23 Overview of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 597

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

bottom freezer freezer burn Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
chest freezer side-by-side you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
dehydration top freezer • Refrigeration systems use a refrigerant to absorb heat
enzymes upright freezer inside the refrigerated space and release the heat
outside the space. (Chapter 6)
• A control system is a collection of interacting
components that work together to regulate
conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and
humidity, within a conditioned space. (Chapter 16)
• A capillary tube metering device consists of a length
of seamless tubing with a small and precisely formed
inside diameter. A capillary tube acts as a constant
throttle on the refrigerant flow. (Chapter 20)

Introduction
One of the most common modern refrigeration
products is the household refrigerator-freezer. Almost
every home has some form of self-contained refrigeration
system that provides safe storage of perishable goods.
This chapter explains the causes of food spoilage.
It also describes the construction and operation of the B
various types of domestic refrigeration systems used to
prevent spoilage. The differences between domestic
refrigeration systems and commercial refrigeration sys-
tems are also addressed.
598 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

23.1 Domestic Refrigeration One of the more confusing aspects of a self-con-

tained refrigerator to an experienced HVACR techni-
A major difference between a domestic refrigera- cian is the pressures observed when checking the high
tor, Figure 23-1, and a large commercial refrigeration and low sides of the system. The evaporator is often
system is the close proximity of the conditioned space m°F to 15°F (6°C to 8°C) cooler than the conditioned
to the unconditioned space. In a commercial refrigera- space. This means that the evaporator temperature
tion system, the conditioned space is usually a large will be anywhere from 0°F to -25°F (-l8°C to -32°C)
enclosure within a building. The heat is transferred in a refrigerator-freezer. The condenser temperature
from the conditioned space to the refrigerant, which is is usually at least m°F (6°C) higher than the ambient
usually circulated to an outdoor condenser to release temperature. In a hot environment, this could place the
its heat into ambient air. condenser temperature near 120°F (49°C).
The conditioned space in a self-contained refriger- At these temperatures, the most common refrig-
ator, freezer, or refrigerator-freezer is inside of the cabi- erant currently used in domestic refrigerators (R-134a)
net. The unconditioned space is the area immediately will have a low-side pressure between near zero and a
outside the cabinet. Heat is absorbed from inside of slight vacuum. High-side pressures in the same system
the cabinet by the refrigerant and transferred outside will be roughly 180 psig or higher. It is always impor-
of the cabinet. The heat is often released into another tant to keep the current temperatures of the high and
conditioned space, such as an air-conditioned room, low side of the system in mind before dismissing gauge
which is climate-controlled by a completely separate readings that may seem abnormal at first.
system. Another interesting trait of a self-contained sys-
The conditioned space in a refrigerator could range tem, such as a refrigerator, is the quantity of liquid
from +40°F to-m°F (+4°C to-23°C). The air outside the refrigerant in the evaporator. As the system nears
refrigerator cabinet could range from 0°F (-18°C) to the cut-out temperature, the amount of heat avail-
greater than mo°F (+38°C). Because of the wide range able to boil the refrigerant as it leaves the metering
of temperatures, the system must be designed with device (capillary tube) is low. Liquid refrigerant can
enough capacity for the most extreme conditions, yet travel quite a distance through the evaporator before
operate efficiently at normal temperatures. enough heat has been absorbed to boil the refrigerant
into a gas. Also, when the system cycles off, the pres-
sure in the high side of the system will continue to
force refrigerant through the capillary tube into the
low side until the pressures in the high side and the
low side equalize. The refrigerant may sit as a liquid
in the evaporator until the temperature control calls
for cooling again.

23.1.1 Preserving Foods by Refrigeration

and Freezing
Foods (vegetables and fruits) last longer when kept
at temperatures just above freezing. These tempera-
tures slow down oxidation of the food. This reduces
the multiplication of the bacteria in the cells and fibers.
It also reduces the dehydration (drying) of the food.

Causes of Food Spoilage

A number of factors can contribute to the dete-
rioration and spoilage of food: microbial growth,
dehydration, oxidation, enzyme action, and cellular
breakdown. The degree to which each of these factors
affect the freshness of food varies with the type of food.
For example, fruits and vegetables are especially prone
Maytag Corporation to enzyme action and dehydration. Meats and poultry
Figure 23-1. A side-by-side refrigerator and freezer. are very prone to spoilage from microbial growth.

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 Chapter 23 Overview of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 599

Enzymes are specific types of proteins in food that color, flavor, and texture of the food. Food value is not
trigger organic change. Enzymes, which can cause food affected, but the change in appearance and taste of the
spoilage, are kept under control by low temperatures. food will make it less appealing. Repeated thawing
Enzymes are not destroyed by fast freezing, but their and refreezing of any food damages its cellular struc-
growth rate is slowed down by the low temperatures. ture and also results in freezer burn.
Fleshy foods, such as meats, fish, and poultry, Like the air in a refrigerator, the air in a freezer
spoil quickly because of the growth of bacteria and is also very dry. It is very important, therefore, that
other microorganisms on the food. Bacteria are every- all frozen foods be stored in moisture-resistant
where, but their growth and spread can be controlled packaging. This helps prevent moisture in the food
by using sanitary handling methods and by storing from escaping to the air in the cabinet, which would
food at low temperatures. Cellular breakdown, which cause the food to become dehydrated and freezer
happens naturally as food ages, can also lead to spoil- burnt. To prepare food for the freezer, as much air
age. Again, low temperatures slow the progress of cel- as possible should be removed from the packag-
lular breakdown. ing. Frozen food packages must be tightly sealed.
The water in food forms ice crystals when the Ordinary paper is too porous for freezer use. Also,
food is frozen. Fast freezing produces smaller ice crys- hot foods should be allowed to cool before being
tals that are less damaging to the food. Slow freezing placed in the freezer.
allows time for larger crystal growth. Larger ice crys- Most frozen foods can be kept for several weeks
tals damage the food's cell walls more than small ice at 0°F to -10°F (-18°C to -23°C). Food to be kept for a
crystals. year or more should be frozen at-20°F (-29°C) or lower.
Dehydration is simply the loss of water from Some frozen foods keep better than others.
the food. Dehydration results in shriveling of fresh
food and freezer burn in frozen foods. Dehydration
alone does not spoil food, but it can give the food a 23.2 Refrigerators and Freezers
bad taste and unpleasant texture. Oxidation causes
discoloration and spoiling of food. Some common
There are many different styles of refrigerators B
and freezers available for use in the home. The fol-
examples of the oxidation of foods include the
lowing sections describe some of the most common
gradual browning that occurs in uncured meat and
domestic refrigerator and freezer units.
sliced apples.

23.1.2 Storage of Fresh Foods in the 23.2.1 Freezers

Refrigerator Freezer cabinets can be classified in two main cat-
egories: chest and upright. Chest freezers are freezer
The air in a refrigerator is always quite dry. Any units that have the door on the top of the unit. Upright
moisture in the refrigerator collects and condenses on freezers are freezer units that have the door on the side
the evaporator surfaces. Therefore, food containers of the unit. See Figure 23-2.
should be covered and as airtight as possible to keep Chest freezers have a definite advantage over
food moist and to maintain a dry interior. upright freezers when it comes to efficiency. Since
The refrigerator cabinet temperature should be cooler air falls, little cold air is lost when the lid is
kept at 35°F to 40°F (2°C to 4.5°C). The Food and Drug opened on a chest freezer. Compare this to an upright
Administration (FDA) recommends that refrigerators freezer, where opening the door effectively removes an
be set to maintain a product temperature of 40°F (4.5°C) entire wall from the cabinet. The main advantage of
or lower. Most fresh foods can be kept from three days an upright freezer is that they make it easier to locate
to a week at the above temperatures. Unfrozen meat items than a chest freezer does.
and fish should be stored at as close to 32°F (0°C) as Chest freezers almost always have a natural-draft
possible. evaporator and hot-wall condenser. The interior walls
of the freezer are used to remove heat from the con-
23.1.3 Storage of Frozen Food in the tents and the exterior walls are used to dissipate this
heat to the ambient air. Chest freezers require clear-
Freezer ance around the entire cabinet for the condenser to
If not properly packaged, frozen food will develop maintain proper temperature, Figure 23-3.
freezer burn. Freezer burn is basically dehydra- As freezers maintain low-temperatures, frost
tion of the frozen food, which results in a change in gradually accumulates on the evaporator. This frost

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

600 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

shelves. These shelves remove heat from the cabinet

interior and also provide support for the freezer's
contents. This type of design provides good disper-
sion of the cooling capacity, but it requires manual
defrosting.
A manual defrost freezer does not have any
means of automatically removing frost buildup from
inside the cabinet. When the cabinet's interior becomes
coated with frost, the freezer is taken out of service,
the contents of the freezer are removed, and the frost is
allowed to melt.

Caution
Manual Defrosting
Never scrape ice when manually defrosting, as you
could accidentally damage the tubing or cabinet. After
defrosting, clean all surfaces in the cabinet.

Chest Freezer

I_

Upright Freezer
Maytag Corporation; Maytag Corporation
Figure 23-2. Freezers may be upright or chest. A chest freezer
is more efficient to operate than an upright freezer. An upright
freezer provides good dispersion of cooling capacity.

must be removed either manually or automatically. Compressor Evaporator Condenser Outer

Therefore, upright freezers can be classified as either compartment coil coil shell
frost-free (automatic defrost) or manual defrost. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 23-3. A typical chest freezer evaporator and
Manual Defrost condenser design. The condenser coil is near the outer
Older systems or small units are of ten manual surface of the chest. The evaporator coil is near the inner
defrost. The evaporator in a manual defrost system surface of the chest. A thick layer of insulation separates the
is often routed throughout the cabinet as a series of two coils.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 23 Overview of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 601

Frost-Free Cabinet System

A frost-free freezer is equipped with a defrost sys- ground ground
tem that automatically prevents an excessive buildup
of frost inside the cabinet. A typical defrost system
consists of a defrost timer, a defrost heater, and a
defrost thermostat. The defrost timer is wired so that
at any given time, it is completing a circuit either to
Compressor
the compressor or to the defrost heater (an electric motor
heating element). Therefore, only the compressor or Main /
defrost heater will be in operation at any given time. thermostat
M
The defrost heater is located close to the evaporator coil
and applies heat during the defrost cycle. i Fan
motor
The defrost timer turns off the compressor and M
turns on the defrost heater every 6 to 8 hours. Any
Defrost/--
accumulated ice will melt and drain into a drip pan
timer
in the condenser area. The defrost thermostat monitors
the temperature inside the cabinet and deactivates the
heating coil if the temperature inside the cabinet rises
above the set limit (approximately 40°F). After approx-
imately 20 to 30 minutes, the defrost timer turns off A-Cooling Mode
the defrost heater and turns the compressor back on.
Heat from the compressor evaporates the water col- Cabinet System
lected in the drip pan. The drip pan should be cleaned ground ground
occasionally. ...---------.. ·}

Thinking Green
Defrost Timers
There are two types of defrost timers: continu-
ous and intermittent. Continuous defrost timers are
always counting down to the next defrost cycle,
whether the compressor is running or not. As a result,
Main
thermostat
Compressor

M
motor
/
I
the freezer may perform unnecessary defrost opera-
tions. Intermittent defrost timers count down to the next
i Fan
motor
defrost cycle only when the compressor is running. If a
freezer is not opened frequently, the compressor runs
less frequently and fewer defrost cycles are needed. In Defrost/--
these applications, intermittent defrost timers are more timer
energy efficient because they perform defrost opera- Defrost
tions only as needed. heater

Figure 23-4 shows a ladder diagram of a defrost B-Defrost Mode

system in a frost-free upright freezer. Note that all Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
parts are grounded through the three-prong plug and Figure 23-4. Ladder diagram of a defrost system in a frost-
cord. The compressor and fan circuits are open during free freezer. A-In cooling mode, the defrost timer completes
the defrost cycle. the circuit through the compressor and fan motors. B-ln
defrost mode, the defrost timer redirects current from the
compressor and fan motors to the defrost heater. If the cabinet
23.2.2 Refrigerator-Only Units temperature rises too high, the defrost thermostat will open,
shutting off the defrost heater.
Systems are available that are for refrigeration
only. See Figure 23-5. The entire cabinet is designed
to keep products at the ideal fresh food temperatures. warmer temperature inside the cabinet prevents frost
Since frosting issues in a refrigerator compartment are accumulation. Most refrigerator-only units are smaller
not as severe as in a freezer compartment, a refriger- and are often designed for lower volume applications,
ator-only unit may not include a defrost system. The such as storing beverages.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

602 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Frozen food
compartment

Fresh food
compartment

Evaporator fan Damper (open)

Sub-Zero/Wolf Appliance
Figure 23-5. A refrigerator-only unit, designed to store fresh Evaporator
foods.

Fresh food
23.2.3 Refrigerator-Freezers compartment _ _* nn
warm air
The majority of the residential refrigeration sys- return
tems in use are combination refrigerator-freezers.
There is a compartment that maintains proper temper-
atures for frozen food storage and another compart-
ment for fresh food storage.
Refrigerator-freezers are available in three major
designs: top-freezer, bottom-freezer, and side-by-side.
A top freezer design places the evaporator in a frozen
food compartment at the top of the cabinet. Part of the
cooled air is directed into the lower fresh food section
by the evaporator fan. The amount of air that flows into
the fresh food section is regulated by a damper. As
cooler air is forced into the fresh food section, warmer
air will be forced back up into the freezer section for
heat removal. See Figure 23-6.
In a bottom freezer design, the compartment
positions are reversed. The evaporator is mounted in a B
frozen food compartment at the bottom of the cabinet Maytag Corporation; Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

and the cold air is forced to the top of the fresh food Figure 23-6. A refrigerator with a top freezer design. A-The
section through a duct. A damper controls the amount freezer compartment is smaller than the fresh food compartment.
It is located at the top of the unit and has its own door. B-The
of the total volume of air that flows into the fresh food
evaporator is located at the top of the cabinet. Conditioned air is
section. The airflow into the fresh food section forces divided between the fresh food and freezer compartments. The
air to return into the freezer compartment for heat damper position determines how much of the cold air from the
removal. See Figure 23-7. evaporator is diverted to the fresh food compartment.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 23 Overview of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 603

Thinking Green
Efficiency of Freezer Designs
Pull-out drawer bottom freezers are more efficient
than the swinging door type. When the freezer drawer
is pulled out, the cold air remains in the bottom of the
drawer. By contrast, when an upright freezer door is
swung open, cold air spills out of the entire freezer
compartment.

A side-by-side design places the freezer and fresh

food compartments next to each other. Both the fresh
food and the freezer sections run the full height of
the cabinet. The fresh food compartment is normally
a larger percentage of the total cabinet space than the
freezer section. Some of the cold air passing through
the evaporator is directed into the fresh food section
and the rest is directed into the freezer. The amount
of air crossing over into the fresh food section is deter-
mined by the damper position. The cool air circulates
A through the frozen food and fresh food sections and
returns to the evaporator through warm air returns,
Damper Figure 23-8.

~
(open) Some designs include secondary air ducts that
aid in targeted cooling of different sections of the

~
B
~
refrigerator. As an example, cool air can be directed
into a beverage chiller built into the fresh food door.
A separate duct can also be directed to a storage
drawer to provide cooler air for longer storage of

(l meat products.

Thinking Green

Fresh food
Improving Refrigerator Efficiency
compartment The thermal mass of a refrigerator's contents helps
warm air to maintain a constant temperature inside the cabinet.
return For this reason, a full refrigerator is more energy efficient
than an empty one. If a refrigerator spends most of its
Evaporator time empty or only partially filled, its long-term efficiency
fan can be improved by filling some of the empty space with
containers of water. Once the water is cooled, it will help

Evaporator
~ to stabilize the cabinet temperature.

~
23.2.4 Cabinet Construction
VI Most refrigerator-freezer cabinets are formed
from only two or three sheets of steel. The bottom and
back are formed from one sheet of steel while the sides
and top wrap around the first piece and form an exte-
rior shell. If the compressor is mounted in the rear bot-
tom of the cabinet, a base pan is usually formed in the
B
Amana Refrigeration, Inc.; Goodheart-Willcox Publisher shell to provide a mounting location for the high-side
Figure 23-7. This refrigerator has a bottom freezer design. components.
A-The freezer compartment is located under the refrigerator The interior liner is typically made of vacuum-
portion of the unit. B-The airflow in a typical bottom-freezer formed plastic. The exact type of plastic used in
design refrigerator is shown here. the liner will depend on the manufacturer and can

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

604 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

vary from model year to model year. This type of

liner provides a moisture-resistant interior and a
tight cabinet seal. In a few models of refrigerators
and freezers, individual sheets of steel are sealed
together to create a moisture-resistant liner.
Expanding foam insulation is installed in the
void between the exterior shell and the interior liner.
All inner-cavity components and interior support
structures must be in place prior to the foaming pro-
cess. These components include the cabinet's wiring
harnesses, shelf supports, post condenser loops, heat
exchangers, and supplemental air ducting. Any com-
ponent that may require replacement at a later time
requires the placement of a duct. This duct provides a
channel through which a replacement component can
be routed.
Once all the interior components are placed, the
liner is temporarily affixed, and the entire cabinet
(including the liner) is directed through a foaming
process. The first step of the foaming process is the
warming of the cabinet. The warming expands the
A
shell and liner, increasing the space that will be filled
with insulating foam. Once the cabinet is preheated,
v==P a heated die is placed inside the cabinet to maintain
the liner shape while expanding foam is injected into
f\
Supply air to
Supply air to
fresh food section
the space between the liner and the shell. The space is
entirely filled with foam, and the foam is allowed to
freezer section cure before the die is removed.

Doors
Supply air to i Like cabinets, doors consist of an outer shell,
foam-filled core, and an inner liner. The inside of the
;
1-------"------1 fresh food section
door is often designed with supports for the placement
of storage bins. Two very common types of specialized
bins are those for storing gallons of milk and those for
D storing butter. Some door storage compartments are
cooled by air redirected from the freezer section. This
keeps the storage compartment slightly cooler than the
Freezer
return air c:t> rest of the fresh food compartment.
II On most refrigerators, a rubber gasket is mounted
to the door. These gaskets are pressed into a channel
II on the door, and form an airtight seal between the door
,__.......~ - - Return air from
and cabinet when the door is closed, Figure 23-9.
fresh food section
A magnetic strip or a series of small magnets
inside the gasket pull the gasket to the face of the
refrigerator cabinet. Because of the attraction between
the magnets in the gasket and the metal cabinet shell,
a good seal can be achieved without an external latch,
B
Figure 23-10.
Maytag Corporation; Amana Refrigeration, Inc.
Many new doors require wiring harnesses for con-
Figure 23-8. Side-by-side designs have a freezer on one side trols or dispensers. Just as with a foamed cabinet, wir-
of the cabinet and the refrigerator on the other. A-The freezer
ing harnesses that run through a foamed door cannot
section, on the left, is narrower than the refrigerator section.
B-The airflow through a typical side-by-side refrigerator- be replaced. Through-the-door wiring usually enters
freezer. through one of the hinges. The hinge pin is hollow and

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 23 Overview of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 605

allows for the harness to enter the door through a pivot 23.3 Innovative Technologies
point.
As technology evolves, manufacturers strive to
Safety Note integrate the changing and emerging technologies
into their products. Recent innovations in domestic
Refrigerator and Freezer Safety
refrigeration make homeowners' lives easier and more
All doors should be removed from any refrigera- enjoyable. The following are examples of new and
tor or freezer being disposed. Any refrigerator or freezer
unique products that are available.
placed in storage should also have the doors removed.
The very real risk of suffocation exists if a child or animal
is closed inside a refrigerator cabinet. This risk is much 23.3.1 Refrigerators with Media
greater with older refrigerators that use a door latch.
Capabilities
One method of making household tasks more
enjoyable is by combining two technologies, the domes-
tic refrigerator-freezer and the television. Homeowners
can enjoy watching their favorite television shows
while preparing meals in their kitchen without the
clutter of a television on the counter. These units com-
monly feature cable-ready LCD TVs with remote con-
trol, FM stereos, and digital displays, Figure 23-11.

-~
Maytag Corporation
Figure 23-9. The gaskets in modern refrigerators are pressed
into a channel formed in the refrigerator liner.
I
Pliable
+-----,,,.,,--- rubber
covering

Liner---....
Magnetic
strip

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher LG Appliances

Figure 23-10. Magnetic strips or bars in the door gaskets to Figure 23-11. This domestic refrigerator is equipped with a
create a tight seal in refrigerators. built-in television.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

606 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

A new generation of refrigerator-freezers takes 23.3.2 Wine Coolers

the integration of consumer electronics a step further.
These appliances include technologies that help fami- Many consumers today are interested in storing
lies to coordinate and manage their activities. They are wine for personal consumption. Recent technology
equipped with Wi-Fi enabled touch screens capable of has allowed the development of cost-effective per-
running apps like those found on smartphones. From sonal wine coolers. Cabinets are usually constructed
the front panel of the refrigerator, the users can perform of painted metal or stainless steel. See Figure 23-12.
such tasks as searching for recipes, checking weather The door is usually double-paned, tempered,
forecasts, scheduling events, and leaving notes for one safety glass. Racks are removable for cleaning. Wine
another. coolers can typically maintain any set temperature

Sub-Zero/Wolf Appliance
Figure 23-12. This recessed wine cooler can provide optimal temperature for the long-term storage of wines.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 23 Overview of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 607

between 38°F (3°C) to 65°F (18°C). For long-term stor-

age of wine, the optimal temperature is 55°F (13°C).
Some units have multiple compartments, allow-
ing the user to maintain the ideal temperature and
humidity levels for both red and white wines in the
same unit. A microprocessor controls the electronic
functions of the cooler. The microprocessor monitors
the temperature and maintains the exact temperature
set by the owner. Units may have an alarm button that
sounds if the door is left open, Figure 23-13.

Jenn-Air of Whirlpool Corp.

Figure 23-13. This wine cooler allows the user to set different
temperatures for the top and bottom of the cabinet.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Refrigerator/freezer units may have the freezer
compartment at the top of the unit, the bottom
• The conditioned and unconditioned spaces of the unit, or side-by-side with the refrigerator
of domestic refrigerators are often in near compartment. An evaporator is generally
proximity to each other, while a commercial located in the freezer compartment. Cold air
refrigeration system generally has more ducts direct some of the refrigerated air from
distance between its spaces. A domestic the freezer compartment into the refrigerator
system's limited refrigerant charge, wide compartment.
range of operation, and system pressures can • The shell of a refrigerator or freezer cabinet is
confound experienced HVACR technicians. usually formed from steel sheets. A vacuum-
• The primary function of refrigerators and molded plastic liner is placed inside the steel
freezers is to prevent food spoilage. Domestic shell. Foam insulation fills the void between the
refrigerators and freezers are usually self- shell and the liner.
contained units. Often, domestic refrigerator • A gasket between the door and the cabinet
and freezer units have liquid refrigerant forms an airtight seal when the door is closed.
present in the evaporator. These gaskets generally contain a magnetic
• Food spoilage can be caused by enzyme strip or series of small magnets that seal the
action, microbial growth, cell breakdown, gasket against the cabinet when the door is
oxidation, and dehydration. Foods to be stored closed.
in a refrigerator should be placed in airtight • As technology advances, more and more
containers to prevent moisture from escaping innovative products enter the market.
from the food into the dry cabinet air. Refrigerators are available with built-in
• Foods stored in a freezer are susceptible to televisions, stereos, and Wi-Fi enabled touch
freezer burn. Freezer burn is a dehydration of screens. As a form of specialty domestic
frozen food that results in a change in the color, refrigeration, personal wine coolers are also
texture, and flavor of food. available and growing in popularity.
• Freezer cabinets can be classified as chest
freezers and upright freezers. In a chest freezer,
the door is located on the top of cabinet. This Review Questions
minimizes the loss of cold air when the door Answer the following questions using the information
is opened, making the chest design the most provided in the chapter.
efficient. An upright freezer has the door on
one side of cabinet. This design allows cold air 1. Which of the following traits is common
to escape every time the door is opened. The among domestic refrigerator-freezers?
primary advantage of an upright freezer is that A. The low-side and high-side pressures
it makes it easier to search through a cabinet's equalize during the Off cycle.
contents. B. The evaporator usually contains some
• Refrigerator-only units are generally smaller liquid refrigerant.
than refrigerator/freezer units and are C. Evaporator temperatures range from 0°F
designed for lower volume applications, such as to -25°F (-l8°C to -32°C).
storing beverages. Frosting is less of a problem D. All of the above.
with refrigerator-only units. Therefore, they 2. Fast freezing preserves food better than slow
are less likely to be equipped with a defrost freezing because _ _.
system. A. it destroys enzymes that deteriorate food
B. it forms smaller water crystals that are less
damaging
C. it kills microorganisms more quickly
D. there is less time for food to oxidize

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 Chapter 23 Overview of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 609

3. Refrigerators should be set to maintain a 9. When closed, the refrigerator door seals
product temperature of _ _ or less. tightly to the cabinet because of _ _.
A. 0°F (-18°C) A. a sticky gasket on the door that adheres
B. 32°F (0°C) lightly to the shell
C. 40°F (4.5°C) B. magnetic attraction between the gasket
D. 65°F (18.3°C) and door shell
4. Which of the following is the main advantage C. sheer force of will
of a chest freezer compared to an upright D. spring tension
freezer? 10. Wine cooler doors are typically made of
A. A chest freezer can achieve colder cabinet
temperatures than an upright freezer. A. PVC
B. A chest freezer is more efficient than an B. double-paned, tempered, safety glass
upright freezer. C. steel sheets and vacuum-formed plastic
C. It is easier to locate items in a chest D. polycarbonate
freezer.
D. All of the above.
5. Which of the following statements regarding
frost-free freezers is not true?
A. Defrost cycles occur every 6 to 8 hours.
B. Defrost timers control the duration of the
defrost cycle.
C. The defrost cycle begins any time the
defrost thermostat closes.
D. The frost buildup is melted by electric

I
heating elements.
6. The evaporator in most refrigerator-freezers
is located in the
A. door, using a through-the-door wiring
harness
B. freezer section
C. fresh-food section
D. same compartment as the compressor
7. In a refrigerator-freezer, the percentage of
cold air that is delivered to the fresh-food
compartment is controlled by the _ _.
A. evaporator tubing
B. damper
C. gasket
D. None of the above.
8. The outer shell of a refrigerator-freezer is
typically made from _ _.
A. fiberglass
B. steel sheets
C. vacuum-formed plastic
D. None of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER24 Systetns and Cotnponents
of Dotnestic Refrigerators
and Freezers

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Explain the function of the basic components in a
domestic compression refrigerator-freezer.
• Understand how common cooling controls maintain
the desired conditions inside a domestic refrigerator-
freezer.
• Describe how dampers are used to control
Chapter Outline temperatures in frozen food and fresh food
24.1 Basic Components of Refrigerators and Freezers compartments of a domestic refrigerator-freezer.
24.1.1 Compressors • Understand the operation of common defrost
24.1.2 Condensers systems used in domestic refrigerator-freezers.
24.1.3 Metering Devices • Explain the purpose of condensation controls in
24.1.4 Evaporators domestic refrigerator-freezers and describe their
24.1.5 Heat Exchangers operation.
24.1.6 Cooling Controls
• Describe the methods used to control conditions
24.2 Specialized Systems
inside crispers and humidity-controlled drawers.
24.2.1 Dampers
24.2.2 Defrost Systems • Summarize the operation of automatic ice makers in
24.2.3 Condensation Control domestic refrigerator-freezers.
24.2.4 Crispers and Humidity-Controlled Drawers • Describe the operation of ice and water dispensers
24.2.5 Ice and Water Systems in domestic refrigerator-freezers.
 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 611

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

adaptive defrost ejector Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
automatic defrost system intermittent defrost timer you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
continuous defrost timer mullion heaters • The basic components of a compression refrigeration
cumulative run-time post-condenser loop system include a compressor, condenser, metering
defrost system Yoder loop device, and evaporator. (Chapter 6)
demand defrost controller • Current relays are relays that are activated by current
running directly through them. Current relays are
usually found on low-torque, low-horsepower
motors and are used to close and open the start
winding circuit of a single-phase motor. (Chapter 16)
• The principal types of temperature-sensing devices
used to control motor operation include the sensing
bulb, the bimetal device, and electronic sensors.
(Chapter 13)

Introduction
As with all refrigerant-based systems, four basic com-
ponents are needed to produce cooling for a conditioned
space inside a refrigerator or freezer cabinet. The four
components are the compressor, condenser, metering
device, and evaporator. A filter-drier is usually included B
in the sealed system, and an accumulator may also be
present. Refrigerators may have additional specialized
systems, including defrost and condensation controls, ice
makers, and ice and water dispensers.
612 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

24.1 Basic Components of 24.1.1 Compressors

Refrigerators and Freezers The compressor in a domestic refrigerator or
freezer is almost always a single-phase, hermetically
Most domestic refrigerators and freezers use a sealed unit, Figure 24-2. The suction line from the
compression refrigeration system to control the tem- evaporator connects to the outer shell of the compres-
perature inside an insulated cabinet. A noticeable sor. The outlet of the compressor is connected to the
difference between domestic refrigerator-freezer discharge line going to the condenser.
units and commercial refrigeration systems is that Most compressors used in domestic refrigera-
domestic units are more compact; however, the basic tors use split-phase motors. There are three terminals
components of refrigeration systems in refrigerators (common, start, and run) on the outside of the case for
and freezers should be familiar from earlier chapters, connection to the compressor's motor circuit. The run
Figure 24-1. winding is energized during start-up and throughout

Evaporator

Capillary tube

Insulated Heat exchanger

cabinet

Suction line

Accumulator----. Filter-drier

Condenser
Compressor

D High-pressure vapor
• High-pressure liquid
• Low-pressure vapor
D Low-pressure liquid

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 24-1. Diagram of a refrigeration system typical of those found in domestic refrigerators. Note that the system uses a
capillary tube metering device.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 613

bend because of the different expansion rates. This

will open the contact points and stop the motor. The
motor will not restart until the bimetal switch cools
down.
Another device used in motor safety controls is
the positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor.
A PTC thermistor is connected in series with the motor
windings. The temperature increases when a high cur-
rent condition exists. This causes the resistance of the
thermistor to also go up. The increase in resistance
limits current to the motor. After the motor and therm-
istor cool to a safe temperature, the motor can draw
current to start up again.

Electrical Cord
Electrical power to the unit is provided through
an insulated electrical cord. For domestic refrigerators,
the cord is usually made from No. 18 stranded wire.
These cords are insulated to withstand at least twice
their normal voltage. All power cords for refrigeration
Maytag Corporation units are three-wire (one green ground wire) type. The
Figure 24-2. A hermetic compressor commonly used in cord is usually connected to a junction box mounted in
domestic refrigerator-freezers. the compressor compartment.

operation of the compressor, but the start winding is

I
Start winding
energized only during start-up, Figure 24-3. terminal
Common
Overload Protection Overload terminal
A stand-alone refrigerator-freezer should be the protector
only electrical load on a given electrical circuit. Each Fusite
electrical circuit in a building is connected to an elec- Thermostat
trical box (circuit breaker box, fuse box) and protected
by a circuit breaker or fuse. The fuse or circuit breaker Running
in the individual circuit must have sufficient capacity winding
terminal
to permit a continuous flow of current under normal
operating conditions. However, it should open the cir-
cuit in the event of continuous overload of more than Starting
25%. relay
At the instant of starting, all motors draw high
current. This may amount to 600% of the full load
amperage (current while running normally). However, Lamp
this initial high current draw lasts for a very short
time. The circuit breaker or fuse should not open the Door switch
circuit during this brief period.
Starting relays may also have some type of over-
load protection. The most popular type is a thermal System
control, also called a thermal reset. A thermal reset ground
has a bimetal switch wired in series with the power
supply to the motor. A resistance heating element is 120 V
positioned alongside the bimetal switch. The heating line
element is also wired into the circuit and will heat the Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
bimetal strip if the motor is overloaded. The two met- Figure 24-3. Diagram showing electrical connections to the
als used in the bimetal strip expand at different rates thermostat and motor control relay. This circuit includes an
as they are heated. If the strip overheats, the strip will overload protector.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

614 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

24.1.2 Condensers flow around all the tubes of the condenser. Advantages
of this design are that it gets the condenser out of the
The function of the condenser is to transfer the heat cabinet interior and it eliminates the need for a con-
from the refrigerant to an area outside of the conditioned denser fan to force air over the coil. A disadvantage of
space. Domestic refrigerators commonly use air-cooled this design is that the exposed condenser coil could be
condensers. Air-cooled condensers may be cooled by more easily damaged, such as when being moved.
small forced-air fans or by the unaided, natural move- With natural-convection condensers, proper air
ment of air. Some domestic refrigerators and freezers use circulation is important. Often refrigerators are placed
hot-wall condensers rather than air-cooled condensers. under a low hung cabinet, minimizing air circulation.
Hot-wall condensers rely on conduction rather than con- Poor air circulation results in high head pressure and
vection to draw heat out of the condensing coil. increased running time. The unit may run constantly
and not provide sufficient cooling. With any natural-
Natural-Convection Condensers
convection condenser, the process of dispersing heat
Natural-convection condensers rely on natural air
from the refrigerant becomes less effective as the
movement to remove heat from the refrigerant. These
types of condensers are usually mounted on the rear ambient temperature increases. A system that per-
forms well in conditions between 70°F and 80°F (21°C
outside of the cabinet with space provided between the
and 27°C) will require significantly longer run times at
cabinet back and the condenser coil. The amount of clear-
temperatures nearing 100°F (38°C). These systems are
ance required varies by design and manufacturer. The
also less tolerant of reduced airflow at higher ambient
condenser coil may consist of a serpentine tube brazed or
temperatures.
soldered to wires, cooling fins, or a plate. The tubes and
fins are usually made of copper or steel, Figure 24-4. Hot-Wall Condensers
This type of condenser requires space for the free Some condensers are installed inside the cabinet
flow of air along the back of the cabinet, where it can between the insulation and the exterior skin. The con-
denser tubes are in direct contact with the outer wall
of the cabinet, so the outer wall serves as a heat sink.
This arrangement is referred to as a hot-wall refrigera-
tion system. See Figure 24-5.
In a hot-wall system, heat is transferred from the
refrigerant in the condenser to the outer cabinet surface
through conduction. This design places a significant
amount of heat on one side of the insulation while the
opposite side of the insulation remains significantly
cooler. Maintaining such a temperature difference
requires an efficient and effective insulation barrier
between the inner evaporator coils and the outer con-
denser coils. Having the condenser coil inside the cabi-
net shell protects the coil from possible damage. It also
keeps the condenser coils clean. Another advantage of
the hot-wall system is that it does not require a fan to
force air through the condenser. Hot-wall condensers
are very common in chest freezers.

Forced-Air Condensers
In many modern refrigerators, a forced-air con-
denser is used instead of a natural-convection con-
denser. This avoids the difficulties associated with
natural-convection condensers. In a system with a
forced-air condenser, a fan is used to draw ambient air
through the condenser. See Figure 24-6.
The airflow can be used to cool the refrigerant
Kenmare and also the compressor. Since a forced-air condenser
Figure 24-4. A natural-convection condenser relies on natural does not rely on natural airflow for cooling, it can be
convection to remove heat. folded into a more compact area. The entire high side

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 615

of the sealed system can be fitted into a compartment Condenser fan motor Condenser Liquid line
either at the top or the bottom of the refrigerator cabi-
net. Since the condenser is in the cabinet, it is better
protected against accidental damage.
With a more compact condenser design, the need for
cleaning is greater. Airborne dirt and lint can clog the air-
way of the condenser. Units should be cleaned every six
to twelve months to maintain proper heat transfer. Since
most condensers are mounted in the bottom rear of the
cabinet, care must be taken to provide enough clearance
around the cabinet to allow proper airflow.
Some systems take air in along the front of the refrig-
erator and expel air out the back. A common name for this
condenser arrangement is a single-pass condenser. The
airflow passes over the condenser only once. This type
of system requires that rear and top clearances be main-
tained for proper operation, Figure 24-7. Condenser inlet Condenser outlet
Some systems both take in and exhaust air from the Maytag
front or from the back of the cabinet. This is often referred Figure 24-6. A forced-air condenser uses a motorized fan to
to as a two-pass system because the air flows over the force air through the condenser.

Accumulator
;..... - -=::!!!!!!~~
I
I
I
I
I
I
~ Oil cooler
1 conditioner
I
I
I
I
1 Heat
Shelf-type
exchanger
evaporator

Main
condenser

Suction
line

Maytag
Figure 24-5. A hot-wall condenser is located between the outer cabinet shell and the cabinet insulation. The natural-draft evaporator is
located on the other side of the insulated barrier. This freezer has a separate oil cooler coil behind the insulated cabinet.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

616 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Cool air in
Todd Taulman/Shutterstock.com
Figure 24-7. A refrigerator-freezer with a single-pass
condenser takes air in from the front and expels it out the
back. The air passes through the condenser coil only once.

MrGarry/Shutterstock.com
condenser twice. Since the air inlet and outlet are both on Figure 24-8. In a refrigerator-freezer with a two-pass
either the front or the rear of the refrigerator, the unit can condenser, the air inlet and exhaust are either both in the
be built into the surrounding cabinets, Figure 24-8. front or both in the rear of the cabinet. The air passes through
the condenser coil twice, once on its way in and again on its
Caution way out.
Cardboard Partitions
Cardboard partitions are often placed near the
condenser to direct the airflow. Do not remove the parti- 24.1.3 Metering Devices
tions! Removing these partitions may result in long, con-
tinuous running times and permanent damage.
The next required component in a basic refrig-
eration system is a metering device. Most domestic
There are some systems that use both forced- refrigerators use a capillary tube metering device.
draft and hot-wall condensers together. This arrange- Capillary tubes are usually coiled to keep them com-
ment increases efficiency but reduces convenience to pact, Figure 24-9.
the consumer and the servicer. In this type of system, Most refrigerators have a filter-drier located just
the pressurized refrigerant leaves the compressor and ahead of where the refrigerant passes into the capillary
enters the forced-draft pre-condenser to dissipate sig- tube. The filter-drier prevents moisture from entering
nificant amounts of heat. The refrigerant leaves the the capillary tube, where it could freeze and cause
pre-condenser and enters the hot-wall condenser for clogging, Figure 24-10.
additional heat release.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 617

24.1.4 Evaporators
Heat is absorbed inside of a refrigerator-freezer's
cabinet when refrigerant passes through the evapora-
tor. As refrigerant passes from the high-pressure side
of the system to the low-pressure side of the system,
the boiling point of the refrigerant drops and heat from
inside the cabinet is transferred to the refrigerant as it
vaporizes.
In many domestic refrigerators, the freezer sec-
tion and fresh food section share one evaporator. This
evaporator must operate at the freezer section's low-
temperature (-10°F to +5°F) and still maintain the fresh
food section at acceptable levels (35°F to 40°F). One
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
method of maintaining this temperature difference is
Figure 24-9. Capillary tubes are the metering devices most
commonly used in domestic refrigerators.
to redirect part of the airflow from the frozen section
into the fresh food section. The other method of main-
taining the temperature difference between sections is
to use two evaporators in series: one for the frozen sec-
tion and one for the fresh food section.

Natural-Draft Evaporators
All domestic evaporators fall into one of two classes:
natural-draft or forced-draft. Natural-draft evaporators
rely on natural convection to continuously circulate air
across the evaporator. This type of evaporator may also be B
referred to as a static evaporator. Most natural-draft evapo-
rators are plate-type evaporators. See Figure 24-11.
Plate-type evaporators consist of two plates of
formed metal that are bonded together. Passages
pressed into the plates create a path for circulating
refrigerant. The metering device empties into the
hollow path and the refrigerant cools the plates as it

Plate evaporator

Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.

Figure 24-10. Filter-driers come in a variety of sizes.

The capillary tube connects the condenser to the

evaporator, separating the high-pressure section from
the low-pressure section of the system. It controls the
flow of liquid refrigerant and causes the pressure to
drop between the liquid line and the evaporator. High-
pressure, warm liquid refrigerant enters the capillary
tube from the liquid line. The pressure of the refriger-
ant is gradually reduced until it exits the capillary tube
into the evaporator. The length and inside diameter of
a capillary tube determine the amount of liquid flow
and pressure drop into the evaporator.
Maytag
Figure 24-11. Plate evaporators sometimes double as
shelving in refrigerators and freezers.

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618 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

vaporizes. This type of evaporator is usually found at Evaporator fan Evaporator

the top of the compartment.
Natural convection inside a refrigerator or freezer
cabinet forces the warmest air to the top of the cabi-
net, where it comes into contact with the evaporator
plate and loses heat. The cooled air falls, and warmer
air replaces it. This natural convection cools the entire
compartment slowly but efficiently.
If plate-style evaporators are used, a separate evapo-
rator must be placed in each compartment of a refrigera-
tor-freezer. In a small refrigerator-freezer unit, this is not
a problem. A small freezer area can be formed from the
evaporator, with the remainder of the compartment dedi-
cated to fresh food storage. Older systems with separate
fresh food and frozen sections required that one evapora-
tor be placed in the freezer compartment and the other in
the fresh food compartment. In such a design, refrigerant
flows through the first evaporator, in the freezer compart-
ment, and then proceeds to flow through the evaporator
in the refrigerator compartment.

Forced-Draft Evaporator
A forced-draft evaporator uses a motor-driven fan to
circulate air across the evaporator. Because the evapo-
rator does not rely on natural convection, it allows for a Maytag
more compact and versatile system. This type of evap- Figure 24-12. Note the fins on the tubing of this fan -forced
orator may also be referred to as fan-forced or forced- evaporator.
air evaporator, Figure 24-12.
A forced-draft evaporator is a folded length of
tube with heat-conductive cooling fins mounted across (most common refrigerant currently used for domestic
the tubing. A fan forces air through the fins. This refrigerators), a very low pressure must be maintained
arrangement allows the evaporator to be hidden from in the evaporator. In order to attain an operating tem-
view, which appeals to consumers. It also protects the perature found in a typical freezer compartment, this
evaporator from damage to some extent. low pressure often needs to be a few pounds less than
A system may use one forced-draft evaporator atmospheric pressure, a partial vacuum.
to cool different compartments. It does this by using Another effect of the low operating temperatures
dampers to divide and direct airflow as needed. When is the presence of liquid refrigerant in the evapora-
more cooling is needed in the compartment without tor. Since low pressure causes refrigerant to collect in
the evaporator, a damper opens. This allows cold air to the coolest portion of the sealed system, there can be
circulate from one compartment to the next. liquid refrigerant present in the evaporator while the
New technological advances have led to a refrig- compressor is off. To help prevent the return of liquid
erator-freezer with two separate refrigeration sys- refrigerant to the compressor, a heat exchanger is used.
tems. One refrigeration system provides cold air to the The heat exchanger allows some of the heat from the
freezer, while the other one provides cool air for fresh high-pressure liquid in the capillary tube to transfer to
food storage. The use of independent refrigeration the suction tube, vaporizing any liquid refrigerant that
systems allows the humidity levels in the fresh food might be present.
section to increase, keeping food fresh longer. It also A heat exchanger in a refrigerator-freezer has two
creates two zones of air circulation. purposes: it helps prevent the return of liquid refriger-
ant to the inlet of the compressor and provides sub-
24.1.5 Heat Exchangers cooling to the liquid refrigerant before it enters the
evaporator. The capillary tube (or the liquid line from
Because of the cold temperatures in the condi- the condenser to the metering device) and the suction
tioned space, there is very little heat available to boil line from the evaporator to the compressor are bonded
refrigerant. In order to ensure the vaporization of R-134a together. Heat is transferred from the capillary tube or

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 619

liquid line to the suction line, thus lowering the tem- were measured, the thermostat would cycle the com-
perature of the liquid refrigerant entering the evapora- pressor every time the door was opened. The slug of
tor and increasing the temperature of the refrigerant metal moderates these temperature swings so that
vapor leaving the evaporator. the measured temperature more accurately reflects
the actual temperature of the compartment contents,
Figure 24-13.
24.1.6 Cooling Controls As the temperature of the gas inside the sensing
Automatic refrigeration is designed to provide bulb changes, the pressure exerted by the gas on the dia-
correct temperatures with the least amount of atten- phragm in the thermostat body also changes. If the gas
tion. If the unit were designed with a capacity that warms enough, it causes the diaphragm to expand and
matches just its typical load, heavy loads would cause close the contacts. As the compartment cools, the pressure
problems. The unit would over-refrigerate or would in the sensing bulb decreases. This causes the diaphragm
overheat from running all the time. To produce the to relax and the contacts to open. The temperature adjust-
proper temperatures under all conditions, a refriger- ment mechanism usually consists of a cam, which the
ator-freezer needs more capacity than it will typically user adjusts by moving a lever or turning a knob. When
use. the cam is rotated, it increases or decreases the amount of
In the northern temperate latitudes, domestic pressure required to close the contacts.
refrigeration units will run 35% to 40% of the time. In These types of controls can be affected by atmo-
semitropical latitudes, units will run about 50% of the spheric pressure. As altitude increases, the pressure
time. Since domestic refrigerators run 5 to 10 minutes inside the sensing bulb is greater in comparison to the
and are then idle for 10 to 20 minutes, they are only in external pressure. A control adjusted for 36°F (2°C) at
operation for 8 to 16 hours out of each day. The exact sea level will actually run colder at a higher altitude.
operating time is based on the average use of the cabi- Some controls have an adjustment to compensate for
net and the ambient temperature. altitude. The customer may have to use trial and error
A refrigerator in a room at 95°F (35°C) will run to adjust the setting to achieve the desired temperature. B
longer than the same refrigerator operating in a room Most electromechanical controls require the user
at 75°F (24°C). Automatic-defrost refrigerators may run to set temperature by selecting from a range of num-
longer or more often than older manual-defrost mod- bers or letters rather than specific temperatures. Some
els. Defrosting energy adds to the heat load. controls list a range of one to seven, with seven being
Domestic refrigerator cabinets usually have a fixed coldest. Other controls use a range of A through E, with
temperature range between 37°F and 41°F (3°C and 5°C). A being coldest. These nonspecific temperature ranges
The adjustment on the motor control allows the owner to require trial and error to find the desired temperature
select the desired temperature within this range. setting, Figure 24-14.
Freezers should be set to operate at a temperature
of 0°F (-18°C). The motor control must be designed for
food freezer use. Most of these controls allow adjust-
ment of the temperature range. The principle of opera-
tion of the motor control used on freezers is exactly the
same as that used on domestic refrigerators.

Thermostats Control knob

The temperature in a domestic refrigerator-freezer ~ shaft
is controlled by a thermostat. A thermostat will close
its contacts as temperature rises and will open its con-
tacts when the temperature drops to the desired range.
Thermostats can be classified into two basic categories:
electromechanical and electronic.
Sensing bulb
Electromechanical Thermostats
Electromechanical thermostats have a capillary
tube that extends to a sensing bulb. The capillary tube
and sensing bulb are often wrapped around a slug of Dantoss
metal. The slug of metal acts as a heat sink and helps to Figure 24-13. This electromechanical thermostat has a
minimize dramatic swings in the temperature sensed. temperature sensing bulb that measures the temperature
If the instantaneous temperature of the interior air inside the cabinet.

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620 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

24.2 Specialized Systems

-
ftlllltR The following systems are commonly found on
domestic refrigerators and freezers. Some of these sys-
tems, like the damper, defrost, and condensation con-
trols keep the refrigerator performing properly. Other
systems, like ice makers and ice and water dispensers,
add convenience.

24.2.1 Dampers
There may be more than one compartment in the
refrigerator. The amount of air flowing between the com-
partment containing the evaporator and the other
compartment will determine the temperature in the
compartment without the evaporator. If the evaporator
is in the freezer compartment and the temperature for
energizing the compressor is monitored in the freezer
compartment, the amount of air flowing between the
freezer and the fresh food compartment will deter-
mine the temperature in the fresh food section. The
larger the amount of air allowed to flow between the
compartments, the lower the temperature in the fresh
food compartment.
A damper controls the amount of air flowing
between the compartments. In some designs, the
damper is a fixed device. A certain amount of air flows
Maytag into the fresh food section whenever the evaporator
Figure 24-14. Various electromechanical controls used in fan is operating. If the customer wants the fresh food
domestic refrigerators and freezers. section to be cooler, the damper is manually opened
further. If the fresh food section is too cold, the damper
is manually closed further.
Electronic Thermostats
Modern electronic thermostats provide direct
sensing of interior temperatures with solid-state sen-
sors. This type of sensor is most often a thermistor. A
thermistor changes its resistance based on the temper-
ature of the sensing device.
With thermistor temperature sensing, the sensing
component is part of a voltage divider circuit. As the
resistance of the sensor changes, the voltage sensed
across the thermistor changes. This voltage across the
thermistor is interpreted as an instantaneous tem-
perature reading. Instead of using a slug to moder-
ate temperature swings, the temperature readings are
averaged over a predetermined time period. This pro-
vides the compressor control with a running average
of the temperature. Decisions to energize the compres-
sor are based on a mathematical formula.
Electronic controls may use push button and
include 7-segment LED displays of temperature.
Others display numbers along a range of operation, Maytag
like some electromechanical controls. Shown here are Figure 24-15. Various electronic controls used in domestic
two examples of electronic controls, Figure 24-15. refrigerators and freezers.

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 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 621

In newer designs, the damper is equipped with a stops completely. If this happens, cooling performance
temperature-sensing device that automatically opens decreases to the point where the system cannot main-
and closes the damper as needed. Many dampers are tain the desired temperatures. In order to return cooling
pneumatic. They require no electrical power to open capacity, the frost must be removed from the evaporator.
and close the damper. A sensing bulb containing a gas The process of manually defrosting a refrigera-
charge pressurizes a diaphragm. As the sensing bulb tor is time consuming, and the frost affects system
temperature changes, the damper opens or closes in
response to the change, Figure 24-16.
Sensing bulb
This style of damper provides more active con-
trol of the two separate compartments than a manu-
ally adjusted damper provides. If the frozen section
requires cooling but the fresh food section does not,
the damper can remain closed. When the damper is
closed, the system needs to do less work to bring the
freezer section down to the desired temperature. In
cases where the fresh food section requires additional
cooling, the damper can open without the compressor
cycling. Natural convection will transfer some of the
heat from the fresh food section to the freezer section.
If enough heat can be moved to satisfy the damper
setting without the compressor cycling, the system is
more efficient. If, however, enough heat is transferred
to activate the thermostat, the compressor will oper-
ate based on the freezer temperature. The damper may
close before the operating thermostat is satisfied.
In electronic temperature control systems, the
damper is often electrically operated. An electrical sig- Damper 8
nal is sent to the damper to indicate when it should be Maytag
open and when it should be closed. Usually there are limit Figure 24-16. This mechanical damper opens and closes in
switches to indicate whether the damper is fully opened response to pressure changes in a sensing bulb.
or fully closed. The opening and closing of an electronic
damper in a solid-state temperature management system Damper motor
is controlled by a mathematical formula, Figure 24-17.

24.2.2 Defrost Systems

Moisture control inside the conditioned compart-
ments is necessary for efficient refrigerator-freezer opera-
tion. Every time a door is opened, moisture from ambient
air enters the cabinet. Through either natural convection
or forced air movement, the moisture eventually con-
denses on the coldest surface in the cabinet. The coldest
surface is the evaporator. Since the evaporator in a refrig-
erator-freezer or freezer is well below the freezing point of
water, the moisture forms frost on the evaporator.
A plate-style evaporator relies on convection to main-
tain temperature. Frost build-up affects the efficiency of
the heat removal but does not prevent the system from
maintaining temperature. However, there is the loss of Damper Damper position
storage space as the thickness of the frost increases. limit switch
In a forced-draft evaporator system, the build-up Maytag
of frost has more severe effects. As the amount of frost Figure 24-17. An electric motor opens and closes this
builds, the airflow through the evaporator decreases. If damper. When the desired position is reached, the limit switch
the evaporator becomes completely clogged, the airflow deactivates the motor.

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622 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

efficiency. Therefore, most modern refrigerators incor- refrigeration system's Off cycle, which melts any built-
porate an automatic defrost system. Two methods of up frost or ice on the evaporator. The moisture empties
producing heat for defrost are hot gas and electric. Hot into a drain pan, which is either emptied by evaporation
gas redirects refrigerant from a compressor's discharge or drains into a building drain. Figure 24-18 shows an
line through the evaporator. Electric uses electric heat- automatic defrost system in a basic refrigeration system.
ing elements located next to the evaporator surfaces. A defrost thermostat monitors the evaporator
In an automatic defrost system, a timer or control temperature during the defrost cycle. If the evapora-
mechanism operates the heating mechanism during the tor temperature exceeds a preset level, the thermostat

Heating Capillary
Evaporator elements tube

Cabinet

Heat
---exchanger

t
Suction line

Accumulator
Filter-drier

Condenser
Compressor
i

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 24-18. In this basic electric defrost system, the defrost control energizes the heating elements when the compressor
shuts off.

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 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 623

turns off the electric heater, regardless of the amount Defrost thermostat
of time left on the defrost cycle. A defrost thermostat
may also be referred to as a defrost termination thermo-
stat or defrost terminator. It prevents the defrost heaters
from overheating the evaporator during the defrost
cycle, Figure 24-19.
The target temperature for defrost is usually
between 40°F and 50°F (4°C and 10°C). The water that
results from the defrosting process is often directed to
a condensate tray in the base of the refrigerator. This
flat tray is placed in the airflow around the compressor
and the condenser. The warmed air speeds the evapo-
ration of the condensate.
Although the purpose and operation of all defrost
systems are similar, the method of controlling the sys-
tem can vary. The following sections address the most
common methods of controlling a defrost system. Maytag
Figure 24-19. A defrost thermostat monitors evaporator
temperature and deactivates the defrost process if the
Timed Defrost
evaporator gets too warm.
One method of controlling a defrost cycle is to use
an electric defrost timer that defrosts the unit at prede-
termined time intervals. An interval between defrosts Sets defrost Sets defrost
is set by the user. Whenever the timer counts up the duration frequency
chosen amount of time, the system enters a defrost
cycle. This type of controller performs the defrost cycle
based solely on elapsed time, regardless of the actual
cooling demand on the system.
The frequency and duration of the defrost cycle
are controlled to provide adequate frost removal from
the evaporator. A defrost timer like the one shown in
Figure 24-20 has controls for setting the defrost fre-
I
quency and duration.
A wiring diagram for a three-step timed defrost
system is shown in Figure 24-21. This system shuts off
the compressor and the evaporator fans and then starts
the electric heaters. After the heaters run for about
sixteen minutes, a defrost timer shuts them off and
restarts the compressor. When the compressor has run
about four minutes, the defrost timer starts the evapo-
rator fans, returning the unit to normal operation.
The most basic type of timed defrost system uses
a continuous defrost timer. This type of defrost timer
continuously counts down to the next defrost cycle,
regardless of whether the compressor is running or
not. As a result, the system performs regular defrost-
ing, but some of these may be unnecessary defrosting
operations.
A more efficient type of timed defrost is the To To
cumulative run-time defrost system. This type of compressor defrost heater
system determines the defrost intervals based on the Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
amount of time the compressor runs. The system is con- Figure 24-20. This defrost timer operates the defrost cycle in
trolled by an intermittent defrost timer, which counts a three-step, no-frost refrigerator. The timer shown allows the
down to the next defrost cycle only when the compres- user to set a defrost duration between 10 and 35 minutes and
sor is running. During Off cycles, an intermittent defrost a defrost frequency between 4 hours and 12 hours.

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624 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

3 2 5
Timer Defrost heater wire Defrost
motor thermostat
To freezer
fan
To compressor
Temperature control

First click-defrost operation (approximately 16 min)

First Step

L2 - - - " " T " " - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . - - - - r -

3 2
Timer Defrost heater wire Defrost
motor thermostat
To freezer
fan
To compressor
Temperature control

Second click-fan delay period (approximately 5 min)

Second Step

3 2 5
Timer Defrost heater wire Defrost
motor thermostat
To freezer
4 6 fan
To compressor
Temperature control
Third click-normal operation (approximately 6 hrs)
Third Step
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 24-21. These diagrams show the electric circuits that are activated during each step of a three-step defrost method. First
step-Timer stops the compressor and the freezer fan, then turns on the three heaters. If the temperature exceeds the defrost
thermostat's limit, the thermostat will open, shutting off the defrost heater. The drain heaters will continue to operate until the
defrost time expires. Second step-Timer stops the heaters and starts the compressor, but the freezer fan does not yet start.
Third step-The compressor continues to run, and the freezer fan is turned on.

timer is idle. The timer shuts off the compressor and acti- times the doors are opened and for the relative humid-
vates the defrost cycle after the compressor has run for a ity of the surrounding air.
cumulative predetermined number of hours.
A cumulative run-time defrost system is more Demand Defrost
efficient than a continuously timed defrost system. When a cabinet door is opened, some of the condi-
However, it still cannot account for the number of tioned air inside the cabinet spills out and is replaced

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 625

by humid air from outside the cabinet. The humidity If the defrost thermostat opens sooner than the
turns to frost on the cold evaporator. Because of this, ideal defrost time, it indicates that the system can oper-
the more frequently the door is opened, the more fre- ate for a longer period of compressor run time before
quently the unit must be defrosted. For this reason, defrosting is required. The defrost control lengthens
some units are equipped with a demand defrost con- the cumulative run time before the next defrost cycle
troller instead of a defrost timer. A demand defrost and begins monitoring the compressor run time.
controller activates the defrost cycle based on the Over the course of several defrost cycles, the time
number of times the cabinet door is opened. between the start of the defrost cycle and the opening
of the defrost thermostat will get closer to the ideal
Off-Cycle Defrost defrost time. The system adjusts the intervals between
The Off-cycle defrost system is used on refrigera- defrost cycles to be short enough to maintain a clean
tors equipped with forced-draft evaporators. This type coil, but not so short that energy is wasted performing
of system has no heating elements and relies on air unnecessary defrosts. As humidity conditions change
circulation to defrost the evaporator. The defrost con- and the frost load increases or decreases, the system
troller activates the defrost cycle during each Off cycle, adjusts the cumulative run time to match the change
whether the evaporator has frosted over or not. For the in the frost load.
defrost cycle of Off-cycle defrost, the evaporator fan
continues to circulate return air around the evapora- Hot-Gas Defrost
tor coil. Any frost formation is melted by circulating A defrost system that is seen less frequently in
cabinet air releasing its heat into the frost. This reduces domestic appliances is the hot-gas defrost system. This
frost build-up on the evaporator. Since the circulating type of defrost system redirects hot, compressed vapor
air must be warmer than 32°F (0°C), this type of defrost from the compressor through the evaporator to defrost
system cannot be used to defrost freezers. it. Hot gas defrost systems are more commonly used in
commercial refrigeration systems and in commercial
Adaptive Defrost ice machines to aid the harvest process.
With the decreased cost of logic circuits and con- When hot-gas defrost is used in a domestic refrig- B
trollers, a more efficient method of controlling the erator or freezer, the system includes a bypass line that
defrost frequency has been introduced. The system connects the compressor discharge line to the evapora-
measures the time it takes to defrost the unit and then tor inlet. A solenoid-operated bypass valve is installed
uses that information to determine the interval before in this line, Figure 24-22.
the next defrost cycle. This type of defrost system is
known as adaptive defrost.
The theory behind an adaptive defrost system is
that an evaporator with a heavier frost load takes lon-
ger to reach the target defrost temperature than an
evaporator with a light frost load. The defrost control-
ler calculates a defrost interval that results in the evap-
orator developing a frost load that is just heavy enough
to require a defrost cycle but not so heavy that it affects
the evaporator's efficiency.
After power is applied to an adaptive defrost sys-
tem, the initial defrost will usually occur in six to eight
hours of cumulative run time, depending on the man-
ufacturer. The amount of time is then measured from
the start of the defrost cycle until the defrost thermostat
opens. If the defrost cycle takes longer than the ideal
defrost time, it indicates that a heavier-than-normal
frost load was on the coil. With a heavier-than-normal
frost load, the system calculates that the next defrost Emerson Climate Technologies
should happen sooner than the initial cumulative run
Figure 24-22. A solenoid valve operates a defrost bypass line
time. As a result, the cumulative run time before the by opening a passage between a compressor's discharge line
next defrost is shortened. When the next defrost cycle and evaporator. Check with the solenoid valve's manufacturer
begins, the defrost controller again monitors the time to ensure it is installed in an acceptable position for proper
required to complete the defrost cycle. operation.

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626 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Capillary tube Filter-drier Capillary tube Filter-drier

Solenoid Solenoid
valve valve
(open) (closed)

~
Accumulator
Solenoid
valve
(closed) Accumulator
Solenoid
valve
(open)

Pressure Pressure
motor motor
control control

D High-pressure vapor D Low-pressure vapor D Medium-pressure vapor

• High-pressure liquid • Low-pressure liquid • Medium-pressure liquid
D Low-pressure vapor
A B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 24-23. Diagram of a basic hot-gas defrost system. A-During standard operation, the solenoid valve in the bypass line is
closed and the solenoid valve in the liquid line is open. B-During the defrost cycle, the solenoid valve in the bypass line is open,
and the valve in the liquid line is closed.

During normal operation of the system, the In a refrigerator or freezer equipped with a hot-gas
solenoid valve remains closed. When the defrost defrost system, two solenoid valves in the refrigerant
timer triggers the defrost cycle, the valve opens and circuit open and close to provide either the refrigerat-
hot gas enters the evaporator at a point just after the ing cycle or the defrost cycle. During the refrigerating
capillary tube inlet. The hot gas thaws the frost from cycle, the solenoid valve in the liquid line opens and
the inside. One concern with this type of system is the solenoid valve in the bypass line remains closed.
that it adds a component to the basic refrigeration When the valves are in these positions, the refrigerator
system, and any added components are potential operates normally, Figure 24-23A.
sources of system failures and increase the cost of During the defrost cycle, the solenoid valve in the
the unit. liquid line closes, and the solenoid valve in the bypass

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 627

line opens. Since the solenoid valve in the liquid line If the defrost system is a hot-gas defrost system,
is closed, no liquid refrigerant is flowing through the the controller keeps the compressor circuit closed
metering device into the evaporator. Since the solenoid when the user activates the defrost cycle but also
valve in the bypass line is open, hot compressed refrig- closes a circuit to the solenoid valves. This causes
erant vapor flows through it directly into the evapo- the compressor to begin pumping hot gas through
rator. It passes through the evaporator, through the the evaporator. When the defrost operation is com-
accumulator, and back through the suction line to the plete, the controller opens the solenoid valve cir-
suction side of the compressor. As it passes through cuit and restores normal control of the compressor
the evaporator, the hot vapor melts the ice from the motor. See Figure 24-25.
evaporator surface, Figure 24-23B.
The vaporized refrigerant picks up some heat as it
passes through the suction line. As it passes through L1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
the compressor, the heat of compression raises the tem-
perature of the refrigerant enough that it continues to
heat the evaporator and remove the frost. Little or no
condensation of vaporized refrigerant takes place dur-
ing this cycle.

Semiautomatic Defrost
Some domestic refrigerators use semiautomatic
defrost systems. These systems defrost the unit when Electric
Compressor heater
the user presses the button on a defrost switch and motor
then return the unit to regular operation automatically
after the unit has defrosted. L2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___.__ _ _ ___.
A second type of semiautomatic defrost system
raises the operating temperature of the evaporator a fixed Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher B
amount when a defrost switch is pressed by the user. Figure 24-24. This wiring diagram is for the control in a
When the defrost operation is triggered, the evaporator semiautomatic defrost system with an electric heater. The
temperature becomes warm enough to cause defrosting control is shown in the normal operation refrigeration position.
while still providing satisfactory refrigeration. Pulling on
the switch returns the system to regular operation.
Refrigerators with semiautomatic defrost systems
frequently use a motor control with two sensing ele-
ments. One sensing element controls the compressor
motor during the normal refrigeration cycle by using
pressure within a gas-charged sealed capillary tube.
As the temperature in the refrigerated space rises, the
gas within the capillary tube expands and pushes on
a diaphragm, which in turn closes a set of electrical
contacts, starting the compressor motor.
Another sensing element provides motor control
during the defrost cycle. It uses a gas-charged capil- Solenoid s
lary tube to automatically terminate the defrost cycle. valve
Compressor
When the frost is removed from the evaporator coil, motor
the increase of coil temperature expands the gas in
the capillary tube, which pushes on a diaphragm and
opens the defrost contacts while simultaneously clos-
L2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.....__ _ _ _ _ __.
ing the contacts to the compressor motor.
Defrosting starts when the control knob is pushed Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
in. If the defrost system uses electric heaters, the con- Figure 24-25. Wiring diagram for the control in a
troller opens the motor circuit and closes the circuit to semiautomatic hot-gas defrosting system. The control is
electric heater elements. When the coils are defrosted, shown in the normal operation refrigeration position. The
the controller opens the defrost circuit and closes the defrost system has a solenoid valve that controls the flow of
motor circuit. See Figure 24-24. hot gas.

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628 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

24.2.3 Condensation Control condensation control consists of low-wattage electric

heaters installed around the door openings. These
Because cabinets have cold interiors and are sur- heaters are commonly referred to as mullion heaters.
rounded by warmer, more humid air, there is always A different type of moisture control uses heat pro-
the potential for condensation on the cabinet exterior. duced during the compression of the system's refriger-
This is most likely to occur around the doors and espe- ant. In this type of system, a loop of copper or steel
cially between the frozen food section and fresh food tubing passes around the door openings. Refrigerant
section in a refrigerator-freezer. Moisture on the exte- leaving the condenser is routed through this loop. The
rior of the cabinet is undesirable but in certain condi- warm refrigerant heats the cabinet exterior where con-
tions cannot be avoided. densation could develop. Since the operating charac-
In order to reduce the moisture that collects on the teristics of a sealed system results in higher high-side
exterior of the cabinet, most manufacturers use some pressures as the ambient temperature increases, the
form of condensation control. Condensation controls temperature of the refrigerant routed through this
consist of a heating system that keeps the exterior sur- loop will increase in warmer conditions. This type of
faces of the cabinet warm enough to prevent humidity condensation control is called a post-condenser loop,
in the air from condensing on them. One method of or Yoder loop. See Figure 24-26.

Suction line---+~~

1
• ._.,___ _ _ _ _ _+----1- Yoder (condenser)
loop

Evaporator

Capillary _ __...,..._
tube

Filter-
drier

D High-pressure vapor
D Low-pressure vapor
Maytag
Figure 24-26. A post-condenser loop, or Yoder loop, provides condensation control in this design.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 629

24.2.4 Crispers and Humidity-Controlled Figure 24-29 shows the external construction of a typi-
cal ice maker, and its component parts are shown in
Drawers Figure 24-30.
Many refrigerators include drawer compartments Most ice makers are self-contained modules. The
for storing produce. Since the evaporator removes mois- amount of water that is used during a fill is usually time-
ture from the interior air, produce tends to quickly dry based. The action of the ice maker's solenoid water valve
and wilt. Crisper drawers reduce the airflow around
the produce and create a more humid storage location,
preventing premature drying. Humidity control
Most crisper drawers have some type of slide slider
control that adjusts the amount of air that will flow
through the drawer. Vegetables are best kept at higher
humidity levels than fruits. Many of these slide con-
trols use pictures to indicate higher humidity for veg-
etables and lower humidity for fruits. Others just use
word labels, Figure 24-27.
Some cabinets include a drawer specifically
intended for meat storage. This drawer is usually
located in the bottom of the fresh food section. This
is the coldest portion of the fresh food section. Often a
small supplemental air duct supplies cold air directly
from the evaporator to this area. Meat, once thawed,
can be stored at or slightly below freezing tempera-
tures and still be ready to use.
More advanced refrigerator storage options can
incorporate dampers, low-wattage heaters, and cir-
culation fans into interior storage drawers. These
climate-controlled storage drawers are smaller condi-
tioned spaces within the fresh food section. They can
be controlled to be slightly cooler or slightly warmer
than the rest of the refrigerator section. The primary
refrigerator compartment can be set to maintain a tem-
Maytag
I
Figure 24-27. This crisper drawer is equipped with a slider to
perature of 35°F (2°C), while the storage drawer could adjust airflow. The user moves the slider to the left to increase
maintain 38°F (3°C) for produce, or 30°F (-l C) for0
humidity.
meat, Figure 24-28.

Controls
24.2.5 Ice and Water Systems
Many domestic refrigerator-freezers are equipped
with systems for automatically making ice and for dis-
pensing drinking water and ice. Each of these systems
requires a connection to the household water supply.
The following sections describe some of the most com-
mon types of ice and water systems.

Automatic Ice Makers

Many domestic refrigerators are equipped with
automatic ice makers. The automatic ice maker is
mounted in the freezer compartment. It is designed
to produce ice cubes automatically. A typical ice
maker is wired so that it will harvest in the refrig- Jenn-Air
eration or defrost cycles. A solenoid water valve in Figure 24-28. A climate-controlled drawer. The controls allow
the compressor compartment regulates the flow the user to select any of four preset conditions, depending on
of water from the water supply into the ice mold. the type of food stored in the drawer.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

630 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

is often controlled by a mechanical timing device inside

Ice ejector the ice maker. The timing device includes a rotating cam
that operates the switches inside the ice maker. A solid
state control board can also be used to control the fill time.
Ice Since time and volume of water flow are the factors that
holder
determine the size of the ice cubes, the household water
pressure is important. Excessive pressure could overfill
the ice mold while low pressure could under fill the mold,
resulting in small or hollow cubes.
,,,," An automatic ice maker has three phases: fill,
. ::.(
;:,
~_ ..::"
"'
Arm up stops
freeze, and harvest. During the fill phase, the ice
maker mold fills with water. During the freeze phase,
-" operation the system waits for the water to freeze. A thermostat
mounted to the ice mold monitors the temperature of
Arm down-ice maker the mold. Once the water freezes, the temperature of
will operate the mold starts dropping rapidly. Once the designated
Frigidaire Company temperature is reached, the system is ready to enter the
Figure 24-29. One type of ice maker used on domestic harvest phase.
refrigerators is shown here. Note the signal arm, which stops A signal arm on the ice maker continuously mea-
the cycling when the ice bin is full. sures the level of harvested ice in the ice bin. If the ice bin

Ice holder
used to prevent
ice pieces from
falling into mold

~
·: ·~/··················· ---:,_!':

Signal arm
~ used to control
ice formation

~:o
LJ~~ ~
.
[J ~ Cover
t tJ ~
Water valve
~

Frigidaire Company
Figure 24-30. These are the parts that make up a typical ice maker.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 631

is full, the ice maker will hold position between the freeze
and harvest phase until the ice level has decreased. If the
bin is not completely full, the ice maker will switch from
the freeze phase to the harvest phase.
The ice molds in many ice makers include a heater
to loosen the ice. If the ice maker is equipped with a
heater, it will energize to loosen the ice when the har-
vest phase begins. Next, a motor is activated to drive
the ice from the mold. Depending on the ice maker
model, the motor will either rotate fingers that push
the cubes out of the mold or flip and twist a flexible
tray until the ice cubes fall out. When the ice cubes
have been removed, the ice maker returns to the fill
phase and starts the process over.
A typical ice mold has a thermostat installed in Maytag Corporation
its front surface. It also has semicircular compart- Figure 24-32. This automatic ice maker will continue making
ments where the ice is formed. The water enters ice until its signal lever is raised.
through the rear and fills each compartment. If
the ice maker is equipped with a mold heater, it is
attached on the lower side of the ice mold. The mold 115 volts 60 Hz
heater is wired in series with the ice maker thermo- L1 ,!. L2
stat, Figure 24-31.
.-------..... '---------,
The ejector pushes the ice out of the mold when it
is frozen. The signal arm raises and lowers as the tim-
ing cam rotates. When the bin is full of ice, the signal
arm is unable to lower and keeps the shutoff switch
open. The shutoff switch remains open and the ice
maker remains inactive until enough ice is removed
from the bin to allow the signal arm to lower and close Water
solenoid
the shutoff switch, Figure 24-32.
The operation of an ice maker can best be under-
stood by following its operation step-by-step. With Frigidaire Company
water already in the mold, the freeze phase begins Figure 24-33. During the freeze phase, all components of the
with all components de-energized, Figure 24-33. ice maker are de-energized.

B Frigidaire Company
Figure 24-31. The top and bottom of a typical ice mold are shown here. A-Dividers separate the individual semicircular
compartments where ice cubes are formed. Note that the back of each divider is lower than the front to allow water to be
distributed to all compartments. B-The mold heater is attached to the bottom of the ice mold.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

632 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

The start of the harvest phase is shown in In Figure 24-37, the thermostat is still closed, and
Figure 24-34. The ice in the mold lowers the tempera- the mold heater is still functioning. The first revolu-
ture of the thermostat so that its contacts close. This tion is nearly completed, and the timing cam closes the
energizes the mold heater and ejector motor. The ejec- water valve solenoid and its switch; however, the water
tor blades begin to turn slowly. solenoid does not open its valve. Because the electri-
In Figure 24-35, the motor rotates for a few cal path through the thermostat and heater have lower
degrees, and a timing cam connected to the motor resistance than the path through the solenoid, most of
changes the holding switch position. The motor keeps the current flows through the heater. Remember that
turning, and the mold heater remains on through the electrical current always prefers the path of least resis-
thermostat circuit. tance. As a result, not enough current flows through
In Figure 24-36, the signal arm is raised by the the water solenoid to cause it to open the water valve.
timing cam and operates the shutoff switch. The signal
arm begins moving back down, and the ejector blade
contacts the ice in the mold and stalls. The mold heater 115 volts 60 Hz
keeps warming the mold. The blade remains in this
position until the ice has thawed loose. ------- +------- L1
Shutoff switch Thermostat
L2

115 volts 60 Hz
L1 J_ L2
------- "=' -------
Shutoff switch Thermostat

Mold heater

Holding switch
Frigidaire Company

Water Figure 24-36. As the timing cam continues to turn, the

solenoid sensing arm moves to the fully up position, which operates
the shutoff switch. The signal arm begins to move back down.
When the ejector blades reach the ice mold, the motor stalls.
Frigidaire Company
The system remains in this position until the ice thaws loose.
During this time, the mold heater remains energized.
Figure 24-34. When the ice freezes and further chills to the
appropriate temperature, the thermostat's contacts close,
energizing the mold heater and the motor. The ejector blades
begin to turn. This begins the harvest phase. 115 volts 60 Hz

115 volts 60 Hz
------- ,i,. ------- L1
Shutoff switch Thermostat
L2

------- ------- L1 ~ L2
Shutoff switch Thermostat
Mold heater

Water solenoid switch

····(.;~~:.---~
Water
solenoid
rn.... Motor

Holding switch
Frigidaire Company
Figure 24-37. When the sensing arm returns to its fully down
position, it again operates the shutoff switch. The ejectors
Frigidaire Company push the ice cubes out of the mold. The timing cam closes the
Figure 24-35. The motor rotates the timing cam, which water solenoid switch. However, there is not enough current
operates the holding switch and moves the sensing arm into passing through the water solenoid switch to activate the
the up position. The mold heater remains energized through water valve solenoid. This nearly completes the first revolution
the thermostat. of the ice maker timer cam.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 633

115 volts 60 Hz
L1 J_ L2
------- "=' -------
Shutoff switch Thermostat Water

~
Holding switch
Holding switch
Frigidaire Company
Frigidaire Company
Figure 24-41. Near the completion of the second revolution,
Figure 24-38. At the end of the first revolution, the timing cam
the timing cam closes the water solenoid switch, initiating the
operates the holding switch. However, since the thermostat is
fill phase. The water valve solenoid is energized, opening the
still closed and energizing the motor, a second revolution of
water valve. Water refills the ice cube mold.
the timing cam begins.

115 volts 60 Hz When the first revolution is completed, the timing

------- +------- L1
Shutoff switch Thermostat
L2 cam moves the holding switch, Figure 24-38. However,
the thermostat is still closed, so the motor continues to
turn and a second revolution of the timing cam begins.
Mold heater
At this point, the ice has been lifted from its mold.
In Figure 24-39, after a few degrees of rotation,
the timing cam moves the holding switch. The hold- B
ing switch provides the circuit to the motor, permitting
completion of the revolution. The mold heater remains
Water on. The signal arm again raises and lowers, operating
solenoid
the shutoff switch. The ice that was harvested during
Holding switch the first revolution is dumped into the container.
Frigidaire Company During the second revolution, Figure 24-40, the
Figure 24-39. After a few degrees of rotation, the timing cam heat produced by the mold heater resets the thermostat
closes the holding switch, providing a power input to the motor to open. With the thermostat contacts open, the mold
after the shutoff switch changed position. The mold heater heater is de-energized. If the container is full, the sig-
remains energized. The signal arm raises and lowers again, nal arm will remain raised.
operating the shutoff switch. The ice harvested during the first Figure 24-41 shows the near completion of the
revolution is dumped into the ice bin.
second revolution. The timing cam closes the water
solenoid switch. The circuit is completed through the
115 volts 60 Hz

------- +-------
water solenoid, the water solenoid switch, and the
L1 L2 mold heater. When the water solenoid is energized, the
Thermostat water valve opens and water fills the mold.
Figure 24-42 shows the end of a harvest phase.
The container is full and no other cycles will start until
enough ice has been removed from the bin to allow
the signal arm to drop, closing the shutoff switch. If
enough ice is removed from the bin, a new cycle will
Water start as soon as the ice gets cold enough to close the
solenoid thermostat contacts.

Holding switch Water and Ice Dispensers

Frigidaire Company
One of the more requested refrigerator-freezer
Figure 24-40. During the second revolution, the heat from the
mold heater resets the thermostat. This action de-energizes
options is filtered and chilled water and ice dispens-
the mold heater. If the ice bin is full, the signal arm remains in ing. A solenoid-operated valve controls the flow of
a raised position. water. This water goes to the dispenser and also to the

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

634 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

115 volts 60 Hz in the fresh food section, it passes through a filter car-
~ - - - - -L
_1...., .J.. L...,;L2:;___ _ _ _-, tridge, Figure 24-44.

Pro Tip
The Effect of Water Pressure on Water Valves
Most water valves used in refrigerators operate
against the incoming water pressure. The valves often
rely on the water pressure to assist in proper closing. In
low water-pressure conditions, the valve may not fully
close, and dripping or leaking can occur.

Holding switch
Frigidaire Company
Caution
Figure 24-42. The fill phase is ended by the timing cam
operating the holding switch and water solenoid switch. The Reverse Osmosis Systems
container is full of ice cubes. No further ice making cycles will In households with reverse osmosis systems, the
begin until ice cubes are removed from the bin, allowing the refrigerator should not be connected to the outlet of the
signal arm to drop. reverse osmosis filter. If a fill is requested while the filter
is back flushing, the temporary low pressure can result
in a valve that does not fully close.
ice maker The solenoid valve is usually energized by
a dispenser switch or relayed through a control board Through-the-door ice dispenser systems can deliver
that monitors the dispenser switch via low-voltage, cubed ice outside the cabinet. Some models are capable of
Figure 24-43. delivering both cubed and crushed ice. In ice dispenser
Domestic water for dispensing is chilled in a res- systems, an auger drives the cubes out of the bin for deliv-
ervoir inside the refrigerator. Sometimes this reservoir ery through a chute in the door, Figure 24-45.
is a tank, and sometimes it is simply a long length of Most ice dispenser designs use one of two meth-
tubing coiled up and mounted in the back of the com- ods to deliver crushed ice. In the first method, the auger
partment. The cold air inside the refrigerator cools the normally forces ice cubes through crusher blades before
water. Before household water is stored in a reservoir the ice drops through the door chute of the dispenser.
If cubed ice is requested, a solenoid opens a bypass
door that allows the cubes to exit around the crusher

01\ I

- - - - --
0 CC .

Maytag
Maytag
Figure 24-43. Ice and water systems are popular options
on domestic refrigerator-freezers. The model shown here is Figure 24-44. The water filter in this system is installed in the
capable of dispensing water and cubed or crushed ice. refrigeration compartment.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 635

blades. The second method is to use a reversing auger door, external air will enter the freezer compartment.
motor. When the auger is driven in one direction, ice This will add significant amounts of moisture to the
cubes are forced through the crusher blades. When the interior of the freezer. This additional moisture can
auger motor is reversed, the cubes are routed around cause frost to build up inside the compartment and
the crusher blades. either clog the evaporator or further clog the chute.
The chute for ice delivery must be sealed when Through-the-door ice and water dispensers are
ice is not being delivered. There is usually an ice chute most common in side-by-side refrigerator-freezers.
door that opens when ice is dispensing. The door must Bottom-freezer units may also include through-the-
remain open for a few seconds after the dispense door ice and water dispensers. In these units, the ice
request ends to allow the last of the ice to finish drop- maker section is sealed off from the rest of the refrig-
ping. The ice chute door can be held open by a solenoid erator to create a section cold enough to produce ice.
with a timed release or its closure can be slowed down A small duct connects the ice maker section and the
with an air damper. If cubes do not clear the chute, the evaporator. A blower in the ice maker unit draws cold
door may not fully close. Without a seal on the chute air up through the duct.

Ice chute Ice bin

I
Auger
A B
Maytag
Figure 24-45. Features of a typical ice dispensing system. A-When the refrigerator door is closed, the ice chute is positioned
directly under the ice bin. B-lce bin and auger.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Refrigerator-freezers may have systems to
prevent condensation from forming on the
• The primary components in a domestic exterior of the cabinet. This condensation
refrigerator or freezer are a compressor, a usually forms around the doors. One common
condenser, a metering device, and one or more method of preventing condensation is to
evaporators. The compressors are generally position a loop of the liquid line around door
small hermetic single-phase units. openings. This type of condensation control is
referred to as a post-condenser loop, or Yoder
• Condensers may be natural-convection, hot- loop. Another method uses electric heaters
wall, or forced-draft types. Natural-convection called mullion heaters.
condensers rely on naturally occurring
airflow to transfer heat. Hot-wall condensers • Domestic refrigerator-freezers may have
transfer heat through conduction. Forced-draft special compartments that maintain different
condensers are equipped with small fans that conditions than the rest of the cabinet. These
blow air across the condenser coil. include specialized drawers for meat storage
and vegetable storage. Some of these drawers
• Most domestic refrigerator-freezers use are equipped with their own sets of controls for
capillary tube metering devices. The adjusting the conditions inside the drawer.
evaporators used in domestic refrigerators
can be either natural convection or forced • Many modern refrigerator-freezers are
convection types. Forced-convection is more equipped with ice makers and ice and water
common. dispensers. All of these systems require a
connection to the domestic water supply. Most
• The capillary tube and the suction line are ice makers are fully automated, self-contained
often bonded together to form a heat exchanger. units. There are three phases in the ice-making
The heat exchanger vaporizes any residual cycle: fill, freeze, and harvest. Water dispensers
liquid in the suction line and subcools the deliver filtered water through the refrigerator
refrigerant entering the evaporator, which door on demand. Ice dispensers use an auger to
allows the system to attain a lower temperature carry ice from the ice bin to a dispenser in the
and better efficiency. door.
• Domestic refrigerator-freezers may be
equipped with electromechanical or electronic
thermostats. Displays and controls vary by
manufacturer.
Review Questions
• Dampers are used to control airflow between Answer the following questions using the information in
the various compartments of a domestic this chapter.
refrigerator-freezer. In a refrigerator-freezer
1. A _ _ condenser relies entirely on
equipped with dampers, the conditioned
conduction to remove heat from refrigerant
air from a single evaporator can be used to
inside the condenser tubes.
maintain different conditions in different
A. natural draft
compartments.
B. forced draft
• The defrosting cycles of automatic defrosting C. hot-wall
systems can be triggered by a defrost timer D. All of the above.
or by the number of times the cabinet door is
opened and closed. In adaptive defrost systems, 2. The type of metering device most commonly
the period between cycles is adjusted based on used in domestic refrigerators or freezers is
the time required to defrost the system during the
A. electronic expansion valve
the previous cycle.
B. automatic expansion valve
C. thermostatic expansion valve
D. capillary tube

636 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 24 Systems and Components of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 637

3. Which of the following is a benefit provided 9. Which of the following statements regarding
by the heat exchanger in a domestic automatic ice makers is not true?
refrigerator? A The three phases of the ice-making cycle
A. It helps to condense refrigerant vapor in are fill, freeze, and harvest.
the suction line. B. The ice maker transitions from the freeze
B. It subcools refrigerant entering the phase to the harvest phase based solely on
evaporator. elapsed time.
C. It helps to vaporize refrigerant in the C. The signal arm changes position as the
capillary tube. timing cam rotates.
D. All of the above. D. None of the above.
4. Which of the following statements regarding 10. By which method is ice delivered to the chute
electromechanical thermostats is true? in a through-the-door ice dispenser system?
A. They are attached to a sensing bulb by a A An auger turns and moves ice into
capillary tube. position over the chute.
B. They may need to be adjusted to B. An ejector arm dislodges ice from a mold
compensate for altitude. directly into the chute.
C. They rely on gas pressure to open and C. An energized solenoid opens a trap door
close electrical contacts. beneath a column of ice that drop down
D. All of the above. into the chute.
5. In refrigerator-freezers where the evaporator D. A heater warms up so ice can drops from
is located in the freezer compartment, an inverted mold down into the chute.
the temperature inside the fresh food
compartment is made warmer by _ _.
A. closing a damper

I
B. using hot-gas defrost
C. turning on cabinet heaters
D. None of the above.
6. Which of the following types of defrost
systems bases the frequency of the defrost
cycle on the number of times the cabinet door
is opened?
A. Adaptive defrost system.
B. Demand defrost system.
C. Cumulative run-time defrost system.
D. Off-cycle defrost system.
7. A post-condenser loop is also known as a

A. heat exchanger loop

B. receiver loop
C. Yoder loop
D. None of the above.
8. Advanced refrigerators can use which of
the following to adjust conditions inside a
refrigerator storage drawer?
A. Dampers that adjusts airflow through the
drawer.
B. Low-wattage heaters.
C. Circulation fans.
D. All of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER25 Installation and
Troubleshooting of
Dotnestic Refrigerators
and Freezers

Chapter Outline
25.1 Checking for Proper Installation
25.1.1 Installing an Ice Maker
25.1.2 Checking Electrical Supply Learning Objectives
25.1.3 Checking for Proper Ventilation
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
25.1.4 Starting a Refrigerator
• Check domestic compression refrigerators for proper
25.2 Diagnosing Symptoms
installation.
25.2.1 Diagnosing a No-Start Condition
25.2.2 Diagnosing Poor Performance • Use the proper procedure for starting a domestic
25.2.3 Ice on the Evaporator refrigerator-freezer.
25.2.4 Moisture and Ice in the Cabinet Insulation • Interpret common symptoms of system malfunction.
25.2.5 Ice Maker Problems • Use proper procedures to test a domestic
25.2.6 Unusual Noises refrigerator-freezer's auxiliary circuits.
25.2.7 Unusual Cycling Times
• Explain the use of piercing valves, pinching tools,
25.2.8 System Failure
and valve adapters.
25.3 Checking External Circuits
25.4 Diagnosing Internal Troubles • Interpret temperature and pressure conditions inside
25.4.1 Analyzing Temperature-Pressure Conditions a refrigeration system to determine points of failure.
25.4.2 Identifying Common Problems • Summarize common symptoms of internal
25.4.3 Diagnosing Specific Component Problems component failure and their possible causes.
 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 639

Technical Terms • Motor controls turn a compressor motor off

when the conditioned space reaches the desired
inspection mirror troubleshooting chart temperature or a corresponding low-side pressure
listing ultrasonic has been reached. Motor controls turn on a
pinch-off tool valve adapters compressor when the conditioned area has warmed
process tube to a certain temperature or low-side pressure has
risen to a certain level. (Chapter 16)

Review of Key Concepts

Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
Introduction
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter: In order to effectively troubleshoot a domestic
• Decreasing the pressure on a gas causes the gas to refrigerator-freezer, a technician must first have a good
expand and causes its temperature to drop. This understanding of how the system works. Good trouble-
phenomenon, along with a physical change of state shooting begins by eliminating the simplest and most
from liquid to gas, provides the cooling action in a common possible problems first. After the simplest
refrigeration system. (Chapter 5) possible causes have been eliminated, other potential
• A filter-drier removes moisture from circulating causes of problems should be methodically checked and
refrigerant. This moisture might otherwise freeze eliminated.
in the metering device or other orifice. Moisture is
also harmful when mixed with oil inside a system
because it can form sludge and acid. (Chapter 6)
• Brazing is one of the best methods of making
leakproof connections in refrigeration lines. A
good braze joint requires proper preparation and

•
technique. (Chapter 8)
Troubleshooting is the analysis of a problem. This
analysis is generally guided by a chart provided by
the manufacturer of the equipment. (Chapter 3)
HVACR technicians must be certified by the EPA to
handle refrigerants in cylinders and charge them into
I
refrigeration systems. Specialized equipment is used
to handle refrigerants, perform refrigeration system
service, and pull a vacuum. (Chapter 10)
• The majority of electrical problems can be narrowed
down to the following common problems: a short
circuit, a ground fault (short to ground), an overload,
an unintentional voltage drop, or an open circuit.
(Chapter 13)
640 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

25.1 Checking for Proper Installation To do this, one installer pushes on the top of the cabinet,
just enough to take the weight off the front levelers. A
Correct installation is critical to the proper operation second technician then adjusts the levelers so the unit
of a refrigerator or freezer. This includes leveling of the is level across its width and front to back. Figure 25-1
cabinet, providing correct electrical power, and ensuring shows how one type of leveler is adjusted.
good ventilation. The manufacturer ships the units care-
fully crated. The unit is also shipped with full written
instructions. These instructions include information on 25.1.1 Installing an Ice Maker
how to move, uncrate, and install the unit. As explained in the previous chapter, many domes-
A refrigerator or freezer carton usually has proper tic refrigerator-freezers have automatic ice makers. These
handling instructions attached to or printed on the units are connected to a cold water line by a length of 1/4"
carton itself. These instructions should be carefully fol- copper or plastic tubing. Refer to Figure 25-2.
lowed. Many dealers uncrate the cabinet at the store. Before putting the refrigerator into place, run the
Others do it just outside the home. (Most crates are too copper tubing to the nearest cold water line. Cabinet
large to fit through household doors.) partitions or the floor may have to be drilled in order
Certain areas of the cabinet can be easily damaged to properly route the tubing. Determine which method
during moving or uncrating: to use to access the domestic water line: saddle valve or
• Bottom. The condensing unit may be damaged. T-fitting with a shut-off valve. A saddle valve requires
• Back. The condensing unit may be damaged. less work than installing a T-fitting, but it is also con-
sidered more prone to leaking.
• Door. The door may be forced out of line or buckled.
Shipping bolts are often used to secure compres- Code Alert
sors during shipping. If the compressor is mounted
on or suspended from springs, the shipping bolts are Accessing Domestic Water
usually removed after the unit is installed. If the com- When dealing with water, be aware of local build-
pressor is mounted on synthetic flexible grommets, the ing and plumbing codes. Some jurisdictions require that
shipping bolts are usually loosened two or three turns access to a water line include a T-fitting and a perma-
after the appliance is installed. It is important to inspect nent shut-off valve instead of a saddle valve. Codes may
also place restrictions on the use of compression fit-
a unit for shipping bolts. If present, the shipping bolts
tings. Check with local building authorities before begin-
should be loosened or removed in accordance with the ning work on such a project. Note that this often applies
manufacturer's instructions. This will permit the com- to water accessed for a refrigerator-freezer's ice maker
pressor to correctly vibrate on its mounts. and water dispenser and also for central humidifiers.
Refrigerators and freezers should be moved using
a dolly with a ratcheting holding strap. The hold-down
strap wraps around the appliance and secures it to the
dolly. The side rails of the dolly can be used as skids to
aid in moving the appliance in and out of the delivery
truck and in and out of the building.
If at all possible, the refrigerator-freezer should
be positioned so it is out of direct sunlight and away
from potential heat sources, such as ovens, radiators,
and warm air registers. If the unit must be located near
an oven or radiator, a heat shield should be installed
on the side of the refrigerator-freezer that is next to the
heat source. The room should be large enough to pro-
vide sufficient air to cool the condenser. A room size of
100 ft 2 or greater is preferred.
A spirit level (bubble level) should be used to care-
fully level the refrigerator during installation. To do this,
the floor where the rear supports or legs of the refrigera-
tor are to rest should be checked. If it is not level, wood Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
shims can be added under the rear supports to level Figure 25-1. Most levelers are threaded legs. They are
the cabinet. Usually, the front supports are adjustable. adjusted by turning them so they thread further into or out of
They should be adjusted to properly level the cabinet. the cabinet, effectively changing the length of the leg.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 641

Cold water Saddle 1/4" OD copper

Cold water line Shutoff valve
line valve tubing

A B

Water valve supply line Tubing coil

I
C
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 25-2. A typical water line installation for an automatic ice maker. A-A saddle valve installed on a cold water line. B-A
permanent shutoff valve can be used instead of a saddle valve. C-Copper tubing connects the cold water line to the water valve
supply line. In other installations, the copper tubing connects directly to a water valve fitting on the back of the refrigerator.

Connect the tubing to the valve (usually with connect the other end of the tubing to the refrigera-
a compression fitting). Check how much tubing is tor water line fitting.
required to connect from the valve to the refrigera- Turn the water valve stem to tum on the water to
tor. The tubing run from the water to the refrigera- the refrigerator-freezer. Check for water leaks. Test the
tor should include several large loops of tubing that water dispenser if applicable. Check the ice maker to see
can be placed behind the refrigerator. This extra whether water has filled the ice cube tray and begun its
length of tubing will allow the refrigerator to be cycle. If everything appears to be working and no leaks
moved for cleaning and servicing without requiring are found at any of the connections, gently move the
the water connection to be cut off or disconnected. refrigerator to its desired location. Be careful to avoid
Once enough tubing length has been determined, kinking, buckling, or pinching the tubing at any point.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

642 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

25.1.2 Checking Electrical Supply power cord plug, there is grounding. Otherwise, a
wire must be attached between a metal part of the
The electrical outlet for a refrigerator-freezer must refrigerator-freezer cabinet and a good ground, such
provide the correct electrical supply. Be sure to read as a water pipe. The type of plug used on the appli-
the electrical ratings on the appliance. Check these ance's power cord indicates the voltage and grounding.
against the electrical supply provided at the wall out- Most plugs will be three-prong with a ground. Refer to
let. Modern household refrigerators and freezers may Chapter 13, Electrical Power, for more information about
need more current than older, simpler refrigerators electrical power, circuit design, grounding, and plug
and freezers. and receptacle configurations.
There should be a separate circuit from the ser-
vice panel to the refrigerator-freezer outlet. Plug in a Safety Note
lightbulb or other small electrical load and turn off
the circuit breaker to determine which breaker con- Check for Ground
trols that circuit. Check the ampere rating of the circuit Always check for proper grounding in the outlet box
breaker and compare this to the ampere rating of the that supplies current to the refrigerator-freezer. A com-
mon method is to take a voltmeter reading from the "live"
refrigerator-freezer to ensure they are compatible.
wall receptacle connection to the receptacle ground
Avoid using an extension cord between the refrig-
connection. A full voltage reading indicates that the out-
erator power cord and the wall outlet. If an extension let is properly grounded, as shown in Figure 25-3.
cord is too long, it could cause a voltage drop. The
resulting voltage at the refrigerator-freezer may be
too low. Voltage at the refrigerator outlet can be easily 25.1.3 Checking for Proper Ventilation
checked with a voltmeter or multimeter, Figure 25-3. Since domestic refrigerators are air-cooled, proper
The circuit capacity (wire size, etc.) is checked in ventilation is very important. Yet, many kitchens are
the following way. If, at the instant of starting, the volt- designed without adequate space for air movement
age at the refrigerator outlet drops more than 10 V, the around the appliance. In these rooms, only refrigerator-
wiring in the circuit is not heavy enough. A flicker in freezers with forced-draft condensers should be used.
the lights at the instant the refrigerator starts is a sure The fans draw cool air in at the floor level and circulate
sign of a poor electrical supply. it over the condenser. The warm air is then exhausted
It is very important to ground the refrigerator. All back into the kitchen at, or near, floor level. Nothing
removable electrical parts, like fans, thermostats, and should be placed in front of such openings to block
timers, are already safety grounded. If the wall outlet airflow.
has a three-prong socket and the unit has a matching Many domestic refrigerators have a natural-
convection condenser that is mounted on the back.
Some are protected by a shroud. The shroud helps pro-
mote a chimney effect, increasing the rate of natural
airflow over the condenser. With this type of condenser,
air spaces must be provided at the bottom, back, and
top of the unit to ensure good air circulation. Having
shelves or cabinets over a refrigerator-freezer with a
natural-convection condenser is not recommended.
Neutral Hot >>))} Many freezers and some refrigerators have hot-
wall condensers. For these units, at least 2" (51 mm)
of space must be allowed between the refrigerator or
AH2 freezer cabinet and surrounding surfaces. Some room
AH2 for air circulation is necessary to allow heat transferred
to the cabinet to dissipate.

25.1.4 Starting a Refrigerator

After testing the wall outlet with a voltmeter to be
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
certain the correct electrical power is being supplied,
Figure 25-3. When checking a wall receptacle ground put the temperature control in the off position. Connect
terminal, the multimeter measures ac voltage between the hot the electrical cord to a wall outlet. Then, adjust the tem-
(live) wire and ground. perature control to the middle of its range and make

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 643

sure the refrigerator runs before moving it into its final 25.2.2 Diagnosing Poor Performance
position.
After a few hours of operation, check the ther- The first step in diagnosing a faulty system is
mometer in the fresh food (refrigerator) compartment. to visually inspect the system, looking for any obvi-
Adjust the temperature control setting to the custom- ous problems. A very helpful device for inspecting a
er's requirements. refrigerator is an inspection mirror, which is a small
adjustable mirror mounted on a long extension. Most
inspection mirrors have a telescoping handle. The mir-
25.2 Diagnosing Symptoms ror pivots and can be used to check such things as fan
alignment, motor condition, cleanliness of the con-
Refrigerators, like all machines, eventually wear denser, the condition of the evaporator, and any other
out or suffer malfunctions. Just as a doctor analyzes hard-to-reach places, Figure 25-4.
a patient's symptoms to determine what is wrong,
an HVACR technician observes the symptoms of the Caution
refrigeration system's malfunction and performs a
test to determine what is wrong with the system. It is
Inspection Mirrors
extremely important to work methodically when trou- When inserting an inspection mirror into a recessed
or obstructed area, be aware that the area may contain
bleshooting a system.
moving parts that are hidden from view. Always avoid
touching moving parts with an inspection mirror.
25.2.1 Diagnosing a No-Start Condition
If a problem is detected during the visual inspection,
If a refrigerator does not start, make sure that the determine whether that problem could result in the symp-
electrical supply circuit is in good condition and that toms you are investigating. Also, determine whether the
the proper voltage is being delivered to the unit. Open problem you detected during the inspection could actu-
and close the doors to make sure that the interior lights ally be a symptom of an even larger problem.

I
are functioning properly. If the interior lights fail to
turn on and off as the door opens and closes, look for
problems in the electrical supply circuit. Check any cir-
cuit breaker or fuse in the circuit.
If the lights turn on and off as expected, the
refrigerator is being supplied with power, and the
problem is likely in the motor control circuits or the
compressor's motor itself. The troubleshooting pro-
cess should begin with a visual inspection to check
for obvious problems. After the visual inspection, the
external electrical circuits should be checked for prob-
lems. Look for any loose connections, broken wires,
or other problems with the electrical components.
Finally, the system should be checked for mechanical
trouble that prevents its startup. The troubleshooting
process described in the sections that follow can be
applied to a refrigerator that will not start or one that
is performing poorly.

Pro Tip
Restarting a Capillary Tube System
If a refrigerator-freezer equipped with capillary
tube metering device is stopped and then started imme-
diately, it may fail to operate. This is not necessarily a
malfunction. The motor in this type of refrigerator has
insufficient starting torque to overcome high head pres-
sure. Disconnect the refrigerator for a few minutes to
Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
allow the high-side and low-side pressures to balance.
Then, try starting the system. Figure 25-4. An inspection mirror is often needed to see into
hard-to-reach places.

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644 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

After the visual inspection, the next step in diag- Next, repair or correct the problem. If the prob-
nosing a system is to determine the possible causes of lem could have been a possible cause of the initial
the symptoms. Troubleshooting charts are very useful symptoms, retest the system to determine whether the
for determining possible causes. A troubleshooting service corrected the problem. If the service you per-
chart lists common troubles, symptoms, their causes, formed did not correct the symptoms, continue diag-
and remedies, Figure 25-5. nosing the system.

Troubleshooting Chart-Domestic Refrigerator-Freezers

Trouble Common Cause Remedy
Unit will not run . 1. Blown fuse. 1. Replace the fuse.
2. Low voltage. 2a. Check the outlet with a voltmeter. It should
measure 115 V plus or minus 10%.
2b. If the circuit is overloaded , either reduce the load,
or have an electrician install a separate circuit.
2c. If you are unable to remedy the problem any other
way, install an auto-transformer.
3. Broken motor or temperature control. 3. Install a jumper across the terminals of the control.
If the unit runs and all connections are tight,
replace the control.
4. Broken relay. 4. Check the relay and replace as needed.
5. Broken overload protector. 5. Check the overload protector and replace
as needed.
6. Broken compressor. 6. Check the compressor and replace as needed.
7. Defective power cord . 7. Check the cord using a test light at the unit.
Replace the cord if there is current at the outlet
but not at the unit.
8. Broken lead to the compressor, timer, 8. Repair or replace the broken leads.
or thermostat.
9. Broken timer. 9. Check the timer with a test light and replace
as needed.
Refrigerator 1. Repeated door openings. 1. Instruct user.
section too warm . 2. Overloading of shelves, blocking the 2. Instruct user.
normal airflow in the cabinet. 3. Instruct user to allow foods to cool to room
3. Warm or hot foods placed in cabinet. temperature before placing in the cabinet.
4. Poor door seal. 4. Level the cabinet and adjust the door seal.
Replace the gasket if necessary.
5. Interior light stays on. 5. Check the light switch and replace as needed.
6. Refrigerator section airflow controls 6a. Turn the control knob to a colder position. Check
improperly set or malfunctioning. the airflow heater.
6b. Check the damper for proper operation by removing the
grille. With the cabinet door open, the damper should
open. If the control is inoperative, replace the control.
7. Cold control knob set at too warm a position, 7. Turn the control knob to a colder position.
not allowing the unit to operate often enough.
8. Freezer section grille not properly positioned. 8. Reposition the grille.
9. Freezer fan not running properly. 9. Replace the fan, fan switch , or defective wiring .
10. Defective compressor intake valve. 10. Replace the compressor.
11 . Air duct seal not properly sealed or positioned. 11 . Check and reseal or put the seal in the correct position.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 25-5. Common domestic refrigerator-freezer troubles, their causes, and suggested remedies. This particular chart should
be considered a general guide only. It does not apply to all units. (continued).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 645

A methodical approach is needed to find the cause In another example, a drier in the liquid line is
of poor operation. Always remember, cooling occurs only frosting over. There is liquid refrigerant, but the drier
when the evaporator pressure is low enough and liquid is absorbing heat for some reason. An evaporator
refrigerant is present in the evaporator. For example, if an absorbs heat because the refrigerant is suddenly under
evaporator has the correct low pressure but is warm, it much lower pressure than it was in the liquid line.
indicates there is no liquid in the evaporator. Therefore, something must be causing low pressure

Refrigerator 1. Refrigerator section airflow control knob 1. Turn the control to a warmer position.
section too cold . turned to coldest position.
2. Airflow control remains open . 2. Remove any obstruction.
3. Broken airflow control. 3. Replace the control.
4. Broken airflow heater. 4. Replace the heater.
Freezer section 1. Fan motor not running. 1. Check the fan motor and replace as needed.
and refrigerator 2. Cold control set too warm or broken. 2. Check the control and replace as needed.
section too warm .
3. Finned evaporator blocked with ice. 3. Check the defrost thermostat or timer. A failure in
either of these could cause icing. Replace as needed.
4. Shortage of refrigerant. 4. Check for and repair leaks. Evacuate and recharge
the system . Recover/recycle the refrigerant.
5. Not enough air circulation around the 5. Relocate the cabinet or provide adequate
cabinet. clearance to allow sufficient circulation .
6. Dirty condenser or obstructed condenser ducts. 6. Clean the condenser and the ducts.
7. Poor door seal. 7. Level the cabinet and adjust the door seal. Inspect
and replace the gasket if necessary.
8. Repeated door openings. 8. Instruct user.
Freezer section
too cold

Unit runs all the

time.
1. Cold control knob improperly set.
2. Cold control sensing bulb not properly
clamped to the evaporator.
3. Broken cold control.
1. Inadequate air circulation over the
condensing coil.
1. Turn the knob to a warmer position.
2. Tighten the clamp or reposition the bulb.

3. Check the control and replace if needed.

1. Relocate the cabinet to provide adequate
clearance. Remove any obstructions to proper
I
airflow over the condenser coil.
2. Poor door seal. 2. Check and make necessary adjustments. Inspect
and replace the gasket if necessary.
3. Freezing large quantities of ice cubes 3. Explain to the customer that heavy loading causes
or heavy loading after shopping. long running times.
4. Refrigerant undercharge or overcharge. 4. Check, evacuate, and recharge the system with
the proper charge.
5. Room temperature too warm . 5. Ventilate the room as much as possible.
6. Faulty cold control. 6. Check the control and replace if needed.
7. Defective light switch. 7. Check the light switch and replace as needed.
8. Repeated door openings. 8. Instruct user.
Noisy operation. 1. Loose flooring or the floor is not firm. 1. Tighten the flooring or brace the floor.
2. Tubing contacting the cabinet or other tubing. 2. Reposition tubing as needed.
3. Cabinet not level. 3. Level the cabinet.
4. Drip tray vibrating. 4. Move the tray or place it on a foam pad.
5. Fan is hitting the liner or mechanically 5. Move the fan.
grounding.
6. Compressor is mechanically grounded. 6. Replace the compressor mounts.

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 25-5. Continued.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

646 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Troubleshooting Chart-Domestic Refrigerator-Freezers

Trouble Common Cause Remedy

Unit cycles on 1. Broken relay. 1. Replace the relay.

overload. 2. Weak overload protector. 2. Replace the overload protector.
3. Low voltage. 3. Check the outlet with a voltmeter. The voltage
under load should be 115 V plus or minus 10%.
If voltage is low, check for multiple appliances being
used on the same circuit or the use of an extremely
long or undersized extension cord being used.
4. Faulty compressor. 4. Check for proper operation with test power cord that
is known to be good. Check for proper grounding.
If the power to the unit is adequate and the unit is
properly grounded, replace the compressor.
Stuck compressor. 1. Broken valve. 1. Replace the compressor.
2. Insufficient oil. 2. Add oil. If the unit still will not operate, replace the
compressor.
3. Overheated compressor. 3. If the compressor is faulty for any reason, replace
the compressor.
Frost or ice on a 1. Broken defrost timer. 1. Check the timer with a test light and replace
finned evaporator. if necessary.
2. Defective defrost heater. 2. Replace the heater.
3. Defective thermostat. 3. Replace the thermostat.
Ice in the drip 1. Defective drip catcher heater. 1. Replace the heater.
catcher.
Freezer runs all the 1. Ice buildup on the evaporator. 1. Check door gaskets and replace as needed.
time-temperature 2. Thermostat sensing bulb not in contact 2. Place the sensing bulb in contact with the
normal. with the evaporator surface. evaporator surface.
Freezer runs all the 1. Faulty thermostat. 1. Test the thermostat and replace as needed.
time-temperature
too cold.
Freezer runs all the 1. Ice buildup in the cabinet insulation. 1. Stop the unit and disconnect power. Melt the ice
time-temperature and dry the insulation. Seal any cracks or gaps in
too warm . the outer shell and try again.
Rapid ice buildup 1. Leaky door gasket. 1. Adjust the door hinges. Replace the door gasket if
on the evaporator it is cracked, brittle, or worn .
Door on the freezer 1. Faulty electric gasket heater. 1. Use alternate gasket heater, or install a new one.
compartment 2. Faulty gasket seal. 2. Inspect and check the gasket. If the gasket is
freezes shut worn , cracked , or hardened, replace it.
Freezer works, and 1. Moisture in the refrigerant. 1. Install a drier in the liquid line.
then warms up.
Gradual reduction 1. Wax buildup in the capillary tube. 1. Clean or replace the capillary tube.
in freezing capacity.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 25-5. Continued.

in the drier. A likely cause is a restriction to refriger- Figure 25-6 is a chart listing problems, possible
ant flow. The low pressure in the drier, indicated by causes, and solutions for troubleshooting ice makers.
the frosting, suggests that it may be partially clogged. Whether troubleshooting a refrigerator-freezer or an
Look for such effects and think through what might auxiliary system, like an ice maker, the same basic trou-
cause such effects. bleshooting techniques apply. Examine the symptoms

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 647

Troubleshooting Chart-Domestic Ice Makers

Trouble Common Cause Remedy

Cube produced by 1. Ice mold not correctly mounted. 1. Check that mold is in a level position.
ice maker is too 2. Insufficient water delivery. 2. Check supply water pressure and strainer
small. for restrictions.
3. Faulty water valve switch. 3. Check electrical contacts and operation.
Automatic ice maker 1. No power to ice maker. 1. Check voltage to ice maker.
will not start cycle. 2. Ice level indicator signal arm stuck in 2. Check for obstruction blocking signal arm
up position. movement.
3. Ice maker motor shorted or burned 3. Check voltage to motor and motor operation.
out.
Automatic ice maker 1. Insufficient flow or no flow of water 1. Check main water supply flow. Clean all strainers.
does not fill with to unit.
water. 2. Ice level indicator signal arm stuck 2. Check for obstruction blocking signal arm
in up position. movement.
3. Ice maker motor shorted or burned 3. Check voltage to motor and motor operation.
out.
Automatic ice maker 1. Faulty ice level indicator. 1. Check for obstructions blocking signal arm
does not complete movement. Test continuity of ice level indicator
cycle. switch.
2. Cube heater or thermostat faulty. 2. Check resistance of heater. Jump out thermostat.
Gaadheart-W11/cax Publisher
Figure 25-6. Common problems of domestic ice makers.

8
and eliminate the possible causes using a systematic, Sometimes a small amount of silicone grease can be
logical approach. The following sections describe some applied to the gasket to assist in creating an airtight
common problems found in domestic refrigerators and seal. The grease allows the gasket to flex more easily
their possible causes. and prevents binding as the door closes.
Old or brittle gaskets allow heat to enter a refrig-
erator and cool air to leak out. Signs of gaskets in need
25.2.3 Ice on the Evaporator of replacement include increased system running time
A large buildup of ice on an evaporator acts as and condensation or mold on the gasket. To check for
insulation, preventing heat inside the cabinet from a faulty gasket, a slip of paper is placed between the
being transferred to the refrigerant in the evaporator. door and cabinet, and then the door is closed. The slip
When this occurs, the evaporator may not be able to of paper should be held tightly by the closed door. If
cool the inside of the refrigerator. Ice buildup on the the paper can be pulled out easily, the gasket does not
evaporator is usually caused by a leaky door seal (gas- form a tight enough seal. In some cases, the hardware
ket). In a frost-free or automatic defrost refrigerator, ice (latch and hinges) can be adjusted to obtain a better
buildup indicates that the defrost feature is not operat- seal. In other cases, the gasket may have become inflex-
ing properly. ible or broken and must be replaced.
Replacement gaskets are specific to the refrigera-
Faulty Gasket tor make and model. However, universal repair kits
If the seal on a refrigerator door is not complete, are available. The kit includes a roll of magnetic strip
external air will enter the conditioned space. This and four lengths of gasket material with preformed
external air will add moisture to the system and cause corners. The gasket material can be easily cut to the
abnormal frosting on the evaporator. The frosting could size needed, Figure 25-7.
also be apparent on the walls of the compartment. While removing an old door gasket, place the
If a gasket forms a poor seal in just one location, a replacement gasket in warm water for a few minutes
heat gun can be used to apply moderate heat to that spot to make it pliable. Gaskets are often held in place by
on the gasket. When the bad area of the gasket is suffi- a metal strip (retainer) attached to the door. In these
ciently heated, it becomes pliable and can be reformed. cases, lift the inside edge of the old gasket and slightly

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

648 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Gasket material with and collect on the evaporator. Refer to the unit's wir-
preformed corners Magnetic strip ing diagram to determine whether or not the unit is
equipped with a door heater.

Defrost System Failure

An automatic defrost system should prevent exces-
sive frosting of the evaporator. If an automatic defrost
is not working properly, ice may build up on the evapo-
rator, greatly reducing the evaporator's efficiency.

Manual Defrost
Chest type freezers and nonautomatic defrost
upright freezers require manual defrosting. To manu-
ally defrost a refrigerator or freezer, the unit must be
unplugged. The contents of the refrigerator or freezer
must be stored in a cooler or in a different refrigerator
or freezer until the defrosting is complete. The doors
are propped open so the outside air can thaw the frost.
To accelerate the defrosting process, a large pot
of very hot water can be set inside the cabinet. A hair
dryer or a heat gun can be used to blow hot air on the
frost buildup to speed its removal. Keep the heat gun a
safe distance from the cabinet walls and move it back
and forth to avoid warping or otherwise damaging the
cabinet walls.

Caution
Removing Ice
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc. Never use a sharp object to remove ice from an
Figure 25-7. A universal refrigerator door gasket replacement evaporator. Doing so may puncture the evaporator. The
kit. This kit includes door gasket strips and magnetic material. chance of damaging an evaporator is too great to risk
forcible removal of frost in an attempt to speed up the
defrosting process. While evaporator repair kits are
loosen the screws to remove the old gasket. With the available, the durability of a repaired evaporator is much
old gasket removed, start at one of the door's top cor- less than that of an undamaged evaporator.
ners, and slide the edge of the new gasket behind the
retainer. Lightly tighten the retainer screws. Note the When defrosting is complete, remove any water
position of the door in relationship to the refrigerator that has accumulated. Wash the inside of the cabinet
cabinet. If the door is sagging or too high, loosen the with a solution of baking soda and water and thor-
hinges and realign the door. oughly dry it.

Pro Tip 25.2.4 Moisture and Ice in the Cabinet

Door Liner Replacement Insulation
The interior liner for the door can be replaced on
older style doors that used blanket insulation. Newer The presence of moisture and ice in the cabinet
foamed doors do not have replaceable liners. insulation means there is an air leak in the outside
cabinet shell. The leak allows warm, moist air to enter
Mullion Heater Failure this space. When the warm air strikes the cold inner
Many refrigerators with a separate freezer com- liner, any moisture in the warm air condenses on the
partment door have an electric heater around the door cold surfaces.
opening. This electric heater is also known as a mullion When this occurs in the refrigerator cabinet, the insu-
heater. It keeps ice and condensation from forming. If lation becomes wet. The moisture causes the insulation to
this heater is not working, ice buildup may keep the lose its heat-insulating qualities. When insulation becomes
door from closing properly. Moisture can then enter ineffective, it causes the following two symptoms:

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 649

• The condensing unit runs more often than normal. • Loose articles on the shelves.
• The outside surface of the refrigerator feels colder • Shelves not seated properly on the supports.
than normal. An ultrasonic leak detector can be used to isolate
In a freezer compartment, the condensed mois- many noises. Ultrasonic refers to sound at a frequency
ture will form ice in the insulation. The symptoms will above the human hearing range. Sounds generated by
be the same as in a refrigerator. If this condition contin- leaks or other defects can be located with this tool,
ues, enough ice will soon build up to cause the sides of which helps the technician identify and diagnose
the cabinet to buckle. The leak in the cabinet shell must problems in the system, Figure 25-8.
be located and completely sealed. Noise originating from the compressor unit may
Most freezers provide a small opening through the indicate that it is laboring too hard. To determine this,
inner lining. This connects the insulated area with the test the electrical load with a clamp-on ammeter. An
inside of the freezer cabinet. The temperature inside overloaded compressor unit can sometimes be identi-
the freezer is much lower than the insulation tem- fied by its starting behavior. Three seconds to operate
perature. Therefore, any moisture will tend to escape the relay is an average time. A slower start indicates an
through this small opening. It will then condense on overload.
the evaporator surface.

25.2.5 Ice Maker Problems

An ice maker requires the proper functioning
and timing of all its components. If an ice maker is not
Parabola
functioning properly, check the following:
• Make sure the ice maker has been properly
installed and is properly connected to water and

I
electric power.
• Make sure the freezer compartment is at the
proper temperature. Check the temperature of the
mold to determine if it is above 15°F (-9.5°C). If
the freeze temperature is above 15°F, it is not cold
enough to close the ice maker thermostat.
• Make sure that several ice making cycles have been
completed and the ice maker is in the freezing cycle.
• Make sure the ice maker thermostat is a single-
throw switch wired in series with the mold heater. LED display

• Make sure the ejector blades make two revolutions

per cycle and that ice is not stored on the blades Headphone
after harvest. volume switch

• Make sure the water valve solenoid is wired in Coarse On/off switch
series with the mold heater. sensitivity and fine
switch sensitivity
adjustment
25.2.6 Unusual Noises
Battery power
Audible noises in the refrigerator may be caused indicator
by vibrations. The following are common sources of
unusual noises:
• Loose baffles or ducts.
• Tubing touching something that vibrates.
• Listing (leaning to one side) of the condensing
unit, caused by an uneven floor.
Amprobe
• Fan and motor vibration. Figure 25-8. An ultrasonic leak detector can be used to
• Loose components or panels. locate the source of leaks and other noises.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

650 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Tubing that rattles against refrigerator parts should 25.2.8 System Failure
be carefully bent so it no longer contacts those parts.
Be very careful not to kink the tubing as you bend it. The failure may be that the unit is running as nor-
The tubing may be rigid, but may have a vibration or mal, but is not maintaining the proper temperature
hum (harmonic vibration). This noise can be reduced or the compressor motor is not running or is running
by clamping rubber blocks on the tubing, Figure 25-9. erratically. The following sections provide some sug-
Loose baffles and ducts can be secured with self- gestions for troubleshooting the system based on each
tapping sheet metal screws or sealant. Care should of those conditions:
be taken when working on an evaporator to prevent Compressor Runs, but Cabinet Temperature Is Incorrect
puncturing the tubing. • Check for cabinet leaks.
• Check for evaporator icing.
25.2.7 Unusual Cycling Times • Check for good air circulation over the condenser.
Cycling time on home refrigerators and freez- • Check for dirt or dust buildup on the condenser.
ers cannot be given in definite terms. Cycle times • Check the temperature control systems and
vary depending on several factors. These include the components.
amount of storage space inside the cabinet that is being
• Check the internal operation of the system.
used, the temperature outside the cabinet, and the
compressor condition. Compressor Does Not Run or Runs Erratically
Placing warm food in a cabinet to be frozen will also • Problems may be in the external circuits of
affect the cycling time. In many systems, the compressor the refrigerator. Eliminate external electrical
runs roughly one-third of the time. In other words, it may components as a possible cause first.
run five minutes and be off ten minutes. It may run for ten • Check the motor.
minutes and be off for twenty minutes. This ratio of on
and off time is referred to as the refrigerator's duty cycle.
Any unusual or unexpected changes in cycling time 25.3 Checking External Circuits
should be investigated immediately. They may indicate
that trouble is developing in the system. It is important to locate trouble and determine its
cause accurately. Sometimes expensive compressors
are needlessly replaced because they are believed to be
faulty. The real trouble, however, may be in less expen-
sive and easily repaired external devices. Always
eliminate external components and wiring as a source
of problems before diagnosing and replacing internal
components.
Problems in refrigerator-freezers are frequently
caused by failures in the wiring or auxiliary systems.
Common sources of problems include the following:
• Power-in connections.
• Thermostat.
• Wire terminals.
• Relays.
• Capacitor (if the unit has one).
• Defrost timer.
Each of these devices should be checked carefully
before the compressor or core refrigeration system
components are suspected. These parts can be checked
A B best by removing them from the wiring system. After
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher they are isolated from the rest of the system, the parts
Figure 25-9. Two ways to reduce noise caused by vibrating can be checked independently. As an alternative, each
tubing. A-Wrap tape around the tubing where the tubing part can be temporarily replaced by a test part of the
touches the cabinet. B-Put tape or a rubber block on the proper size or capacity and known to be in good work-
tubing in the center of a vibrating section. ing order. Also make sure the wiring going to each

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 651

component is not cut, damaged, or disconnected. The Troubles such as open circuits and shorts to
refrigerator-freezer can then be checked to see if it ground are easily checked with a multimeter. A test
operates properly. cord can be used to check four-pole motors. However,
two-pole motors should be tested only by using a prop-
Pro Tip erly sized relay in the circuit. These motors overheat if
Inspecting Electrical Connections the starting circuit is connected for more than two or
Electrical connections must be clean and tight. If
three seconds.
loose or dirty, they cause an unintentional resistance When checking and servicing electrical circuits,
that often leads to overheating. Excessive temperatures first check the outlet electrical supply. Compare this
can discolor the connection. The connection may be with the appliance's voltage specifications.
darkened by oxidation. A blue or greenish tint indicates Using a voltmeter, test the open-circuit voltage.
overheating and corrosion. If the surrounding insulation Next, plug in the appliance and check the voltage again
is charred, overheating has occurred. while it is running. The open-circuit voltage is likely
to be slightly higher than with the motor running.
The thermostat should be connected into the hot However, this difference should not be more than 5 V.
(ungrounded) wire of the circuit. This wire brings A small voltage drop between 5-10 V may be due to a
power to the motor from the electrical outlet. The clogged condenser, fan blade imbalance, or an electri-
wire returning power to the outlet is called the com- cal component that is drawing too many amps. If the
mon wire. The common is the grounded wire, not the unit has a voltage drop greater than 10 V, it is usually
green ground wire. To identify these wires within a sign that the compressor windings are shorted, a
a refrigerator-freezer, follow the incoming wiring fan motor is locked up, or an electrical component has
from the electrical plug in the wall outlet. Confirm shorted out.
these wires by consulting a wiring diagram for the Most refrigerators and freezers have a wiring
refrigerator-freezer being serviced. diagram attached to the back. Locate the appropriate
wiring diagram and check each circuit independently. B
Code Alert Figure 25-10 shows the various electrical circuits typi-
Switches on the Hot Wire cally found in a domestic refrigerator.
The National Electrical Code states that switches If a compressor fails to start, follow these steps:
cannot be installed in the grounded conductor. This 1. Find out if electricity is reaching the compressor.
implies that a power switch must break electrical power 2. If it is, check the starting relay and circuit
before it gets to an electrical load, not after the load in protectors. See Chapter 17, Servicing Electric Motors
the common (grounded) wire. In other words, a switch and Controls.
should be wired in series with the hot (ungrounded) wire 3. Disconnect all wiring from the compressor.
going to a motor, not after it. In the case of a refrigerator, 4. Check the compressor with a manual start test
the switch is the thermostat in series with the hot wire cord. Figure 25-11 shows a test cord for a typical
going to the compressor motor. compressor with Start, Run, and Common
terminals. It uses two NO switches for the Run
Safety Note and Start functions. The ground clip, labeled 4,
must be fastened to the compressor dome. The
Preventing Shock fuse is located in the black wire of the manual
It is important to have the thermostat in series start test cord.
between the hot wire and the compressor motor for
safety reasons. This wiring prevents the motor from Safety Note
unintentionally turning on due to an internal short or
fault and also to prevent the compressor from becom- Connector Insulation
ing electrically hot. An electrically hot compressor can All clips or connectors should be plastic-coated or
cause an electrical shock to anyone who accidentally should have a rubber boot over them to protect the tech-
touches the compressor and completes the circuit. nician from shocks, Figure 25-12.

A system of green grounding wires connect to The diagram in Figure 25-11 shows that the start
the equipment grounding conductor. This grounds all switch is controlled by the run switch. This means that
electrical components in a refrigerator or freezer. This the run switch has to be closed for the start switch to
ground is not intended to be a current-carrying wire. It be able to function. Typically, the start switch is closed
is for safety only. It is used to avoid an electric shock if first, and then the run switch is closed. This allows both
a short circuit occurs in the electrical system. start and run windings to be energized simultaneously.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

652 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Defrost
Refrigerator Compartment
timer
Cabinet light Yellow
Brown Yellow Cabinet
light
switch

Green Comp. Relay

motor
Motor mtg. Freezer Compartment Non-ribbed
bracket
\ Green Green
\
•I White
Red

White

~~ White
Coil heater · -~ - ··
Defrost
thermostat
Frigidaire
Figure 25-10. A wiring diagram of a typical domestic, single-door automatic defrost refrigerator with a defrost timer and freezer
fan. Note color coding of wiring to aid in tracing the circuits.

Common Red

Run Black
2

~ Start Blue

Green
3

4
I
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 25-11. A manual start test cord arrangement for hermetic compressors. Clip 1 attaches to the compressor's common
terminal. Clip 2 attaches to the run terminal. Clip 3 attaches to the start terminal. Clip 4 attaches to the ground.

After a second or two, open the start switch to drop the

Safety Note
start winding out of the circuit. If the motor operates
correctly, the problem is in the external circuit. Capacitor Safety
To test a capacitor-start, induction-run (CSIR) After testing is completed, remember to short the
motor, a new start capacitor and an extra jumper cord testing capacitor using a 20,000 n (20 kn), 2 W resistor.
are required, Figure 25-13. Replace the capacitor in the This will eliminate the possibility of electrical shock from
system with a new one of the same voltage and micro- the capacitor.
farad rating. Connect the wiring as shown in the dia-
gram and operate the circuit as described previously. To test a capacitor-start, capacitor-run (CSCR)
Close the start switch and then the run switch. Open motor, several items are needed: a new start capacitor,
the start switch after a second or two. If the motor oper- a new run capacitor, and several sets of jumper cords,
ates correctly, the problem is in the external circuit. Figure 25-14. Use new capacitors of the same rating

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 653

DiversiTech Corporation
Figure 25-12. Use clips with insulated covers for the connectors of a test cord. Keep several jumper cables available for including
capacitors in the circuit when necessary.

Common Red

Start _ _ 4 - -a
I
capacitor
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Figure 25-13. Test cord arrangement for a capacitor-start, induction-run (CSIR) motor. Clip 1 attaches to the common winding
terminal. Clip 2 attaches to the run winding terminal. Clip 3 attaches to one terminal of a start capacitor. A blue jumper cord
should connect the start capacitor's other terminal to the start winding terminal. Clip 4 attaches to the ground.

Common Red

Run Black
2
Start
3

Start - -+ar - - --.i

capacitor
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Figure 25-14. Test cord arrangement for a capacitor-start, capacitor-run (CSCR) hermetic motor. Clip 1 is connected to the
common winding terminal. Clip 2 is connected to the run winding terminal. Clip 3 is attached to the start winding terminal. Clip 4 is
attached to the ground.

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654 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

as the ones on the system being tested. Close the start If the compressor fails to start with the thermostat
switch and then the run switch. Open the start switch bypassed, the problem is elsewhere in the circuit.
after a second or two. If the motor operates correctly, If a thermostat will not start the compressor when
the problem is in the external circuit. Check the electri- the cut-in temperature is reached or if it keeps the system
cal system up to the compressor. If the motor does not running after the cut-out temperature is reached, it should
operate when tested, further motor checks are needed. be replaced. If there is time for a return service call on the
These are explained in Chapter 17, Servicing Electric following day, set up a data logger to record the cabinet
Motors and Controls. temperature over a 24-hour period. The recorded data
will show if the appliance is operating properly.
Pro Tip
Using Test Cords to Check Continuity
The test cords shown in Figure 25-11, Figure 25-13,
25.4 Diagnosing Internal Troubles
and Figure 25-14 can be used for checking continuity Once you have eliminated external problems as
and grounding by using extra jumper cords to include a the cause of failure, it is time to troubleshoot the refrig-
lightbulb in series with the circuit being tested. eration system itself. There are many ways to find the
cause of trouble inside a small hermetic system. This
Ineffective cooling problems can be caused by is done using gauges, thermometers, and electrical
the evaporator fan motor or the condenser fan motor. instruments, combined with careful observation. A
A test cord like the one shown in Figure 25-11 can be properly trained service technician should be able to
used to directly test a fan motor. Clip 1 attaches to the locate the cause of any problem in a system.
fan, clip 2 attaches to the power terminal, and clip 4 The evaporator may be partially frosted. This
attaches to ground. Open the start switch and leave could indicate that not enough refrigerant is flowing
clip 3 disconnected. Fan motors are usually replaced if through the metering device into the evaporator. As
they are found to be faulty. a result, the refrigerant that does enter the evaporator
is completely vaporized after passing only partway
Pro Tip through it. This lowers the system's cooling capacity
Fan Motor Replacement and efficiency. This can be caused by a low refrigerant
Before removing a fan from a motor shaft, put charge or by a partially clogged metering device.
matching marks on the fan hub and the shaft. This A low refrigerant charge results from a leak in the
ensures that the fan is positioned correctly on the new system. Leaks on new refrigeration units can be the
shaft. result of manufacturing defects or broken or cracked
lines from shipping or installation. Older units may
Electrical failure in a mullion heater may cause a develop leaks as a result of vibration of the tubing,
door gasket to freeze to the cabinet. The heater must be which can cause cracks at the tubing joints.
checked for continuity with a test light or an ohmmeter. If liquid refrigerant makes it all the way through
Locate the circuit in the wiring diagram. Disconnect the evaporator and into the suction line before vapor-
both ends of the mullion heater leads. Then, test the izing, frost or sweat may form on the suction line. In
heater for continuity. a capillary tube system, this can be caused by a bro-
If a mullion heater is defective, look for a second ken thermostat or an overcharge of refrigerant. Either
(extra) heater in the insulation. Most cabinets have one. of these conditions results in more refrigerant entering
Test it also, and connect it if it has continuity. If there is the evaporator than there is heat available to vaporize
no extra heating unit, install one of the same wattage it. As a result, some liquid refrigerant enters the suc-
(volt-ampere) rating. tion line. Liquid refrigerant cannot be compressed by
If the problem is a faulty wire, use a stiff steel wire the compressor. If liquid refrigerant enters the com-
to pull new wiring through the foamed-in-place insula- pressor, it can cause severe mechanical damage.
tion. If necessary, drill a hole (up to 1/2") in the back of Internal electrical troubles, involving the motor
the refrigerator to help feed the wires. Seal the hole with and connections, are very rare. Most internal electrical
silicone sealant after the wire or wires are pulled through. problems come from air and moisture getting into the
If the cabinet temperature is not responding properly compressor shell. This causes corrosion in the motor
to the thermostat, the thermostat may be faulty. A set of and eventually a burnout.
alligator clips can be used to jump across the terminals of If liquid refrigerant reaches the compressor, it may
the thermostat, bypassing it. If the compressor starts with remove the oil. The liquid evaporates in the crankcase
the thermostat bypassed, the problem is in the thermostat. and carries the oil with it into the condenser. Valves

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 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 655

may break as the compressor tries to pump oil or liq- A data logger can be used to determine and
uid refrigerant. record the operating temperatures over a period of
A restriction may occur in the capillary tube, time. A gauge manifold can be used to determine
filter-drier, or screen on the high side. This will be indi- the operating pressures. In order to check pressures
cated by continuous running, no refrigeration, and a on a system that is not equipped with service valves,
condenser that is cooler than normal. install piercing valves on the suction line and dis-
The following paragraphs discuss the most com- charge line in order to connect a gauge manifold,
mon reasons refrigeration systems do not operate cor- Figure 25-16.
rectly. The descriptions of the testing and repair of If the unit will run, operate the system after
refrigeration systems will follow. installing the gauge manifold. The system should be
operated through at least three cycles. Carefully record
25.4.1 Analyzing Temperature-Pressure the low-side pressure, high-side pressure, evaporator
temperature, and condenser temperature. It is helpful
Conditions to record a table similar to Figure 25-17. This data can
Before servicing a refrigerator, a technician should be used for future reference.
know the normal values for the following operating
conditions: Service Valves and Adapters on Hermetic
• Temperature in the evaporator during the operating Systems
cycle. Service valves are used for many purposes:
• Pressure in the low side during the operating • To check internal pressures.
cycle. • To recover or add refrigerant.
• Temperature of the condenser during the operating • To add oil.
cycle. • To evacuate the system.
• Pressure in the high side during the operating cycle. • To make it easier to replace driers, compressors, B
The temperature-pressure properties vary depend- evaporators, and refrigerant controls.
ing on the type of refrigerant used. Figure 25-15
lists the average temperature-pressure conditions for • To recharge the system.
the evaporator and condenser of a typical domestic Most refrigerators with hermetic compressors do
refrigerator-freezer. not have built-in service valves. Some have fittings to
which valves can be attached for service operations.
Pro Tip The valves are removed from the fittings when the ser-
vice work has been completed.
Refrigerants Some systems have neither service valves nor fit-
In the past, the most common refrigerant used tings on which to attach valves. On such units, pierc-
in domestic refrigerator-freezers was R-12. Due to the ing valves or process tube adapters must be installed
impact on the environment, R-12 has been replaced, to provide a means of attaching a gauge manifold and
mostly by R-134a.
other service equipment.

Typical Refrigerator Operating Conditions (70°F Ambient)

Start of Cycle Middle of Cycle End of Cycle
Condition
R-12 R-134a R-12 R-134a R-12 R-134a
Evaporator Temperature 15°F 15°F 5°F 5°F 0°F 0°F
Evaporator Pressure 17 psig 14 psig 12 psig 10 psig 9 psig 6 psig
Condenser Temperature 70°F 70°F 100°F 100°F 130°F 130°F
Condenser Pressure 70 psig 71 psig 116 psig 124 psig 180 psig 198 psig

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 25-15. This chart lists the average temperature and pressure conditions in domestic refrigerators that use R-12 and
R-134a refrigerants. These values are applicable for units that have freezer compartments.

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656 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Piercing valve Capillary tube

Evaporator

Filter-drier

Piercing
valve

Discharge line

--- Suction line

Compound
gauge
Condenser

Compressor

D High-pressure vapor D Low-pressure vapor

• High-pressure liquid • Low-pressure liquid
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Figure 25-16. A gauge manifold connected to a hermetic system. Piercing valves are used to access a hermetic system that has
no service valves.

Typical Refrigerator Statistics

70°F Ambient 90°F Ambient 100°F Ambient
Condition
Temperature Temperature Temperature

Cabinet Temperature 38°F 40°F 47°F

% Operating Time 38 62 100
Cycles per Hour 3 2 None
kWh/24 hrs 3.8 6.0 9.9
Temperature Control Position 4 4 4
Evaporator Air Temperature 1.5°F -1 °F 0°F
Suction Pressure (Min-Max) 2" Hg-13 psig 0-13 psig 13-20 psig
Watts (Complete System) 390±20 395±20 395±20

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 25-17. This chart shows operating characteristics of 18 ft3 combination refrigerator-freezer that has 1/3 hp two-pole single-
phase compressor motor.

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 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 657

Systems with Valve Adapters

Valve adapters provide another method of connect-
ing gauges and charging cylinders to a hermetic system.
w Using Valve Adapters
1. Clean the outside of the valve adapter with a
Figure 25-18 shows one part of the adapter fastened to clean cloth.
the compressor dome. The other part of the adapter has a 2. Remove the dust cap from the fitting mounted
removable valve stem, Figure 25-19, that can be attached on the compressor dome.
to the valve adapter, as shown in Figure 25-20. 3. Choose the correct valve stem drive.
The valve stem operates a small needle valve
mounted in the part of the adapter installed on the com- 4. Push the service valve stem forward in the
pressor. The part of the valve adapter containing the valve body of the valve attachment.
stem also has one or more ports for attaching gauges or 5. Engage the valve stem in the valve adapter
service hoses. Synthetic or copper gaskets between the needle.
valve assembly and compressor fitting seal the joints. 6. Thread the valve stem portion of the valve
adapter unit into the adapter body.
7. Attach the flexible service line to the fitting
but leave it loose.
Valve Compressor 8. Before opening the valve adapter needle, tighten
attachment housing the packing unit around the valve stem.
threads 9. Always test the assembly for leaks using
I a refrigerant pressure of 15 psig to 20 psig
(100 kPa to 140 kPa).

I
Brazed or
welded joint

Handwheel

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Figure 25-18. Service valve adapter installed in the dome of
a hermetic compressor. A valve attachment must be fastened
to the adapter before the valve can be opened. If it is not,
refrigerant will escape to atmosphere.

Handwheel
Port

Gasket
Needle
valve
drive Needle
valve
drive

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Compressor housing
Figure 25-19. A service valve attachment like the one shown
is installed on a valve adapter. The handwheel is attached Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
to the valve stem and needle valve drive, which operates the Figure 25-20. This cutaway shows a valve attachment connected
needle valve in the adapter. to a valve adapter on the housing of a hermetic compressor.

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658 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Process Tube and Adapters Another type of pinch-off tool has a screw shaft
Many manufacturers install a small length of with a ball bearing on the end that presses against the
tubing through a compressor's housing so they can tube. The tool is placed over the copper tubing in the
evacuate, test, and charge the appliance's refrigeration same manner as a tubing cutter. The tubing is slowly
system during the assembly process. Such a tube is compressed by turning the pinch-off tool handle clock-
known as a process tube. When the assembly process wise. See Figure 25-23.
is complete, the process tube is sealed up, but left in the As the handle is turned, the ball bearing presses
system so it can be used by a service technician. into the tubing and compresses it against the die on
Access to a hermetic system is possible by first the bottom of the tool. A permanently pinched line is
installing a piercing valve to a process tube, brazing on produced. Care must be taken to avoid over tightening
an extension and fitting, or by installing an adapter on the pinch-off tool. The tool should be left in place until
the tube. Gauges and other service equipment can then the tubing end is sealed by brazing, Figure 25-24.
be attached to the process tube. Review Chapter 10,
Equipment and Instruments for Refrigerant Handling and
Service, for more information about piercing valves.
A process tube adapter allows a technician to use - - Service connection
the process tube without soldering or brazing on an
extension or flaring the tubing. It is installed by cutting
off the sealed end of the process tube, sliding the pro-
cess tube adapter over the process tube, and tightening
it. A gauge hose can then be attached to the fitting at
the end of the adapter. The adapter provides a positive Clamp and seal
seal. See Figure 25-21.
When service is completed, a pinch-off tool is used
to seal off the process tube just behind the adapter, the
adapter is removed, and the end of the process tube is
then brazed shut.
Process tube
Pro Tip Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Installing a Schrader Valve Figure 25-21. Cutaway of a process tube adapter installed on
When the refrigerant has been recovered from a a process tube. As the two flanges are tightened together, the
system, it is always a good practice to install a Schrader seal is compressed, causing it to expand in the center. This
valve fitting in the system if it does not already have one. creates a tight seal between the process tube and the flange.
Installing a permanent fitting will make future service
work safer and easier.

Safety Note
Phosgene Gas
When brazing a pinched-off process tube on a
charged system, make sure that the high-side and low-
side pressures are equalized and that you are working in
a well-ventilated area. If there is a leak from an improper
pinch off, heating leaking refrigerant could create harm-
ful phosgene gas.

Pinch-Off Tool
A pinch-off tool can apply a great deal of pressure Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
to a small area of soft copper tubing (up to 3/8" OD) to Figure 25-22. Two styles of pinch-off tools. A-This type of
seal it off. This tool can be used to isolate parts or sections pinch-off tool resembles and operates like locking pliers. B-
of tubing when an emergency such as a bad leak arises. on this type of pinch-off tool, the wing nuts are loosened. The
Lines should be pinched only when absolutely necessary. tubing is inserted through the rectangular jaws in the center of
There are several different types of pinch-off tools. Two the tool. The wing nuts are then tightened to deform and seal
common types are shown in Figure 25-22. the tubing.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 659

the adjustment procedure varies from model to model.

Tubing Ball bearing Always check the service manual of the equipment
being serviced. Figure 25-25 shows one thermostat
with an altitude adjustment and its altitude adjustment
table.

25.4.2 Identifying Common Problems

The following are common conditions that can
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develop inside a system and negatively affect its per-
Figure 25-23. Ball bearing-type pinch-off tool. formance. Being familiar with these common prob-
lems will help a technician effectively diagnose and
repair a malfunctioning system.
Effect of Altitude on Refrigerator Temperatures The presence of a restriction can be checked by
A refrigeration system with a sensing bulb ther- looking at the high-side and low-side pressures. If a
mostat calibrated for use at sea level may run too restriction is present at the metering device, the high-
cold at elevations above 5000'. This is a result of the side pressure will be very high, and the low-side pres-
decreased atmospheric pressure at higher elevations. sure will be very low. For example, an R-134a system
Changes in altitude affect only pressure-sensitive ele- that normally operates with a suction pressure of
ments. Altitude does not affect bimetal and electronic 5-10 psig and head pressure of 150 psig may have
thermostats. a vacuum on the low side and a head pressure over
As altitude rises, atmospheric pressure drops. 200 psig.
Beyond certain elevations, the reduced atmospheric
pressure lowers the pressure on a pressure control's
diaphragm or bellows enough to affect the settings.
The altitude adjustment and range control pressure
for the bellows or diaphragm should be increased if
the system will be operating at a high elevation. This
adjustment compensates for the lower atmospheric
pressure.
To adjust for altitude, the cut-in and cut-out adjust-
I
ment screws are turned the appropriate number of
degrees. The location of the adjustment screws and

For altitude correction, both "cut-in" and "cut-out''

screws must be adjusted
A
Altitude Counterclockwise
in Feet Turns
2,000 7/60
3,000 13/60
4,000 19/60
Inner tubing Original tubing 5,000 25/60
wall shape 6,000 31/60
7,000 37/60
8,000 43/60
9,000 49/60
10,000 55/60
B This scale may be used as a guide for measuring degrees of
rotation required for altitude correction. The arrows indicate
direction of screw rotation.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Amana Refrigeration, Inc.
Figure 25-24. Pinch-off tool deformations. A-Flat Figure 25-25. Thermostat equipped with an altitude
deformation pinch-off seal. B-Half-circle deformation pinch- adjustment. The table indicates the correct setting for various
off seal. elevations.

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660 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Moisture in the Refrigerant Circuit Shortage of Refrigerant

Moisture in the refrigerant system will cause A shortage of refrigerant is another common
a unit to malfunction. The moisture forms ice in the cause of poor refrigeration. If a shortage of refrigerant
metering device at the point where liquid refrigerant is is found, it is often the result of a leak. Small systems
expanding into the evaporator. Ice closes the opening, have only one or two pounds of refrigerant. Therefore,
blocking flow into the evaporator. This condition can even the smallest leak will soon cause poor refrigera-
be recognized by the following symptoms: tion. A leak with a loss rate as low as one ounce per
• If the system is completely defrosted, the ice that year can be located and must be repaired. The follow-
caused the blockage disappears. The unit will then ing conditions indicate a lack of refrigerant:
work properly again. However, the unit will only • Low-side pressure is below normal.
work until ice again forms at the metering device. • The outlet end of the evaporator is warm.
• Pressure decreases in the suction line. The • High-side pressure is below normal.
compound gauge shows a steady decrease over
several hours (even to a vacuum). Then, pressure
suddenly becomes normal again. This odd cycle 25.4.3 Diagnosing Specific Component
will keep repeating. Problems
• Warm the metering device with a safe resistance Before removing any system component, be cer-
heater (hot pad) or radiant heat bulb during system tain that it is the cause of the problem. After diagnos-
shutdown to melt any ice buildup. If the system ing the system by visual inspection and by analyzing
then begins to work properly, there is definitely system performance, perform pinpoint tests of the sus-
moisture in the refrigerant. pected components before replacing them. The follow-
Moisture in the refrigerant circuit also creates cor- ing are parts that frequently cause trouble:
rosion problems within the system. This occurs when • Compressor.
refrigerants react with water molecules to form acids.
• Filter-drier.
The acids increase the amount of corrosion in the sys-
tem. Excessive moisture in a system indicates that the • Metering device (capillary tube or AEV).
filter-drier is clogged. Refer to Chapter 26, Service and • Hot-gas defrosting valve.
Repair of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers, for informa-
tion about replacing filter-driers. Locating Compressor Faults
There are certain substances that can be placed in The most expensive service item for a domestic
the refrigerant circuit to keep moisture from forming refrigerator is the replacement of the compressor. The
ice. However, a new filter-drier is the best solution. It technician should carefully check for all other electri-
prevents circulation of the moisture through the sys- cal and mechanical failures before determining that
tem. It also reduces the chance of oil breakdown, which the compressor needs replacement. When a compres-
results in sludge and acid. sor is in good condition, the most common reason for
replacement is an electrical fault.
Wax Other electrical problems often mislead a service
Manufacturers have removed as much wax as pos- technician into thinking the compressor is at fault. To
sible from refrigeration oil, but some wax still remains. check a compressor, first disconnect power to the unit
Some oil circulates with the refrigerant. Sudden expan- and then clean the outside of the compressor dome.
sion at the refrigerant control and its low temperature Then, remove the cover over the electrical connections.
and pressure cause some wax to separate from the oil. Disconnect the system wiring from the compressor:
The wax collects in the metering device. In time, it may relay, capacitors, overload cutout, and all wiring. Use
build up sufficiently to restrict flow or completely clog an ohmmeter to check motor windings for continu-
the metering device. ity, shorts, and grounds. Refer to Chapter 17, Servicing
If there is a restriction in the metering device, it should Electric Motors and Controls. If the unit checks out cor-
be determined whether the restriction is caused by wax or rectly, connect a test cord to the compressor. Use the
ice. If the metering device is clogged with ice, it may be correct size of capacitors and fuse. Connect the starting
fixed by installing a new filter-drier, as explained in the circuit as shown in Figure 25-26.
previous section. If the metering device is clogged with If the system starts and operates correctly with
wax, both the metering device and the filter-drier must these manual-start electrical connections, the problem
be replaced. Procedures for replacing metering devices is in the external system. It may be in the wiring, ther-
are presented in Chapter 26, Service and Repair of Domestic mostat, relay, or overload cutout. If the internal electri-
Refrigerators and Freezers. cal motor is faulty, the compressor must be replaced. If

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 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 661

Common Red

R Bl ck

tart Blue

t
Compressor
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 25-26. To test a capacitor-start compressor, remove all electrical leads and then connect a test cord as shown. If the
compressor operates properly when manually started, the problem is external.

the electrical system operates correctly, the compressor If the compressor is operating correctly but not
may not be pumping. building up pressure, check for internal problems
The best check of the compressor is its volt-ampere with the compressor. To check the compressor's
(watt) reading at normal low-side and high-side pres- pumping ability, install a piercing valve on the suc-
sures. If the volt-ampere reading is below the motor's tion line and attach a compound gauge. Pinch the
rating, the pump may be worn out. suction line as shown in Figure 25-27. Next, run the

Evaporator
Capillary tube

Filter-drier
I
Condenser

t
Compressor

Gauge manifold

D High-pressure vapor D Low-pressure vapor

• High-pressure liquid • Low-pressure liquid
D Vacuum
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 25-27. A compressor's capacity can be tested by pinching the suction line and then running the compressor. The
compressor must only be allowed to run for a very brief period of time, otherwise the motor will overheat. The compressor should
pull 25 in. Hg to 28 in. Hg of vacuum within a few seconds. The yellow area indicates the vacuum in the line.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

662 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

unit briefly to determine how much of a vacuum Diagnosing Capillary Tube Problems
it will pull. It should pull between 25 in. Hg and Capillary tubes must be correctly sized. Their inside
28 in. Hg (7 kPa and 17 kPa) of vacuum. Stop the diameters (ID) and lengths must be correct for the capac-
compressor. ity of the system and the desired evaporator temperatures.
If the pressure gradually drops to 20 in. Hg Figure 25-28A shows a capillary system of correct
(34 kPa) of vacuum, then rises toward 10 in. Hg design. The undersized capillary tube in Figure 25-28B
(68 kPa) of vacuum, the compressor is not holding creates too much resistance. It is either too long or it has
vacuum. This indicates the exhaust valves of the an undersized inside diameter. Note that the improp-
compressor are leaking. The compressor must be erly sized capillary tube causes a starved evaporator. A
replaced or overhauled. If the compressor holds a starved evaporator could also be caused by a partially
vacuum, the refrigerant needs to be recovered, and clogged filter-drier or capillary tube.
the part of the suction line that was pinched must The amount of refrigerant in a capillary tube sys-
be replaced. tem is critical. Refer to Figure 25-29. Notice the change

-+-- Evaporator Evaporator

Condenser Condenser

A B
D High-pressure vapor • High-pressure liquid
D Low-pressure vapor • Low-pressure liquid
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 25-28. The effects of properly sized and improperly sized capillary tubes. A-A capillary tube that is properly selected for
capacity prevents excess liquid from backing up into the condenser and keeps the evaporator adequately filled with liquid. B-A
capillary tube that does not have enough capacity results in too much resistance in the tube. Liquid backs up into the condenser
and the evaporator is "starved." The discharge pressure may be abnormally high and the suction pressure may be abnormally
low. Liquid line refrigerant should have high subcooling.

1 - - - - - - - - - -~ - -_- - --- ~- -~-=

- ---- - - - - - - - - - - -----< - - Normal cycle
1--1--- -+-- - - --'--- - -~ - - - -i=--=~-___,- - - --1 - - - - Overcharge
..._a, A
:w
·
B
~ l -1-<A-- -4 -- - - -..;..,,,- - --'--- - - -l-<A-- -~
1
wC c-------------l
- - Undercharge

~ I ~
gJ 1 -i-;::.._ _-4-_ _ _ _-<..,;_ _ _~_ _ _ __JL..,"0---- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
0::: 18 Cut-in
, '.
-, '-o . '. __________I '-o ' ----
',, ___{(_f!./:.-- Cut-out '_ .!~ _ .J1--, Cut-out
Run Idle Run Idle
Time

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 25-29. Pressure-time diagram showing the refrigeration cycles of capillary tube systems charged with different amounts
of refrigerant. A-Proper charge. B-Overcharge. Overcharge will usually cause a frosted or sweating suction line. C-Undercharge.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 663

in head pressure as the charge of refrigerant changes. clogged filter-drier or capillary tube will cause refrig-
If the system is undercharged, as in C, the evaporator erant to back up into the condenser. The compressor
will not receive enough refrigerant. The system may may stop or it may overload during start-up.
run all the time. If the system is overcharged, as in B,
the liquid refrigerant may flow down the suction line
and cause oil-slugging in the compressor. The suction
m
II
Pinpointing a Restriction
Use the following procedure to determine
line will sweat and even frost up all the way to the whether the problem is a result of a clogged filter-
compressor. drier or a clogged capillary tube:
Checking for a Clogged Capillary Tube 1. Recover the refrigerant.
or Filter-Drier 2. Clean the connection between the filter-drier
To check the capillary tube, run the system for a and the capillary tube. Flux it, heat it, and sepa-
few minutes. Stop the unit and listen where the capil- rate the capillary tube from the filter-drier. The
lary tube enters the evaporator. If there is no hissing system can now be checked to find out if either
sound, the capillary tube is clogged. the filter-drier or the capillary tube is clogged.
Heat the evaporator end of the capillary tube with
3. To find which component is at fault, hook up
a rag and warm water. Do not use aflame. If the clogging
a nitrogen cylinder as shown in Figure 25-30.
is from ice, there will be a hissing sound as it melts. A

Evaporator
- Capillary tube
- F
~ ~

e
I
G

-- --
Filter-drier

Piercing valve
D on suction line Condenser

J
--
Piercing valve
on liquid line
C
B
Compressor Gauge
manifold

Regulator

ID Nitrogen I

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Figure 25-30. To check whether the capillary tube or the filter-drier is clogged, disconnect the capillary tube from the filter-drier.
Charge some nitrogen into the system by opening valves A, B, C, D, and E. Then check the flow at F and G.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

664 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

4. Open the nitrogen cylinder valve and set the drops, then there is a leak in the loop. If the pressure
pressure regulator to a limited pressure. Once holds steady, look elsewhere for the refrigerant leak.
set, open the gauge manifold valves and the
piercing valves. If the filter-drier is open, nitro- Electric Resistance Defrost Problems
gen will come out of its open end. If the capillary If a defrost system does not work, ice can build up
tube is open, a small flow (because the tube is on the evaporator and make it ineffective. If ice builds
small) will come out its opening. If either one is up on the evaporator, begin by checking the evaporator
clogged, there will be no flow through it. fan. If it is working, check the defrost system. Inspect
and electrically-test the defrost resistance wire.
Clogged filter-driers must be replaced. Sometimes
clogged capillary tubes can be opened with a high- Hot-Gas Defrost Problems
pressure hydraulic pump. Repair and replacement pro- Problems in hot-gas defrost systems are often
cedures are presented in Chapter 26, Service and Repair related to the hot-gas bypass valve. The hot-gas bypass
of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers. valve is usually operated by a solenoid. This solenoid
can fail with the valve in the open position, which would
Pro Tip cause the defrost system to operate all the time, keeping
the evaporator excessively warm. The solenoid could
Filter-Drier Replacement
also fail with the valve in the closed position, which
The filter-drier should be replaced any time the would cause a complete failure of the defrost system.
refrigerant circuit is opened, regardless of whether the
If the evaporator is overloaded with ice, the sole-
filter-drier is the point of restriction or not.
noid's electric coil may have failed with the valve in
the closed position (open circuit), or the timer may not
Post-Condenser (PC) Loop Problems be operating correctly. Both of these problems can be
Earlier, it was pointed out that some domestic checked electrically.
refrigerator-freezers are equipped with post-condenser If the electrical system is operating correctly, the
(Yoder) loops that heat the cabinet exterior to prevent problem is probably a stuck valve stem in the solenoid.
condensation from forming. These loops carry refriger- Sharply rap the solenoid valve body while the defrost
ant and therefore can be the source of refrigerant leaks. timer switch is closed. If the valve stem comes loose,
One problem with PC loop service is the inability the surge of hot gas can be heard. The line between
to replace the loop if it develops a leak. The most com- the solenoid valve and the evaporator will also become
mon reason for a leak in a PC loop is a screw that has warm to the touch.
been mistakenly driven into the loop. If the loop were If the evaporator and the line between the hot-
improperly placed during the foaming process, it could gas solenoid valve and evaporator are warm, the valve
be in the direct path of a planned screw. To determine is probably stuck open, Figure 25-31. Again, rap the
if the loop is indeed a source of a sealed system leak, valve sharply while the defrost timer circuit is open.
the loop must be isolated from the rest of the system. If the valve closes, low-side pressure will start to
An access valve must be attached, a nitrogen charge decrease immediately. The evaporator will start to cool
pressurized into the loop, and a compound gauge con- and frost. If the solenoid valve still does not operate
nected to monitor pressure. With that part of the sys- after trying these solutions, it must be removed and
tem isolated and pressurized, if the pressure reading replaced.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 665

Solenoid valve
Filter-drier

Condenser

Compressor

D
•
High-pressure vapor
High-pressure liquid

Figure 25-31. Diagram of a hot-gas defrost system with solenoid valve stuck open.
D
•
Low-pressure vapor
Low-pressure liquid

Geodheart-wmw, """"'" I

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Wax buildup can clog a metering device. If
a shortage of refrigerant in the evaporator is
• To check a refrigerator-freezer for proper found to be caused by wax buildup instead of
installation, begin by inspecting the unit for ice, replace the metering device and filter-drier
damage resulting from shipping or improper and also replace the refrigerant oil with a high-
handling. Ensure that the unit is level and has quality low-wax oil.
adequate ventilation for its type of condenser. • Once you have diagnosed a system based
• Ice makers should be attached to a cold-water on visual inspection and analysis of system
supply line and the water supply tubing should performance, perform pinpoint tests to make
be long enough to allow the refrigerator to sure the suspected component is faulty before
be moved for cleaning and servicing without replacing it. Internal system components that
disconnecting or damaging the tubing. typically cause problems are compressors, filter-
• The refrigerator should be on a separate driers, metering devices, hot-gas defrost bypass
electrical circuit and properly grounded. valves, and electric defrost resistance heaters.
• If a refrigerator fails to start, check the supplied
power and then check for electrical problems.
Finally, check for mechanical problems.
Review Questions
• The troubleshooting process should begin with Answer the following questions using the information in
a visual inspection of the system. The next this chapter.
step after performing a visual inspection is 1. Which of the following statements regarding
determining possible causes of the symptoms. shipping bolts is not true?
• Troubleshooting charts are useful tools for A. If the compressor is spring mounted, the
determining possible causes of common shipping bolts are usually removed after
symptoms. Some common symptoms include the unit is installed.
ice on the evaporator, moisture in the cabinet B. If the compressor is mounted on synthetic
insulation, unusual noises, unusual cycling grommets, the shipping bolts must be
times, and failure to cool. tightened after the unit is installed.
• Eliminate possible external causes for symptoms C. The purpose of shipping bolts is to secure
before assuming the problem is in an internal the compressor during shipping.
component. Use proper electrical troubleshooting D. All of the above.
techniques to make sure there are no problems 2. Which of the following statements about
with the power-in connections, thermostats, installing refrigerators is not true?
overload protection, relays, or capacitors. A A refrigerator-freezer should only be placed
• A sweating or frosted suction line indicates that in a room that is large enough to provide
liquid refrigerant is getting into the suction line. sufficient air to cool the condenser.
Excessive frosting on the capillary tube or filter- B. A refrigerator-freezer should be positioned
drier and a warm evaporator indicate that not away from potential heat sources, such as
enough refrigerant is reaching the evaporator. ovens, radiators, and warm air registers.
• Service valves are usually not built into C. A refrigerator-freezer should be positioned
hermetic systems. However, valve adapters or in direct sunlight.
piercing valves can be installed in the system to D. Technicians can use a spirit level, wood
provide a technician with a means to connect shims, and levelers to install a refrigerator
gauges and service equipment to the system. that is level.
• Excessively low low-side pressure can be caused by 3. Why should there be several large loops in
a restriction in the system or a lack of refrigerant. the tubing connecting the water line to a
• Ice formation in the refrigerant circuit can refrigerator's water line fitting?
cause a restriction and is an indication of excess A. To prevent condensation from forming on
moisture in the refrigerant. To correct this the water line.
problem, thaw the ice blockage, recover and B. To ensure an adequate pressure drop in
filter the refrigerant charge, and install a new the water supply.
filter-drier to remove the excess moisture. Pull C. To allow the refrigerator to be moved
a vacuum on the system and recharge it with without disconnecting the water connection.
the proper amount of refrigerant. D. None of the above.

666 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 25 Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 667

4. What is the main reason not to use an extension 11. Wires used for grounding are usually _ _.
cord to connect a refrigerator to an outlet? A. black
A. An extension cord cannot provide an B. green
adequate ground. C. red
B. An extension cord may cause an D. white
unacceptable voltage drop. 12. Which of the following is the best test a
C. An extension cord removes overload technician can perform to see if the thermostat
protection of the circuit. is the cause of a no-start condition?
D. All of the above. A. Bypass the thermostat. If the system does
5. How much air space must be provided not start, the problem is in the thermostat.
around all sides of a refrigerator or freezer B. Bypass the thermostat. If the system starts,
with a hot-wall condenser? the problem is in the thermostat.
A. 2" (51 mm) C. Turn the thermostat to its highest setting.
B. 6' (154 mm) If the system does not start, the problem is
C. 12" (307 mm) in the thermostat.
D. 24" (614 mm) D. Turn the thermostat to its lowest setting.
6. If a refrigerator will not start and the interior If the system does not start, the problem is
light does not come on when the door is in the thermostat.
opened, which of the following is the most 13. Which of the following conditions can result
likely cause of the problem? in frost on the suction line?
A. A problem in the motor control circuits. A. An insufficient refrigerant charge.
B. A mechanical problem in compressor. B. An overcharge of refrigerant.
C. A problem in the electrical supply circuit. C. A partially clogged metering device.
D. Excessive head pressure. D. All of the above.
7. Which of the following conditions can cause 14. A _ _ is a small length of sealed tubing that B
a buildup of frost on an evaporator? extends out through a compressor housing
A. A leaky door gasket. and is used to service the system.
B. A clogged metering device. A. discharge stub
C. A clogged filter-drier. B. process tube
D. A dirty condenser. C. suction tube
8. Which of the following would prevent a newly D. valve adapter
installed ice maker from operating properly? 15. A system has symptoms corresponding
A. The signal arm is in the down position. to a restriction in the metering device, but
B. The temperature of the ice mold does not begins working properly again when heat is
drop below 20°F (-7°C). applied to the metering device. Which of the
C. The thermostat is wired in series with the following is the most likely cause?
mold heater. A. Leaking compressor valves.
D. All of the above. B. Moisture in the system.
9. Which of the following affects a refrigerator C. Shortage of refrigerant.
or freezer cycling time? D. Wax buildup clogging the metering device.
A. Amount of storage space inside the cabinet.
B. Temperature outside the cabinet.
C. Compressor condition.
D. All of the above.
10. If a refrigerator-freezer operates, but the
cabinet is too warm, which of the following is
the most likely cause?
A. The compressor motor is running in
reverse.
B. The evaporator is iced over.
C. A problem with the electrical supply circuit.
D. A problem with the mullion heater.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER26 Service and Repair of
Dotnestic Refrigerators
and Freezers

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Apply the proper techniques to clean a condenser
and compressor in a domestic refrigerator.
• Explain the steps required to prepare a domestic
refrigerator or freezer for internal service.
• Summarize the steps required to return a domestic
refrigerator or freezer to service after a motor
burnout.
Apply the proper procedure to remove and replace a
compressor in a domestic refrigerator or freezer.
Chapter Outline Use the proper procedures to repair leaks in
26.1 External Service Operations condensers and evaporators.
26.1.1 Cleaning the Condenser and Compressor • Apply the proper procedures to clean or replace a
26.1.2 Using Pressurized Air for Cleaning capillary tube.
26.2 Internal Service Operations • Summarize the procedure for selecting, removing,
26.2.1 Replacing a Hermetic Compressor and installing filter-driers.
26.2.2 Installing a Hermetic Compressor • Compare the different methods of charging a small
26.2.3 Repairing Condenser Leaks hermetic refrigeration system.
26.2.4 Repairing Evaporators
• Summarize different methods of calibrating, testing,
26.2.5 Servicing Capillary Tubes
and adjusting thermostatic controls in refrigerator-
26.2.6 Servicing Filter-Driers
freezers.
26.2.7 Evacuating and Charging a Hermetic System
26.2.8 Installing and Servicing Thermostats • Explain considerations to take when removing
26.2.9 Removing System Components from the system components from a cabinet.
Cabinet • Summarize the steps required to properly discard or
26.3 Storing or Discarding a Refrigerator-Freezer store a domestic refrigerator or freezer.
 Chapter 26 Service and Repair of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 669

Technical Terms Introduction

acid test kit epoxy repair kit Before servicing refrigeration units, a technician
breaker strips high head pressure should check all service information and system speci-
burnout solid desiccant fications. System specifications are usually located on
an identification plate mounted on the compressor. This
information will help you determine the type of refrig-
Review of Key Concepts erant, refrigerant charge, compressor hp, compressor
speed, running amperes, voltage, phase, and other data
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
for the unit. Figure 26-1 shows the system specifications
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
of a typical domestic refrigerator-freezer.
• Refrigerant recovery is the removal of refrigerant
The servicing of refrigerators with hermetic systems
from a refrigeration system in whatever condition
can be divided into three areas:
that refrigerant may be. Sequential steps must be
• External servicing.
followed during a recovery process. (Chapter 11)
• Internal servicing.
• Low head pressure, low suction pressure, and a lack
of cooling are all possible indicators that a system • Overhaul.
has a refrigerant leak. Methods for locating leaks
vary with the refrigerant used. However, all methods
require the application of pressure to the system.
(Chapter 11)
• Epoxy resin is a thermosetting polymer that forms a
strong adhesive. It may be used to repair cracks and
leaks in evaporators and joints. (Chapter 11)

I
• Moisture and other substances often enter a
refrigeration system during service work. This
happens after refrigerant has been recovered and
the system is opened to atmosphere. To remove this
unwanted moisture, a technician must evacuate the
system. (Chapter 11)
• The amount of refrigerant that should be charged
into a system is specified by weight. In order to
charge a system by weight, an HVACR technician
must first determine the proper charge for the
system. Often this information can be found on a
label or tag. (Chapter 11)
670 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Service Data Sheet

65°F (18°C) Ambient 90°F (32°C) Ambient

Variable Speed Standard Variable Speed Standard

Operating Time 74%to 84% 32% to 40% 100% 55%to 65%

Freezer Temperature -2°F to 2°F 0°F to 4°F -1°F to 3°F -1°F to 3°F
(-19°C to-17°C) (-18°C to-16°C) (-18°C to -16°C) (-18°C to-16°C)

Refrigerator Temperature 34°F to 39°F 34°F to 39°F 34°F to 39°F 34°F to 39°F
(1°C to 4°C) (1°C to 4°C) (1°C to 4°C) (1°c to 4°C)

Low-Side Pressure (Cut-In) 5 to 12 psig 5 to 12 psig N/A 5 to 12 psig

(43 to 83 kPa) (43 to 83 kPa) (43 to 83 kPa)

Low-Side Pressure (Cut-Out) -2 to 2 psig -2 to 2 psig -2 to 2 psig -2 to 2 psig

(-14 to 14 kPa) (-14 to 14 kPa) (-14 to 14 kPa) (-14 to 14 kPa)

High-Side Pressure 90 to 105 psig 90 to 115 psig 120 to 135 psig 130 to 155 psig
(621 to 724 kPa) (621 to 793 kPa) (827 to 931 kPa) (896 to 1069 kPa)

Wattage (Last 1/3 of Cycle) 60to 85 W 120 to 150 W 65to 80 W 130 to 180 W

Amps (Running) 0.7 to 1.1 A 1.0to1.4A 0.9 to 1.3 A 1.1 to 1.5 A

Base Voltage 115 Vac 115 Vac 115 Vac 115 Vac
(127 Vac max) (127 Vac max) (127 Vac max) (127 Vac max)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 26-1. Chart showing operating data for a side-by-side, automatic defrost refrigerator using R-134a. The data represents
no-load operation, with no door openings and with thermostatic controls set at their midpoint.

26.1 External Service Operations compressor should be completely cleaned about every
three months.
Some of the more common external service opera- The compressor and condenser should be cleaned
tions include replacing cabinet hardware, cleaning the using a small vacuum cleaner. A special vacuum
unit, finding and eliminating noises, and repairing ice cleaner nozzle with a brush attachment is ideal for
makers. The fixes for many of these problems were cleaning the condenser and compressor. The vacuum
covered in Chapter 25, Installation and Troubleshooting of cleaner keeps lint from circulating and settling on the
Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers. floor. It is also quicker and more thorough than hand
In addition, there are many electrical components brushes or cleaning cloths. If a brush or cleaning cloth
and circuits that can be checked and repaired. These is used, place a paper or cloth underneath the unit to
include the power-in circuit, thermostat, interior light catch loosened dirt and lint.
circuit, fan motors and circuit, damper controls, com- Units that use condenser fans should be discon-
pressor motor circuit, and defrost circuit. nected from electrical power before the compressor or
condenser are cleaned. Sometimes it is necessary to
26.1.1 Cleaning the Condenser and remove panels from the cabinet in order to access the
compressor or condenser.
Compressor
A compression refrigeration system is basically
a heat-transfer system. Air must circulate around the
26.1.2 Using Pressurized Air for Cleaning
compressor and through the condenser to carry away In the shop, pressurized air, nitrogen, or carbon
the heat. Dirt and lint buildup on the condenser and dioxide is often used to blow lint and other dirt from
compressor act as insulation, decreasing the amount between the fins or coils. Areas that otherwise would
of heat transferred. Therefore, the condenser and com- be difficult to reach can be cleaned with this method.
pressor must be kept as clean as possible. To make This is also good for components that could be easily
the refrigerator or freezer operate efficiently and to damaged with physical cleaning or during transport,
extend the life of the compressor, the condenser and such as natural convection condensers.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 26 Service and Repair of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 671

Safety Note reduce the chance of dirt and other contami-

Cleaning with Compressed Air or Gas nation entering the system.
Always wear goggles and a dust mask when using 3. Install a service valve and gauge manifold.
compressed air to remove dust and dirt. The goggles 4. Use a recovery/recycling machine to remove
can prevent eye injuries ranging from an annoying and recover the refrigerant. The system must
speck of dust in the eye to a scratched cornea. The dust be purged in accordance with Environmental
mask will keep irritating and damaging materials from Protection Agency (EPA) regulations.
entering your nose, mouth, throat, and lungs.
5. Cut the tubing and remove the part to be
replaced. If the part will not be immediately
26.2 Internal Service Operations replaced, plug the ends of the tubing until
ready to replace the part. Remember to use
Internal service operations include removing any a low-pressure flowing nitrogen purge while
part of the hermetic system, determining whether brazing to prevent harmful oxidation from
there is air in the system, checking for a lack of refriger- forming within the tubing.
ant, and checking for a clogged filter-drier or capillary
tube. These operations require gauges and servicing
devices, including refrigerant recovery machines, vac- 26.2.1 Replacing a Hermetic
uum pumps, and refrigerant cylinders. A sealed sys-
tem should not be opened unless absolutely necessary. Compressor
Before attempting any field service operations Domestic refrigerators use hermetically sealed
that require opening the system, begin by thoroughly rotary or reciprocating compressors in fractional
cleaning all connections, valve fittings, and accessible horsepower sizes ranging from 1/10 hp to 1/3 hp. The
surfaces. Next, install a valve adapter or piercing valve compressor in a domestic refrigerator is located at the
as needed. Attach a gauge manifold and connect the bottom of the cabinet. The lines that connect the com- B
refrigerant recovery equipment. Recover the unit's pressor to the refrigerant piping may be copper or steel.
refrigerant charge using the proper procedure prior to Compressors can have a suction line, discharge
opening the system. line, process tube, and two oil cooler lines. Therefore,
The service operations most commonly per- it may be difficult to determine which lines connect to
formed are locating and repairing a refrigerant leak, which tube when replacing a compressor. Try following
adding oil to the system, evacuating a system, charg- the lines back to see where else they connect into the
ing and recovering refrigerant, cleaning or replacing system. A line running straight to the condenser is most
a capillary tube, replacing a compressor, replacing an likely the discharge line. A manufacturer's diagram will
evaporator or condenser, replacing a filter-drier on the illustrate the correct connections, Figure 26-2.
high side, and installing a filter-drier on the low side.
Usually, you will be required to perform these
tasks in the field. However, they can also be performed
in the shop. Shops have better facilities to do the job.
Study this chapter carefully before performing any
service operation.

Preparing a Domestic Refrigerator or

Freezer for Internal Service
It is sometimes necessary to replace parts
of a system. The internal parts most commonly
in need of replacement are the compressor,
condenser, capillary tube, evaporator,
accumulator, and filter-drier. The system should
be prepared as follows:
1. Unplug the refrigerator or freezer from the
electrical outlet.
2. Carefully clean all surfaces. It is good to clean Maytag Corporation
every component in the system. This will
------------ Figure 26-2. A hermetic compressor in a refrigerator-freezer.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

672 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Preventing Motor Burnout

Removing a Hermetic Compressor
High head pressure, or excessive pressure at
Follow this procedure to remove a hermetic the compressor's outlet, is one of the most common
compressor from a refrigerator-freezer. reasons for motor burnout. The most frequent cause
1. Unplug the refrigerator or freezer from the of high head pressure is a clogged condenser. High
electrical outlet. pressure creates very high temperatures as the vapor
2. Install piercing valves to the suction line and passes the compressor discharge valves. These high
discharge lines if necessary. temperatures increase chemical action, leading to
3. Install a gauge manifold. increased corrosion in the system. If the temperature
at the discharge line to the condenser reaches 350°F
4. Recover the refrigerant charge. (177°C), the oil in the system breaks down and forms
5. Disconnect all electrical connections to the carbon and sludge.
compressor. It is very important that the condenser be large
6. Disconnect the suction and discharge lines enough for the system. It must be clean and the air
using one of following techniques. Wear gog- must flow over it efficiently and effectively. To ensure
gles when performing this step. good airflow, fans, fan motors, ducts, and air-in and
A-Clean both the suction and discharge air-out passages must all be free of dust buildup and
tubing on straight sections near the compres- in good condition.
sor. Use a tube cutter to cut the lines. Plug the If the unit is cycling too much or getting hot,
lines immediately. the head pressure of the unit should be checked. If
the head pressure is found to be excessively high,
B-Clean the tubing or fittings at the com- take all necessary steps to bring this pressure down.
pressor. Put brazing flux on the connection. Blow off the condenser coil with compressed air.
Heat the joint and pull the tubing out of the Use a long bristle brush and a vacuum cleaner to
fittings. Plug the openings immediately. remove any stuck-on dirt from the coil. Be care-
7. If the compressor has oil-cooler lines, they ful not to damage the condenser tubing. Check the
must be pinched, then cut with a tubing cut- air-in and air-out passages. They must be in good
ter. The compressor tubing openings should condition. Recover and recharge the system with
be sealed. the proper amount of refrigerant and oil, and then
8. Remove the compressor. recheck the head pressure to ensure the system is
The unit is now ready to have a replacement operating properly.
compressor installed.
Safety Note
Cleaning the Condenser
Hermetic Compressor Burnout
Wear safety goggles and a dust mask when clean-
When internal problems occur, such as shorted
ing the condenser coil.
windings, locked rotor, or bearing seizure, a compres-
sor seizes up. These failures can result in the melting
or burning of internal components, referred to as a Cleanup after Motor Burnout
burnout. If a compressor suffers an internal failure, the When a motor begins to burn out, it overheats.
burnt electrical wiring mixes with the refrigerant and This overheating causes the refrigerant to break down.
oil to create a highly acidic, tar-like substance. A strong If moisture is present, overheating can cause the for-
pungent refrigerant odor may be present when a pierc- mation of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. The
ing valve is opened slightly. This is a certain indication acid causes the insulation on the motor windings to
of a burnout. deteriorate, which can increase the motor temperature.
The causes of compressor burnout have been Eventually, the motor windings will short-circuit and
widely studied. Moisture, dirt, and air in the system the motor will burn out.
are possible causes. Another cause may be too much If a system's compressor burns out, it must be
current flowing through the compressor motor, as a replaced. The refrigerant controls, including meter-
result of inaccurate or malfunctioning safety devices ing devices and solenoid valves, may also need to be
in the electrical circuit. Additional reasons may be a replaced. Always install a new filter-drier in any sys-
stuck compressor, low voltage, or a lack of refrigerant tem that has suffered a burnout. After replacing the
(poor motor cooling). components, flush the system with nitrogen or use a

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 26 Service and Repair of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 673

refrigerant recovery machine equipped with a flush 26.2.2 Installing a Hermetic Compressor
mode to flush refrigerant through the system. A bad compressor should be replaced with a com-
pressor having the same specifications. The replacement
Safety Note compressor must have the same pumping capacity as
Acidic Oil the compressor being replaced. It must also produce
Do not touch the oil from a burned-out compressor. the same low-side pressure (low-, medium-, or high-
It will cause a severe acid burn! Wear goggles and rub- temperature rated).
ber gloves when working with acidic oil.

It is important to check the oil in a system even if

m
II
Installing a Replacement Compressor
The following is the recommended procedure
it is assumed that the burnout is mild. Any acid in the for installing a replacement compressor.
refrigerant system can destroy components. An acid 1. Recover the refrigerant and disconnect and
test kit, like the one shown in Figure 26-3, is used to remove the bad compressor.
test for acidic oil.
To test the oil, a small sample of the refrigerant 2. Carefully clean about 2" (50 mm) at the ends
oil is taken out of the system and mixed with a prede- of the suction, discharge, and oil lines of the
termined amount of each test chemical. The acidity of system. Be sure to remove all oxidation.
the oil is then measured against a color-coded chart 3. Use emery cloth or 200-grit sandpaper to
included in the kit. If the oil is too acidic, the compres- remove paint and oxidation from the ends
sor should be removed and the system flushed prior to of the suction, discharge, and oil stub tubes
installation of a new compressor. on the replacement compressor. The last 2"
(50 mm) of each of the stub tubes should be
Pro Tip cleaned down to shiny copper tubing.
Cutting Oil Cooler Lines 4. Attach a piercing valve on the discharge line if B
If oil cooler lines must be cut, do not allow the oil to necessary. Braze an extension tube and access
run onto the floor. Trap it in glass containers. port to the process tube on the replacement
compressor. Connect the gauge manifold.
The burnout can be mild or severe. If the burn-
------
out is severe, the oil will be black and acidic with a Caution
pungent, very unpleasant odor. If the burnout was
Isolate the Brazing Area
mild, the oil will be clear but pungent and mildly
acidic. Many acid test kits are available for deter- When brazing, keep the heat away from other
brazed joints. Protect the other joints in the line by drap-
mining the amount of contamination. If oil is clean
ing wet cloths over them or by covering them in spe-
and odor-free, there is no burnout. The trouble is cial heat-absorbing compounds. Position metal sheets
mechanical. around the work area to shield the cabinet, wires, and
plastic parts from the flame.

5. Connect the suction, discharge, and oil

lines to the corresponding stub tubes on the
replacement compressor. Braze the connec-
tions. See Figure 26-4.

Caution
Tubing Size Mismatch
If the compressor stub tubes are smaller in diame-
ter than the suction and discharge lines before they are
swaged, the replacement compressor may be too small.
Ensure that the replacement compressor has the cor-
Courtesy of Spartan Division-Parker Hannifin Corporation rect capacity before proceeding. If you are absolutely
Figure 26-3. Refrigerant oil test kit. The kit is used to test the certain the compressor capacity is sufficient, use reduc-
acidity of refrigerant oil. tion fittings to connect the compressor to the lines.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

674 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

6. If the system is equipped with a filter-drier, Service port and cap Suction stub tube
remove and replace it. If the system is not
equipped with a filter-drier, install a new Extension tube
filter-drier of the proper capacity. If the
refrigeration system is equipped with a
capillary tube, the filter-drier should be
installed at the capillary tube inlet.
7. In some instances, replacement compressors
burn out soon after they are installed. Most
repeat burnouts are due to the system con-
taining moisture or not being clean enough.
For this reason, it is good practice to install a Process
second filter-drier in the suction line between tube
the evaporator and compressor to reduce the
risk of a repeat burnout.
8. Pressurize the system with nitrogen and a
trace amount of refrigerant to (about 25 psig
Discharge Oil cooler
[175 kPa]). Check for leaks. Vent the charge to stub tube stub tubes (2)
atmosphere and prepare to apply a vacuum to
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
the system.
Figure 26-4. If necessary, an expander or swaging tool
9. Using a gauge manifold or a T-fitting in the can be used to increase the diameter of the suction line and
hoses, connect a vacuum gauge between the discharge lines, allowing the stub tubes from the compressor
vacuum pump and the system. Draw as high to telescope into them. Apply a thin coating of flux to the
a vacuum as possible. Turn off vacuum pump outside of the compressor stub tubes before inserting them
and close the vacuum pump's inlet valve into the system lines. Wipe excess flux from the joints and
then braze the connections.
to isolate it from the system. Hold this high
vacuum for at least an hour, watching the vac-
uum gauge. If the vacuum measurement does
not hold constant, there is a leak in the system.
10. Charge the system with a small amount of the 26.2.3 Repairing Condenser Leaks
proper refrigerant. Add just enough refriger- Condenser troubles are usually caused by leaks
ant to bring the pressure to atmospheric pres- or by lint and dirt accumulation on the outside. It
sure or very slightly above. may be possible to repair leaks without bringing the
11. Replace the unit's relays and capacitors and unit into the shop. Most condensers are copper and
reinstall all electrical connections to the com- leaks in them can be plugged using a high-pressure
pressor. Plug the unit in and allow it to run and high-temperature brazing alloy. The technician
for a few seconds to pressurize the system. must install piercing valves, recover refrigerant
12. Charge the system with the correct amount of using the proper equipment, repair the leak, test the
refrigerant and leak check again. repair, evacuate the system, and then recharge the
system. If the leak is not repairable, the condenser
13. Close all gauge manifold valves and operate
must be replaced.
the system through several cycles.
14. Check the system's superheat and adjust the
refrigerant charge if necessary. 26.2.4 Repairing Evaporators
15. Remove the gauge manifold and recovery Evaporators are made of either stainless steel or
unit. Carefully seal all openings into the sys- aluminum. For stainless steel, repairs are made by
tern, depending on the gauge manifold con- brazing the evaporator tubing using an oxyfuel torch
nections used. or by welding the tubing using the gas tungsten arc
16. It is good practice to place a data logger in the welding (GTAW) process. For aluminum evaporators,
refrigerator cabinet. This enables the operation repairs can be made by soldering, brazing, or welding,
to be checked continuously for at least 24 hours. but the use of epoxy is the most common method of
evaporator repair.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 26 Service and Repair of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 675

Pro Tip 7. Allow the epoxy to harden for at least an

Welding Terminology hour.
In the field, the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) 8. Sand the patch to a smooth finish.
process is often referred to as the tungsten inert gas 9. Test for leaks using a soap solution or elec-
(TIG) process. Be aware that both terms describe the tronic leak detector.
same welding process.

If the system still leaks at the repaired joint,

remove the epoxy by filing and/or grinding. Then,
Repairing a Stainless Steel Evaporator install a new patch. Aluminum foil can be used with
The following is the recommended the epoxy to strengthen the joint. It can also improve
procedure for repairing a stainless steel the appearance of the repair. Another method of repair
evaporator: is to heat the tubing and apply a paste mix (or stick) of
1. Locate the leak. special epoxies and resins.
2. Remove the refrigerant using a recovery/ Avoid brazing aluminum tubing, as it overheats
recycling machine. too easily. Too much of the tubing will be annealed
(softened), weakening the tubing walls. Aluminum
3. Clean the metal around the leak by sanding tubing is usually 3003 alloy. However, 5005 and 1100
with emery cloth or sandpaper of 200 grit or alloys are also used. If a brazed repair is unavoid-
higher. able, aluminum solder, containing 92% to 100% zinc,
4. Braze or weld the leak while purging the evap- is used. The melting temperatures are 700°F to 800°F
orator with nitrogen at a very low pressure. (370°C to 430°C). Do not use a flux. Aluminum can also
5. Polish the weld or clean the brazed joint. be welded using the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
6. Test for leaks. process.

8
Repairing an Aluminum Evaporator Epoxy Epoxy Surface
hardener resin cleaner
The following is the recommended
procedure for repairing an aluminum evaporator:
1. Locate the leak.
2. Acquire an epoxy repair kit. An epoxy repair
kit contains all the materials needed to pre-
pare and patch a small hole in an aluminum
evaporator, Figure 26-5.
3. Remove the refrigerant using a recovery/
recycling machine.
4. Clean around the leak. The surface oxide is
hard and must be removed. Sand the area
around the leak, file down any sharp edges,
and then clean the area with epoxy cleaner.
Begin the repair immediately after cleaning
because the oxide surface will reform quickly.
If the leak is a large hole, use a metal plug to
fill most of the opening.
5. Mix the specified ratio of epoxy resin and
hardener. Applicators Sandpaper
6. Apply the epoxy with a mixing spatula. (Be Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
sure there is no positive pressure in the sys- Figure 26-5. This epoxy repair kit includes sandpaper,
tem. The system must be open to atmosphere surface cleaner, resin and hardener.
at some other opening.)

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676 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Caution
Liquid Drying Agents
Never use a liquid drying agent (such as metha-
nol) to stop moisture from freezing at the refrigerant
control. These "antifreeze" substances do not remove
the moisture. They merely keep it in circulation. In many
cases, they can damage the motor insulation. Never
use a liquid drying agent in a unit equipped with a solid
desiccant (drying chemical in solid form). The liquid
drying agent will release any moisture already trapped
in the drier by the solid desiccant.
Ritchie Engineering Ca., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
Figure 26-6. Capillary tube cutter.
26.2.6 Servicing Filter-Driers
A filter-drier should be replaced any time the
26.2.5 Servicing Capillary Tubes refrigeration system is opened. A new filter-drier may
To prepare for replacing a capillary tube in a domes- also be installed to remove moisture from the system.
tic refrigerator or freezer, follow the procedure entitled Filter-driers trap debris and moisture to keep the rest
Preparing a Domestic Refrigerator or Freezer for Internal of the refrigeration system clean and dry inside. A typ-
Service presented earlier in this chapter. However, ical combination filter-drier is shown in Figure 26-7.
instead of cutting the tubing as directed in step 5, heat A solid moisture adsorption material will usu-
the brazed joint at the filter-drier to loosen the bond, and ally do a satisfactory job. Silica gel, alumina gel, and
then pull and twist the capillary tube to separate it from synthetic silicates are excellent at adsorbing moisture.
the filter-drier. Repeat the process at the other end of the Silica gel in bead form also provides good results.
capillary tube to separate it from the evaporator. Clean As noted earlier, liquid drying agents should
the separated joints with emery cloth and a file. never be used in a system equipped with a solid desic-
It is sometimes possible to repair a capillary tube cant, and a solid-desiccant drier should not be put in
by cleaning and flushing it with a hydraulic capil- a system that is already using a liquid drying agent.
lary tube cleaner. However, in most cases, capillary To avoid this danger, all systems should be labeled to
tubes that are suspected of being clogged are simply indicate which type of drying agent is used. The mois-
replaced. The new capillary tube must have the same ture adsorbing capabilities of several solid desiccants
inside diameter (ID) and the same length as the one are shown in Figure 26-8.
removed. These traits determine the pressure drop Figure 26-9 lists the recommended volume of
that occurs through the capillary tube and are critical drying agents according to horsepower of the system's
to the proper operation of the system. compressor. All driers are sealed by the manufacturer.
There are universal replacement capillary tubes The sealing caps should not be removed from the filter-
on the market that can be used if necessary. Calibrated drier until just before installation.
wires of different sizes can be inserted into these capil- Driers adsorb water faster at lower temperatures.
lary tubes to adjust the amount of restriction provided If at all possible, the drier should be installed just
by the tube. ahead of the refrigerant control. If the filter-drier acci-
If wax caused the tube to become clogged, remove dentally becomes heated, the moisture it has adsorbed
the oil from the system. Replace it with fresh, clean, may be driven out. The moisture will recirculate with
wax-free oil. When servicing frozen foods equipment, the refrigerant. Locating the filter-drier just before the
use only the best low-wax oil. refrigerant control has the following advantages:
• It is likely that both the filter-drier and refrigerant
Pro Tip control will become heated at the same time.
Cutting Capillary Tubing This reduces the chance that ice will form in the
Capillary tubing should be cut by filing a notch refrigerant control.
around it and then breaking the tubing using small back- • The filter-drier is kept far away from the heated
and-forth motions. Cutting the tubing with a PVC or cop- tubing of the condenser.
per tubing cutter would change the inside diameter of The body of a filter-drier will have an arrow
the tubing too much. Specially made capillary tube cut-
stamped or cast into it. This arrow indicates the direc-
ters are also available, Figure 26-6.
tion in which the refrigerant should flow. Be sure the

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 Chapter 26 Service and Repair of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 677

filter-drier is installed properly so that the refrigerant

flow matches the direction of the arrow. Filter-driers
may be installed with flared or brazed connections.
Whenever a system is opened, a new filter-drier
must always be installed in the liquid line. Many ser-
vice technicians install two filter-driers on a system
after repairing it. One is placed on the high side just
Absorbent before the refrigerant control. Another is placed on the
material low side, between the evaporator and compressor. Two
filter-driers improve the chance of removing all mois-
ture or contaminants that may have entered the system
during servicing.

Replacing a Filter-Drier
The following are the basic steps in replacing
Inlet filter
a filter-drier:
1. Connect a gauge manifold.
2. Recover the refrigerant.
3. Dry and clean the new filter-drier connections.
Courtesy at Spar/an Division-Parker Hannifin Corporation 4. Disconnect the old filter-drier from the sys-
Figure 26-7. Combination filter-drier. Note the use of an inlet tem. If done using brazing, use low-pressure
filter and adsorbent material. flowing nitrogen through the inside of the
joints.
5. Install the new filter-drier. The new filter- B
Moisture Adsorbing Capabilities drier may be connected by brazing the joints
of Desiccants or by tightening flare connectors. When
Adsorption Capacity brazing, use low-pressure flowing nitrogen
Desiccant
Mesh (Percent Weight through the inside of the joints.
(Drying Chemical)
of Desiccant) 6. Test for leaks.
Silica gel 8-20 16 7. Evacuate the system.
Activated alumina 8-10 12 8. Charge the system.
Synthetic silicates 8-20 16 9. Operate the system while warming the refrig-
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
erant control enough to melt any ice that may
form in it. The filter-drier will adsorb this
Figure 26-8. Moisture adsorbing capabilities of various
desiccants. Some driers use just one of the desiccants listed moisture as it circulates.
and others use mixtures of these chemicals.

26.2.7 Evacuating and Charging a

Filter-Drier Sizes-Domestic Hermetic System
Refrigerator-Freezers
After any internal refrigeration system component
Filter-Drier Size Compressor Size in a domestic refrigerator or freezer has been replaced,
in Cubic Inches in Horsepower
the system must be evacuated and recharged before
2 1/8 being returned to service. A small hermetic system
3 1/6 to 1/4 is evacuated and charged in the same way as other
refrigeration systems. Basic evacuation and charging
6 1/4 to 1/2
techniques were presented in Chapter 11, Working with
9 1/2 to 3/4 Refrigerants.
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher The biggest difference in working with small her-
Figure 26-9. The drier capacities (in cubic inches) metic systems is that the refrigerant and oil charge is
recommended for systems with various horsepower ratings. much smaller than it is in larger systems. Most small

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

678 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

hermetic systems use a capillary tube as a meter-

ing device. This allows system pressures to equalize
quickly during the Off cycle, which makes evacuating
and charging much faster than on larger TXV systems.
Small hermetic capillary tube systems are very
sensitive to refrigerant charge amount, so proper
charging is critical to system operation. Always check
the manufacturer's nameplate for correct amount of
refrigerant charge. Also, be sure to record the amount
of oil removed from a system to ensure that the same
amount of oil is added during recharging.
If testing indicates a lack of refrigerant, there is a
system leak. The leak must be repaired before refriger-
ant is added. The following are signs that a hermetic
system is low on refrigerant:
• A partially frosted evaporator.
• Low head pressure.
• Low suction pressure.
• A visible or audible leak. Refrigerant Digital
• Frequent cycling. cylinder refrigerant scale
Mastercool Inc.
Charging with a Digital Scale
Figure 26-10. Digital charging scale. A precise quantity of
Figure 26-10 shows a digital charging scale. A charge is entered into the scale controller. When the proper
digital charging scale allows a precise amount of charge is reached, the charging solenoid module shuts off the
refrigerant to be charged into a system. After evacuat- flow of refrigerant from the cylinder.
ing the system, hook up a refrigerant cylinder using
quick-connect fittings to prevent or minimize refrig-
erant escaping to the atmosphere. Open the cylinder
valve, gauge manifold valve, and piercing valve to Process Piercing Gauge
begin vapor charging the system, Figure 26-11. Compressor tube valve manifold
When a digital scale indicates the proper charge
has been added, close the cylinder valve, gauge mani-
fold valve, and piercing valve. Pinch off the process
tube between the compressor and piercing valve.
Remove the piercing valve, trim and crimp the pro-
cess tube, and braze the end. See Chapter 11, Working
with Refrigerants, for additional information on the use
of a digital charging scale for system charging and
recovery.

Charging by Observing Frost Back

It is always best to recover the refrigerant from
a system, evacuate the system, and then recharge the
system with the exact amount of refrigerant specified
by the manufacturer. However, in cases where the rec-
ommended refrigerant amount is unknown, it may be Refrigerant cylinder -
necessary to charge the unit by observing frost back on
the evaporator. Digital scale
The refrigerant cylinder and gauge manifold
should be connected as shown in Figure 26-12. Start the
unit. Open the piercing valve, gauge manifold valve, Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
and refrigerant cylinder valve and watch the low-side Figure 26-11. A typical setup for recharging a domestic
pressure gauge. The pressure must stay within a range refrigerator-freezer using a digital refrigerant scale.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 26 Service and Repair of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 679

Suction Process Gauge shorten the life of the compressor. An overcharge will
Discharge
line tube Piercing manifold cause the compressor to pump excessive amounts of
valve oil. This will reduce the compressor's refrigerant-
line
pumping capacity. It will also subject the compressor
valves to severe strain.
Refrigerant oils are available in several viscosities.
Viscosity is a rating of a fluid's ability to flow at differ-
ent temperatures. Be sure to follow the manufacturer's
viscosity recommendations. On a service call, add oil
only if there is a sign of oil leakage.
It is rarely necessary to add oil to a hermetic sys-
tem. However, leaking refrigerant always carries some
oil with it. This lost oil should be replaced. If the her-
metic unit is completely equipped with service valves,
oil may be added using a conventional method. That is,
oil can be siphoned or poured in.
Refrigerant cylinder If the system has had a low-side leak, moisture
and air may have entered. In this case, it is best to
replace the refrigerant oil. Measure the amount of oil
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
removed and replace it with the same amount of clean,
Figure 26-12. Setup for charging a system while observing dry oil. See Chapter 11, Working with Refrigerants. The
frost back.
unit should be charged in much the same way as when
adding refrigerant to the system.
A hand pump can be used to put oil into a system.
of 5 psig to 25 psig (35 kPa to 175 kPa). This pressure is The charging lines must be purged to remove air, mois- B
controlled by adjusting the refrigerant cylinder valve. ture, and dirt. A hand oil pump can build up pressures
Allow the refrigerant charge to enter the system for 3 as high as 300 psig (2100 kPa). Oil can be forced into the
to 5 minutes. system even when the system is under pressure.
After the allotted time elapses, close the gauge
manifold valve. Allow the unit to operate and check
the frost line on the evaporator. If the frost line is inad-
equate, repeat the charging for short intervals, checking Pinch off Piercing Gauge
for frost after each interval. The frost line must not go at this point valve manifold
beyond the accumulator in the suction line. If the frost
line extends beyond the accumulator, recover a small
amount of the refrigerant and then recheck the frost line.
When the proper amount of frost has been
observed, close the refrigerant cylinder valve, valve
adapter or piercing valve, and gauge manifold valve.
After closing all valves, follow these steps:
1. If a piercing valve was installed on the suction line,
leave it mounted for future service operations.
2. Check for leaks using a leak detector.
For a system that uses a separate process tube, fol-
low these steps:
1. Pinch the process tube between the compressor and
the valve with a pinch-off tool. See Figure 26-13.
2. Remove the valve. Crimp the tube end to flatten
it. Remove the pinch-off tool. Braze the end of the
tube closed and then check for leaks.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Adding Oil to the System Figure 26-13. After the piercing valve, refrigerant cylinder
The correct amount of oil in a system is very impor- valve, and gauge manifold valve are closed, the process tube
tant. Lack of oil will increase friction, cause noise, and is pinched off. Note the pinch-off point.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

680 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

The single-service-line technique shown in 26.2.8 Installing and Servicing

Figure 26-14 can also be used to add oil. The correct
amount of oil is put into the service cylinder. A small
Thermostats
amount of refrigerant (the same type used in the system) When installing an electromechanical thermo-
is also put into the cylinder. This creates a pressure. The stat, be careful not to bend the sensing bulb's capil-
cylinder is inverted. Its cylinder valve is connected to the lary tube back and forth. This small copper tube will
valve attachment by clean lines. Be sure the cylinder pres- work-harden and may break. Also, be sure that once
sure is higher than the system pressure. Then, open the the capillary tube is installed, it does not contact any
cylinder valve and valve attachment. The pressure in the part of the evaporator. If the tubing rubs against any
cylinder will force oil into the refrigeration system. part, it may wear through or work-harden at that spot

Evaporator

Accumulator

Capillary
tube

Filter-drier

Suction line

Refrigerant
cylinder
Condenser
Refrigerant
vapor

Compressor

Valve
Cylinder attachment
valve
D High-pressure vapor • High-pressure liquid
D Low-pressure vapor • Low-pressure liquid
• oi1
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 26-14. Single-service-line technique for adding oil to a small hermetic system. First, place the correct amount of oil in
a service cylinder, along with small amount of refrigerant to create pressure. Then turn the service cylinder upside down. Its
pressure must be higher than low-side pressure, so that oil will enter the system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 26 Service and Repair of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 681

and crack. If any of the capillary tube is coiled, tape

the coil to prevent vibration.

Calibrating a Thermostat
A mixture of crushed ice and water can be used
to calibrate a refrigerator's thermostat. With these
materials, it is easy to determine the operation of the
thermostat at 32°F (0°C), the temperature of melting
ice. To check the operation of a thermostat, use a
temperature data logger or temperature-recording
thermometer like the one shown in Figure 26-15.
Chart the temperature and time for the unit over a
24-hour period to determine how much it is cycling
and at what temperatures it is cutting in and cut-
ting out.

[ti Testing a Thermostat

II The following test uses solutions at specific
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
Figure 26-15. To check the operation of a freezer thermostat
temperatures to test the operation of the with a data logger, place the device inside the freezer cabinet
thermostat: and record the temperature over a 24-hour period. Then
1. Connect an ohmmeter or continuity tester connect it to a mobile device to download the recorded values.
across the control contact terminals of the
thermostat. Check the manufacturer's wiring
Freezer cabinet temperatures are usually in the
diagram to ensure correct connections.
0°F to -20°F (-18°C to -29°C) range. Ice and water mix- B
2. Check the temperature of the ice and water tures maintain a temperature of 32°F (0°C) and, there-
solution with a thermometer to ensure that it fore, cannot be used in setting these thermostats. Dry
has stabilized at 32°F (0°C). ice must be used to test a thermostat below freezing.
3. Place the thermostat control bulb in the ice
and water mixture. Adjusting Thermostat Controls
4. With the control bulb in the ice and water The four variables that affect thermostat operation
mixture, set the thermostat control to 32°F are cut-in temperature, cut-out temperature, tempera-
(0°C). The thermostat's contact points should ture range, and temperature differential. Cut-in tem-
open, in which case the ohmmeter will read perature is the temperature at which the refrigeration
either Q or OL (infinite resistance).
00
system is activated. Cut-out temperature is the tem-
perature at which the refrigeration system deactivates.
5. After a few minutes, lift the control bulb from The temperature range refers to the group of tempera-
the mixture. As the control bulb warms, the tures that fall between the cut-in and cut-out tempera-
points should again close, in which case the ture. The temperature differential refers to the size of
ohmmeter will read O Q. the temperature range.
6. To check further, place the control bulb in a For example, if a refrigerator turns on when the
container of water that is at 45°F (7°C). Set evaporator temperature rises to 45°F (7°C), the thermo-
the thermostat control to 45°F. At this setting, stat has a cut-in temperature of 45°F (7°C). If the same
the points should be open, reading 00Q or refrigerator turns off when the evaporator temperature
OL (infinite resistance) on an ohmmeter. The reaches 32°F (0°C), it has a cut-out temperature of 32°F
contact should begin to open at temperatures (0°C). The range of the refrigerator is 32°F to 45°F (0°C
below 45.5°F or 46°F. to 7°C), and the differential is 13°F (7°C).
7. Lift the control bulb out of the water and let As you can see, a change to either the cut-in tem-
it warm up for a few minutes. The points perature or cut-out temperature will also affect the
should close, reading O Q on an ohmmeter. If range and differential. Manufacturers use different
the points do not open and close properly, the types of controls to adjust these four variables, so you
thermostat should be replaced. must always refer to the manufacturer's instructions
before adjusting the thermostat settings.

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682 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Some thermostats have simple cut-in and cut- connections are either disconnected or cut. Any cut
out temperature adjusting screws. The cut-in and electrical connections will need to be spliced when the
cut-out temperatures are set independently. This condensing unit is hooked back up to the system.
determines the range and differential. Then, to It is important to protect the refrigeration system
change the range without changing the differential, while it is being moved. If shipped disassembled, cra-
the cut-in adjusting screw and the cut-out adjust- dles or crates should be used to hold the components.
ing screw must be turned the same number of times Wooden frames and C-clamps will hold the parts
and in the same direction. down. This will help keep them from being damaged
Other thermostats have one adjusting screw in transit.
that adjusts just the cut-out temperature and another If an entire refrigerator-freezer is being trans-
adjusting screw that adjusts both the cut-in and cut- ported in a truck back to a shop for service, it should be
out temperature settings at the same time. On these wrapped in a padded blanket for protection. Once the
thermostats, the desired temperature differential can unit is in the shop, the procedure for removing the sys-
be set by turning the cut-out adjusting screw, and tem components from the cabinet varies. Some evapo-
then the desired temperature range can be set without rators are removed from the rear of the cabinet. Others
changing the differential by simply turning the cut-in are removed from the front (by way of the cabinet
adjusting screw. On this type of thermostat, the cut- door). Refrigerator-freezers that have the evaporator
out adjustment is referred to as a cut-out differential removed from the rear are not difficult to dismantle.
adjustment, and the cut-in adjustment is referred to as Skill and patience are required to remove an evapora-
a cut-in range adjustment. tor from the front of the cabinet.
A variation of this design has an adjusting screw The compressor and condenser are sometimes
that sets the cut-in independently and a second adjust- fastened to the rear of the cabinet by several mount-
ing screw that adjusts both the cut-out and cut-in tem- ing screws and bolts. Care should be taken not to dam-
perature settings simultaneously. On this design, the age the compressor or condenser as these fasteners
cut-in adjustment is referred to as a cut-in differential are removed. Care should also be taken not to kink or
adjustment and the cut-out adjustment is referred to as buckle the refrigerant lines as they are removed from
a cut-out range adjustment. the compressor and condenser.
Still other thermostats have a single adjustment Refrigerant lines are mounted in the back of the
screw that is referred to as a dual differential adjust- refrigerator cabinet. They may also be hidden behind
ment. Turning the screw one direction will bring both the breaker strip at the refrigerator doorjamb (frame).
the cut-in and cut-out settings closer together. Turning Breaker strips are plastic strips that connect the cabi-
the screw the other direction will move both the cut-in net's outer shell to the liner. These breaker strips must
and cut-out settings farther apart. be removed in order to remove the lines. Do this care-
The adjustment provided for the owner is usu- fully, since the strips are brittle. If the strips are allowed
ally a limited range adjustment screw. However, some to come up to room temperature, they will be more
models allow the owner to adjust only the cut-out set- flexible. There are several methods used to fasten the
ting. This design ensures a safe cut-in temperature at breaker strips to the cabinet shell and the liner. Always
all times. follow the manufacturer's instructions for dismantling
Contact points may chatter as they open or close. the system.
Operate the thermostat to check for this condition. It is important to avoid pinching or buckling the
A likely cause of chatter is pitting or burning of con- refrigerant lines. Support the lines when handling
tact points. If there are any visible indications of this, them to prevent wear or breakage. Many liquid lines
replace the entire thermostat. are soldered or brazed to fittings.

26.2.9 Removing System Components

from the Cabinet 26.3 Storing or Discarding a
Sometimes, mechanical or electrical trouble can-
Refrigerator-Freezer
not be fixed easily during a service call. System com- When a refrigerator-freezer is going to be out of
ponents may need to be removed from the cabinet and service for an extended period of time, certain precau-
sent to a shop for repair. When a complete overhaul of tions should be taken to prevent rusting and to remove
a hermetic system is necessary, it is usually done in a odor. Begin by unplugging the unit's electrical power.
specialty repair shop. The condensing unit is discon- Next, allow several hours for the unit to completely
nected from the refrigeration system and all electrical defrost.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 26 Service and Repair of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 683

If the unit is being discarded, its doors must be Code Alert

removed. It is also necessary to reclaim the refriger-
ant inside the system, following all certification pro- Preparing to Discard Refrigerator-Freezers
cedures. After the refrigerant has been reclaimed, Federal law states that the door must be removed
the unit should be labeled to indicate that the refrig- from an out-of-service refrigerator or freezer. This law
erant has been removed by a certified technician. resulted because children were accidentally suffocated
while hiding or playing in an unused or carelessly dis-
Chapter 11, Working with Refrigerants, describes recov-
carded unit. When taking a refrigerator or freezer out of
ery of refrigerant. service, always remove the cabinet door.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
the entire refrigerator-freezer is sent to a shop
Summary for service. Care must be taken not to damage
• The condenser and compressor of a domestic any of the components during removal and
refrigerator must be kept clean in order for the transport.
unit to function properly. The condenser and • To prepare a refrigerator or freezer for storage
compressor should be cleaned regularly using a or disposal, the unit must be completely
brush, a small vacuum cleaner, or compressed defrosted and dried out. The cabinet door must
air. Refrigerators or freezers that have be removed to prevent children or animals
condenser fans should be unplugged before the from becoming accidentally trapped inside. The
condenser and compressor are cleaned. refrigerant inside the unit must be recovered in
• The most common internal service procedures accordance with EPA regulations.
on a domestic refrigerator or freezer are
replacement of a compressor, leak repair,
replacement of a condenser or evaporator, Review Questions
replacement of a filter-drier, and replacement
of a capillary tube. To prepare for any of these Answer the following questions using the information in
procedures, the tubing and joints around the this chapter.
component being serviced must be cleaned. 1. A condenser and compressor should be
Refrigerant must be recovered from the unit completely cleaned _ _.
in accordance with EPA regulations, and the A. daily
unit must be unplugged. The component can B. every three months
then be removed and replaced using the proper C. once a year
techniques. D. every four years
• If a compressor needs to be replaced because 2. Which of the following can be used to clean a
of burnout, the cause of the original burnout condenser coil?
must be identified and corrected before the A. A vacuum cleaner with a brush
system can be put back into service. Burnouts attachment.
are usually caused by excessively high head B. A hand brush and cleaning cloth.
pressure. High head pressure can result from a C. Compressed air.
restriction in the system or by dust buildup on D. All of the above.
the condenser. After a burnout, all refrigerant
controls should be thoroughly cleaned or 3. Before a valve adapter or piercing valve is
installed, _ _.
replaced. The system should be flushed, and
A. evacuate the system
the refrigerant oil should be replaced if it is
found to be acidic. B. flush the system with the appropriate
solvent
• After any internal component is replaced, the C. thoroughly clean all connections, valve
refrigeration system must be evacuated and fittings, and accessible surfaces
recharged. A digital charging scale is used to D. All of the above.
charge the system with a specific amount of
refrigerant. If the exact amount of the proper 4. In a compressor burnout, _ _ mixes with
charge cannot be determined, the system can refrigerant and oil to form a pungent, acidic,
be vapor charged until the proper amount of tar-like substance.
evaporator frosting appears. A. atmospheric pollutants
B. burnt electrical wiring
• Thermostat operation can be tested using a C. scorched desiccant
mixture of ice and water. Modern thermostats D. All of the above.
usually have two adjusting screws; however,
these two screws have four possible functions: 5. If the refrigerant oil is found to be clear and
cut-in, cut-out, dual differential, and range. odorless, the compressor _ _.
Refer to manufacturer literature before A. burnout was mild
attempting any adjustments. B. burnout was severe
C. did not burn out
• Occasionally a problem is encountered that
D. was not exposed to moisture during the
cannot be repaired in the field. In such cases,
burnout

684 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 26 Service and Repair of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 685

6. A filter-drier on the high side of a capillary 12. Refrigerant oil should be removed and
tube system should be installed at the _ _. replaced _ _.
A. capillary tube inlet A. any time the system is accessed
B. capillary tube outlet B. in the event of a low-side leak
C. condenser inlet C. once a year
D. condenser outlet D. All of the above.
Z Which of the following is most likely to help 13. Which of the following statements regarding
prevent a repeat compressor burnout? a thermostat's temperature differential
A. Add a second accumulator just before the setting is true?
compressor inlet. A. If the thermostat has just cut-in and cut-
B. Add a second filter-drier on the high side out adjustment screws, the differential can
of the system. be changed by turning a single screw.
C. Add a second filter-drier on the low side B. The temperature differential is
of the system. determined by the cut-in and cut-out
D. Adjust the thermostat to increase the temperatures.
differential. C. On a thermostat with a dual differential
8. Using _ _ to plug a leak is the most adjustment, turning the adjustment screw
common method of repairing an aluminum one direction increases the differential
evaporator. and turning the screw the other direction
A. epoxy decreases the differential.
B. gas tungsten arc welding D. All of the above.
C. high-strength aluminum foil tape 14. When removing a refrigeration system from
D. oxyacetylene brazing its cabinet, breaker strips must be removed in
9. The best method of cutting capillary tubing is order to remove the

I
by _ _. A. compressor's electrical controls
A. burning through with an oxyacetylene B. defrost controls
torch C. refrigerant lines
B. making a notch around the tubing with a D. thermostat
file and bending the tubing back and forth 15. On any refrigerator-freezer that is to be
until it breaks discarded, which two things must be
C. using a copper tubing cutter properly removed and handled?
D. using a hacksaw A. Accumulator and filter-drier.
10. Which of the following can be an indication B. Cabinet door and refrigerant.
that a system is low on refrigerant? C. Compressor and breaker strips.
A. A frosted suction line. D. Evaporator and condenser.
B. High head pressure.
C. Low suction pressure.
D. All of the above.
11. The preferred method of charging a small
domestic refrigeration system involves
evacuating the system and then _ _.
A. pouring liquid refrigerant into the
low side until the bottom half of the
compressor crankcase is frosted
B. using a digital scale to vapor charge a
precise amount of refrigerant
C. vapor charging the system while watching
the frost back
D. vapor charging according to the
subcooling

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER27 Air Move111ent and
Measure111ent

Chapter Outline Learning Objectives

27.1 Climate Information in this chapter will enable you to:
27.1.1 Equivalent Temperature ::I • Understand the concepts of climate and weather.
27.1.2 Definition of Air Conditioning
27.2 Atmosphere and Air
§= • Summarize the purpose of air-conditioning systems.
27.2.1 Physical Properties of Air §: • Identify the layers of the atmosphere and the primary
27.2.2 Humidity components of air.
27.2.3 Air Temperature ii • Understand the relationships between humidity,
27.2.4 Psychrometric Properties of Air relative humidity, and dew point.
27.3 Comfort Conditions • Use a hygrometer to measure moisture in the air.
27.3.1 Effective Temperature
• Differentiate between wet-bulb and dry-bulb
27.3.2 Temperature-Related Illnesses
tern peratu res.
27.3.3 Comfort-Health Index (CHI)
27.4 Air Movement • Explain the principles of psychrometry and the use of
27.4.1 Wind psychrometric charts.
27.4.2 Air Velocity Measurement • Summarize the range of air conditions that fall within
27.4.3 Ventilation the human comfort range.
27.4.4 Stratification
• Understand how air movement affects human comfort.
27.5 Factors Affecting Indoor Air Conditions
27.5.1 Sun Heat Loads • Use anemometers, pitot tubes, and manometers to
27.5.2 Heat Sinks measure air velocity.
27.5.3 Vapor Barriers • Identify external factors that affect indoor air
27.5.4 Heat Insulation conditions.
 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 687

Technical Terms • Charles' law states that at a constant pressure,

the volume of a gas varies in direct proportion
air pitot tube to temperature. With pressure held constant, the
air conditioning (a/c) psychrometric chart volume of a gas will increase as the gas heats up or
climate psychrometry will decrease as the gas cools down. (Chapter 5)
Comfort-Health Index relative humidity • Radiation is the transfer of heat by heat rays. The
cooling degree day sensible heat ratio (SHR) earth receives heat from the sun by radiation. Light
degree days stratification rays from the sun turn into heat when they strike
dew point stratosphere materials. (Chapter 4)
dry-bulb temperature swinging-vane
effective temperature anemometer
equivalent temperature thermosphere Introduction
exosphere troposphere
heat sink vane anemometer Temperature, humidity, air movement, and air clean-
heating degree day ventilation liness are all conditions that affect how comfortable an
hot-wire anemometer weather environment is. A specific range of values for each of
humidity wet-bulb temperature these conditions provides the most comfort. However, if
hygrometer windchill index one of these conditions falls outside of the comfort range,
mesosphere the other conditions can often be adjusted to compensate.
For instance, high relative humidity tends to be uncom-
fortable. However, a relatively low temperature and rapid
Review of Key Concepts air movement may counteract it. In many homes during
the wintertime, an increased room temperature and little
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
air movement compensate for low relative humidity. This
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter: chapter addresses the temperature and humidity condi-
• Enthalpy is the total amount of heat in a substance, tions that an HVAC system must maintain in order to pro-
calculated from an accepted reference temperature.
vide for human comfort.
Specific enthalpy is enthalpy per unit of mass. As the seasons change, accommodations must
(Chapter 4)
be made to ensure comfort. Winter heating conditions
• Heat that brings about a change of state with no require automatic control of the heating source to main- g
change in temperature is called latent heat. Heat that tain desired room temperatures. The lower the humidity,
causes a change in the temperature of a substance is the higher the temperature required. Humidity control
called sensible heat. (Chapter 4) for winter conditions may require the addition of mois-
• A manometer is a type of pressure gauge that measures ture by a humidifier. In the summertime, air-conditioning
values around atmospheric pressure. When measuring systems are used to maintain the desired room tempera-
differential pressure with a manometer, air velocity can ture. As warm, moist air is blown over the evaporator
be determined. (Chapter 7) coil, the air is cooled and dehumidified.
• A manometer with a pitot tube is used for measuring
air velocity in ductwork. The common procedure
is to connect a pitot tube to a manometer and
insert the pitot tube into the duct. This will give the
technician both the total pressure and static pressure
reading on the manometer. (Chapter 7)
688 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

27.1 Climate the equivalent temperatures for given combinations of

temperature and relative humidity.
Weather refers to conditions in the atmosphere. If the ambient air temperature is cooler than
These include temperature, wind velocity and direc- 98.6°F (36°C), air movement cools the human body. If
tion, clouds, moisture, and atmospheric pressure. the heating system provides over 15 to 20 feet per min-
Weather affects the need for and requirements of ute (fpm) of air movement, a temperature increase may
air conditioning. The term climate, when applied to be necessary to help maintain a comfortable indoor
outdoor conditions, describes the long-term weather environment.
trends for a region. When the term climate is used in
reference to indoor environments, it refers to the condi-
tions that are normally maintained in the conditioned 27.1.2 Definition of Air Conditioning
space. Outdoor climates, of course, cannot be affected The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
by air conditioning (heating, cooling, and humidity and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) define air
control). However, in an enclosed space, the factors conditioning (ale) as "the process of treating air so as
that determine comfort can be completely controlled. to control simultaneously its temperature, humidity,
Many homes and workplaces use air conditioning, fur- cleanliness, and distribution to meet the requirements
naces, and humidity control to maintain a comfortable of the conditioned space."
environment. In order to meet these demands, various parts of
an air-conditioning system must work together. The
27.1.1 Equivalent Temperature systems are usually equipped with automatic controls
in order to maintain the desired temperature inside a
An equivalent temperature represents how warm room under changing outdoor conditions. The system
the combination of humidity and temperature feels to controls humidity by passing air over the cold evapo-
the occupant of a space. The chart in Figure 27-1 shows rator surfaces, which causes excess humidity to con-
dense out of the conditioned air. When humidity is
high, increased air movement is beneficial. By contrast,
in the winter heating season when the air is typically
Equivalent Temperatures {°F) dry, a humidifier can be used to add moisture to the
air.
102 99 97 95 92 89 86 84 82 80 In general, air filtering is accomplished the same
100 way in summer and in winter. Air filtering equip-
96 95 92 89 87 85 83 81 79 77
ment usually consists of very fine, porous substances
92 89 87 85 83 82 80 78 76 75 through which air is drawn to remove dust and other
90
87 85 83 81 80 78 77 75 74 72 particles. Activated carbon filters and electrostatic pre-
cipitators can be added to the usual filtering mecha-
E 80 82 80 79 78 76 75 73 72 71 69 nisms to improve air cleaning. Air pollutants and
f:::, 76 76 74 73 72 71 70 69 68.., 67 methods for removing them from the air will be cov-
'!ii ered in more detail in Chapter 28, Air Quality.
i 72 71 70 69 68 68 67 67 66 64' Many industries air-condition their plants for two
E 70 ~
G) 68 67 66 66 65 65 64 64 63 63 Co mfort reasons: to provide comfort for their workers and to
I-
zo ne achieve more complete control of manufacturing pro-
62 62 62 62 61 61 61 61 60 60
60 cesses and materials. Better control of temperatures
58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 and relative humidity during a manufacturing process
improves the quality of the finished product.
53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 53
50
47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47
27.2 Atmosphere and Air
90% 70% 50% 30% 10%
Relative Humidity Air is an invisible, odorless, and tasteless mixture
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher of gases. The air surrounding the earth is called the
Figure 27-1. Chart listing the equivalent temperatures atmosphere. It extends above the earth about 6,200 miles
for various combinations of temperature and humidity. and is divided into several layers. See Figure 27-2.
Comfortable combinations of temperature and humidity are The layer closest to the earth, the troposphere,
highlighted. Note that with high relative humidity, the comfort extends from sea level to 56,000' (10.6 mi) at the equator.
zone has lower temperatures.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 689

nitrogen is also a special purpose expendable

refrigerant.
Exosphere • Oxygen. The atmosphere is approximately 23%
oxygen by weight. Oxygen readily combines with
many substances. When fuels such as wood, coal,
or oil are burned, their carbon and hydrogen
combine with the oxygen in the atmosphere,
forming carbon dioxide and water, respectively.
The oxygen in the atmosphere is replenished by
Mesosphere plants, which absorb carbon dioxide and release
oxygen.
32 miles • Argon. Argon is a noble gas that composes
Stratosphere approximately 0.93% of the atmosphere by
volume. It is the most common and most widely
Troposphere 10.3 miles used of the noble gases. Noble gases, also called
inert gases, are very stable gases with extremely
low reactivity.
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher • Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide makes up 0.03%
Figure 27-2. The earth's atmosphere comprises several to 0.04% of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a
layers. The exosphere extends into outer space. combination of carbon and oxygen. Absorbed by
growing plants, it becomes one of the building
blocks in the development of plant cells.
This layer contains 75% of the earth's air. The layer
extending from 56,000' (10.6 mi) up to 170,000' (32 mi) • Hydrogen. Hydrogen (H2), a very light gas, does
is called the stratosphere. The stratosphere contains not show in weight percentage. Hydrogen is
the ozone layer. present in most fuels. When burned, it combines
The mesosphere extends from 170,000' (32 mi) with oxygen to form water (Hp) in steam and
to 280,000' (53 mi). The thermosphere extends from vapor form.
280,000' (53 mi) to 2,100,000' (400 mi). This layer con- • Sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide is the most common g
tains the ionosphere, a layer of charged particles, and gaseous contaminant. It is formed by combustion
is marked by temperatures that increase with altitude, of fuels that contain sulfur. Many large power
reaching 2730°F (1500°C). plants now have facilities for removing sulfur
The exosphere is the outermost layer of earth's from these fuel sources and sulfur dioxide from
atmosphere. It extends outward from the edge of the the stack gases.
thermosphere to a distance of 6,200 miles, as it gradu-
ally blends with space. Most satellites orbit in this layer
of the atmosphere.
Air as we know it in our atmosphere is a mixture Components of Dry Air at Sea Level
of oxygen, nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, Chemical Amount by Amount by
Name
sulfur dioxide, and water vapor (moisture). It also con- Symbol Weight(%) Volume(%)
tains a very small percentage of rare gases. The exact Nitrogen 75.47 78.03
N2
composition of air changes with altitude and other fac-
tors. Figure 27-3 lists the average percentages of these Oxygen 02 23.19 20.99
gases, both by volume and by weight, for air at sea Argon Ar 1.29 0.93
level. Carbon dioxide CO 2 0.04 0.03
• Nitrogen. About three-fourths of the earth's Hydrogen 0.00 0.01
H2
atmosphere consists of nitrogen. Nitrogen is a
gaseous element that does not readily combine Water H20 0.00 0.00
with other substances. When combined with other Dust - 0.00 0.00
elements, nitrogen is usually unstable. Nitrogen is Rare gases - 0.01 0.01
combined commercially with hydrogen to form
ammonia, which is the basis of most fertilizers Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher

and an important refrigerant, NH3 (R-717). Liquid Figure 27-3. Chart listing the gases and substances that
make up atmospheric air at sea level.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

690 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Water vapor (moisture). The amount of water vapor Air temperatures can be measured with either the
in the atmosphere varies with the temperature. Fahrenheit scale or the Celsius scale. Under ordinary
For any given time, the percentage of moisture in conditions, glass-stemmed thermometers or digital
the air relative to the maximum amount the air thermometers can satisfactorily measure air tempera-
can hold is indicated by the term relative humidity. ture. Expanding metals, such as bimetal strips or rods,
• Rare gases. Rare gases make up a very small are also used. When measuring very low temperatures,
percentage of the atmosphere. These gases include thermocouple thermometers or resistance temperature
neon, helium, krypton, and xenon. detectors (RTDs) are used. Thermocouple thermom-
Atmospheric air is a combination of gases, water eters, pyrometers, and thermistor thermometers are
vapor, and pollutants. These pollutants vary consider- used for measuring high temperatures.
ably among different regions and time periods, and The specific heat of air is the amount of heat
may include industrial pollution, smog, and pollen. required to raise the temperature of one pound of
Air contaminants also exist indoors. Indoor air pollu- air one degree Fahrenheit, or one kilogram of air one
tion is among the top five environmental health risks. degree Celsius. The specific heat of air at sea level is
Air conditioning plays an important role in the reduc- 0.24 Btu/lb (0.557 kJ/kg).
tion of indoor air contaminants. This role will be dis- Air has low heat conductivity, meaning that it
cussed further in Chapter 28, Air Quality. does not transfer heat efficiently. For this reason, air
spaces are often used for insulating purposes.
27.2.1 Physical Properties of Air
27.2.2 Humidity
People often do not think of air as matter because
it is invisible and all around us. However, air has Humidity is the presence of moisture or water
weight, volume, temperature, specific heat, and heat vapor in the air. Since humidity is moisture in vapor
conductivity. In motion, air has momentum and iner- form, it is invisible. The amount of moisture that air
tia. It holds substances in suspension and in solution. will hold depends on the air temperature. Warm air
Air pressure at the earth's surface is due to the holds more moisture than cold air.
weight of air above the earth. Air pressure decreases as The amount of humidity in the air affects the rate
altitude increases. The higher the altitude, the less the of evaporation of moisture from a surface. Dry air
volume of air is above. Less air being above results in causes rapid evaporation, cooling the surface quickly.
a reduction of the weight of the air above. Air presses Moist (humid) air prevents rapid evaporation of mois-
against the earth at sea level with a pressure of 14.7 psi ture from a surface. Since less moisture evaporates in
(101 kPa). humid conditions, the surface does not cool as rapidly.
Since air has mass, energy is required to move it. This principle explains why people are more prone to
Once in motion, air has kinetic energy. For example, heat exhaustion in hot, humid climates than in hot, dry
the weight of moving air turns wind turbines. The climates.
wind turbines convert the kinetic energy to mechani-
cal or electrical energy. Relative Humidity
According to Bernoulli's principle, increasing the Relative humidity (rh) is a term used to express
velocity of air decreases the pressure. For example, in the amount of moisture in an air sample compared to
a tornado, the velocity is very high, reducing the pres- the total amount of moisture the same sample would
sure. Tiny dust particles may be picked up and held in hold if it were completely saturated at the same tem-
suspension in moving air. These particles may remain perature. Relative humidity is stated as a percentage.
in suspension for long periods of time. For example, air with a relative humidity of 25% con-
The density of air varies with atmospheric pres- tains only one-fourth of the moisture it is capable of
sure and humidity. The volume of space that air occu- holding.
pies under a given set of conditions is known as its A water vapor saturation curve, Figure 27-4, is a
specific volume. The less dense the air is, the greater its graph showing the amount of water that air can hold
specific volume will be. One pound of air at standard at different temperatures. The line from Point A to
conditions (14.7 psia [101 kPa], 69.8°F [21°C]) occupies Point B represents what happens when saturated air
13.341 ft3. One kilogram of air at standard conditions is warmed. Point B contains 111 grains of moisture per
occupies 0.83285 m 3 • By dividing the weight of air by pound of air at 85°F (29.4°C). The saturated condition
volume it occupies, you can calculate its density. Air for air at the same temperature (at Point C) is 183 grains
under standard conditions has a density of 0.07496 lb/ft3 of moisture per pound of air. The line between Point B
(1.2007 kg/m3). and Point C represents how much additional moisture

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 691

Water Vapor Saturation Curve no moisture added, its new condition is shown at Point G.
The saturated condition at 75°F (24°C) would be 131

0
...
<(
>,
c 183 I C
grains per pound (Point H). The original air had only
24 grains of moisture per pound. Therefore, the relative
humidity of the air at Point G is calculated as follows:

I
'tJ rh = 24 grains/lb x 100%
C
:::, 131 grains/lb
0
ll. = 0.18 X 100%
G) 131 H
J = 18%

IA
C. D B
e:::, 111
ui
·o Indicators of Low Humidity
:iii: Low atmospheric humidity is indicated by an

F/ E
0 66
Ill
increase in the amount of noticeable electrostatic energy.
C
"iii As a person moves about and touches grounded metal
G objects, a spark jumps from the hand or fingers to the
5 24
-1 object. Also, human hair tends to become more unman-
ageable. The surface of the skin and membranes in the
30 55 70 75 85
Temperature (°F)
nose become dry. Furniture joints shrink and become
loose. Woodwork, such as wood in doors and floors, can
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
crack. If these symptoms are present, more moisture must
Figure 27-4. A typical water vapor saturation curve for air. As
the temperature of the air increases, the amount of moisture it
be added to the air to create comfortable conditions.
can hold also increases.
Dew Point
Dew point is the temperature below which water
vapor in the air will start to condense. In other words,
the air could hold. In this case, the air could hold an it is the temperature at which air will have 100% rela-
additional 72 grains of moisture per pound. tive humidity.
Therefore, the relative humidity at Point B is: A window during the winter heating season offers g
a good example of dew point. Figure 27-5 shows the
rh = 111 grains/lb x 100%
183 grains/lb
= 0.606 X 100%
Dew Point at Various Humidity Levels
=61%
Dry-Bulb Temperature of Surface
The lines from Point A to Point D and Point D to Relative Humidity When Condensation Starts (°F)
Point E represent what happens when saturated air of Air(%) 70°F (21°C) 80°F (27°C)
at 70°F (21.1°C) is cooled to 55°F (12.8°C). Air at 70°F Air Temp. Air Temp.
(21.1°C) will hold 111 grains of moisture per pound
100 70 80
(Point A), but the same air at 55°F (12.8°C) will hold
only 66 grains of moisture per pound (Point E). The 90 67 77
line between Point A and Point D represents how much 80 64 73
the air is cooled. The line between Point D and Point E
70 60 69
represents the moisture condensed out of the air as it
cools. To calculate the amount of moisture condensed, 60 56 65
subtract the moisture content of the air at 55°F (12.8°C) 50 51 60
from the moisture content of the air at 70°F (21.1°C):
40 45 54
111 grains/lb - 66 grains/lb = 45 grains/lb 30 37 46
A typical outdoor condition in winter is repre- 20 28 35
sented at Point F. This outdoor air is 30°F (-1 °C) and Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
has 100% relative humidity. At that temperature, the Figure 27-5. Table listing the temperature to which a surface
air holds 24 grains of moisture per pound. If the same must be cooled before condensation starts. The table is based
air is brought indoors and heated to 75°F (24°C) with on an ambient air temperature of 70°F or 80°F (21°C or 27°C).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

692 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

surface temperature that will cause condensation (dew

point) for various humidity levels. Cold air cannot hold
as much water vapor as warm air, so when the outdoor
air temperature falls and the interior of the home is
heated, water vapor (condensation) forms on the inside
(warm surface) of the window.
Several methods can be used to find the dew point.
Dew point is professionally and accurately measured
using a chilled mirror hygrometer, which is an expen-
sive and highly sensitive thermometer. Dew point can
be determined inexpensively and with fair accuracy
using the following method. Cut a shiny aluminum
soda can in half. Fill the can approximately 2/3 full of
water. Add ice cubes to the water. This will lower the
can's surface temperature. Stir the mixture. Continue
adding ice until condensation forms on the exterior of
the can. When condensation forms on the exterior of
the can, this indicates the dew point temperature.

Humidity Measurement Abbeon Cal, Inc.

Factors such as quality controls, product testing, Figure 27-6. Wall -type hygrometer and temperature indicator
energy efficiency, and the comfort of the work envi- calibrated in percent of relative humidity.
ronment have created an increased need for humidity
measurement. A wide variety of instruments can be
used to measure humidity. These range from simple
mechanical indicators to highly complex and expen-
sive analytical instruments.
A hygrometer is an instrument that measures
moisture in the air. Originally, the operation of these
instruments depended on the use of some moisture-
absorbing material. Human hair, wood, and fibers
were often used. These materials change their shape or
size, depending on the relative humidity of the air. The
moisture absorbing materials were linked to a gauge
needle. As the materials changed size or shape, they
moved the gauge needle, Figure 27-6.
Today, relative humidity is most often measured
electronically. The most frequently used electronic
instruments base their measurements on electronic
impedance or input from capacitive sensors that
respond to varying levels of water vapor pressure.
Typically, humidity is displayed in the form of per-
centage relative humidity (% rh), which can be easily con-
verted into other measurement variables, such as dew
point or wet-bulb temperature. Modem instruments pro-
vide measurements over wide humidity and temperature
ranges. Such instruments are available in a number of
configurations, such as handheld models, analog or digi-
tal transmitters, and data loggers. See Figure 27-7.
Palm-held electronic hygrometers are equipped
with quick and accurate sensors. These hygrometers Extech Instruments Corp.
can use the power of mobile PCs to display, record, Figure 27-7. Humidity meter and data logger that can
document, annotate, and report measurements. Such measure relative humidity, temperature, dew point, and wet-
units are typically capable of measuring relative bulb temperature.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 693

humidity, temperature, dew point, wet-bulb tempera- Humidity Controls

ture, and more. They have internal data memory and Health studies indicate that humidity control is
are typically capable of storing enhanced survey infor- an important factor in air conditioning. Humidity con-
mation, data and text, and graphic notes under spe- trols operate during the winter heating season to add
cific file names. In addition, they have an infrared port moisture to the air. They keep the humidity inside the
that can be used to transfer data to a PC for detailed conditioned space at a satisfactory level even though
analysis and reporting. The data that is collected can the air outside is dry.
be reviewed at a later time. Humidity controls operate in the summer to
It is sometimes helpful to have an extended read- remove moisture from the air. To remove moisture in
ing of temperature and humidity in a controlled space. a home, a central air-conditioning system may use the
A seven-day recorder that indicates the moisture and cold evaporator to condense moisture out of the air. A
temperature can fulfill this purpose, Figure 27-8. When drip pan and drain line or condensate pump carry the
using this instrument, refer to a psychrometric chart moisture to a drain. Some air-conditioning systems
to find the relative humidity. Psychrometric charts are use a central dehumidifier to dehumidify all the air in
explained later in this chapter. a building. An alternative is to use a portable dehu-
midifier in damp rooms, such as in the basement for
Desiccants local dehumidification.
Desiccants are substances that absorb moisture To remove moisture in large commercial air-con-
from the air. Common desiccants include activated ditioning installations, the humidity controls usually
alumina, silica gel, calcium sulfate, and zeolites. Many operate solenoid valves or dampers that vary the air-
desiccants can be reactivated (dried out) by heating. flow over the air-conditioning system's evaporators.
Often, instruments are packaged in containers The control element may be a synthetic fiber or human
with a packet of desiccant. The desiccant absorbs the hair. These elements are sensitive to the amount of
moisture in the container, keeping the instrument dry moisture in the air. Construction principles of a humid-
to reduce corrosion. ity control mechanism are shown in Figure 27-9.
Thermo-humidigraphs (temperature and humid-
ity recorders) may be equipped with alarms. These
will alert attendants if the temperature or humidity
fails to remain at the proper level. This is helpful in
computer rooms and other installations that require g
close humidity control. Figure 27-10 shows a tempera-
ture and humidity recorder.

27.2.3 Air Temperature

The behavior of air varies with its temperature.
As previously stated, the higher the temperature, the
greater the air's ability to hold moisture. Air tempera-
ture is measured with a thermometer. Several differ-
ent scales are commonly used, including Fahrenheit,
Celsius, and Kelvin.
Dry-Bulb Temperature
Human comfort and health depend a great deal
on air temperature. In reference to air conditioning, the
air temperature measurement most frequently used is
dry-bulb temperature. It is taken with the sensitive
element of the thermometer in a dry condition. The
dry-bulb temperature does not take into account the
Remote sensor /
effect of humidity in the air.
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
Figure 27-8. Seven-day temperature and humidity chart
Wet-Bulb Temperature
recorder with a temperature range from -20°F to 120°F (-30°C If a moist wick is placed over a thermometer bulb,
to 50°C). Note the red and blue marker pens used to indicate the evaporation of moisture from the wick will lower
temperature and humidity. Also note the remote sensor. the thermometer reading. The resulting temperature

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

694 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Adjusting
Element
(hygroscopic)

--- Contact arm

Pivot

Close to Close to Common

dehumidify humidify terminal
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 27-9. Diagram showing a simple humidity control mechanism. When the element absorbs moisture, it expands. This
expansion causes the contact arm to rotate clockwise around the pivot, closing the dehumidify circuit. When the element becomes
dry, it shrinks, causing the contact arm to rotate counterclockwise around the pivot. This closes the humidify circuit. The adjusting
screw sets the preload on the element.

relative humidity. If the air surrounding a wet-bulb

thermometer is dry, evaporation from the moist wick
will be rapid, increasing the drop in temperature. If the
air is very moist, evaporation will be slower, reducing
the drop in temperature. Figure 27-11 compares dry-
bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature.
When the air is saturated with moisture, no water
can evaporate from the cloth wick, and the wet and
dry-bulb temperatures remain identical. However, if
the air is not saturated, water can evaporate from the
wick, and the wick's temperature is lowered. Then,
heat from the mercury flows to the wet wick and low-
ers the thermometer's temperature.
The wet-bulb reading depends on how fast the air
passes over the bulb. Also, the wet bulb should be pro-
tected from heat-radiating surfaces, including radiators
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc. and electric heaters. Errors as high as 15% are possible
Figure 27-10. Digital temperature and humidity data logger. if too much radiant heat is present.

Perception of Temperature
measurement is known as wet-bulb temperature. Wet- Air temperatures in the United States vary from
bulb temperature is a function of the amount of mois- a low of about -55°F (-48°C) to a high of around
ture in the air. The rate of evaporation from the wet wick 120°F (49°C). The desirable temperature is 72°F (22°C).
on the bulb, and the temperature difference between Figure 27-12 shows how different combinations of rel-
the dry bulb and wet bulb, depends on the humidity of ative humidity and temperature affect comfort.
the air. Wet-bulb temperature is always lower than dry- The normal temperature of the human body is 98.6°F
bulb temperature, but will be exactly the same at 100% (37°C). Skin temperature is lower, about 91°F (33°C). In

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 695

Effects of Temperature and

Relative Humidity on Comfort
70
I
l
Too wet
Clammy Sticky
60
cold wam,

Temperature
difference
I
Too cold
General~
comfortable
Too warm

20
Too dry
I
10
65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Temperature (°F)
Lennox Industries Inc.
Figure 27-12. Graph demonstrating the effects of temperature
and relative humidity on comfort. Most people will feel
comfortable at the temperature and relative humidity
Saturated combinations near the center of the graph.
wick or other
material
Temperature/Humidity Ranges for Comfort

I
Dry Bulb Wet Bulb Acceptable Operating
Relative Temperatures
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Conditions
Humidity
Figure 27-11. A wet-bulb thermometer is essentially a dry- OF oc
bulb thermometer with a moist wick over the bulb. Note that
temperature shown on wet-bulb thermometer is considerably
30% 76-82 24.5-28
Summer
lower than dry-bulb thermometer. This indicates that the air 60% 74-78 23-25.5
is fairly dry.
30% 69-78 20.5-25.5
Winter
60% 68-75 20-24
temperate zones, the average outdoor temperature in Adapted from ASHRAE 55-2010-Thermal Environmental
winter is well below the body temperature. Clothing is Conditions far Human Occupancy
required to help conserve body heat. Also, heat needs Figure 27-13. Table showing comfortable temperature ranges
to be added to occupied spaces for the comfort of its for the humidity conditions indicated.
occupants. According to ASHRAE 55-10, certain tem-
perature/humidity ranges are most comfortable for In order to maintain comfortable temperatures,
the majority of people, Figure 27-13. energy is required to heat or cool the air to the desired
The human body loses heat easily when the air tem-
temperature. The specific heat of dry air is 0.24 Btu/lb.
perature falls below 98.6°F (37°C). The body also loses
some heat at air temperatures above 98.6°F (37°C) through Degree Days
evaporation of perspiration and by respiration. Moisture Degree days are a measure used to indicate
is fed to the skin from the sweat glands. Evaporation of the heating or cooling needed for a given region.
this moisture lowers the skin temperature. The evapora- Calculations are based on a temperature of 65°F (18°C).
tion of moisture constitutes a considerable heat exchange If the average temperature for a day is below this tem-
from the human body. Evaporative heat exchange can be perature, it is referred to as heating degree day. If the
considered a form of convection. The evaporated moisture average temperature for the day is above 65°F (18°C),
is carried away along with its heat content. it is referred to as a cooling degree day. The numeric

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

696 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

value of the heating or cooling degree days equals the ing system. The comfort of occupants is due not only to
difference between the average temperature that day the temperature of the surrounding air, but also to the
and 65°F (18°C). level to which this air is saturated with water vapor.
The use of psychrometric principles allows techni-
Formula for calculating degree days: cians to design air-conditioning systems that control
high temp + low temp environmental conditions. Figure 27-14 shows a com-
degree days (F) = 65°F - - - - - - - - - puter system that interfaces with the air-conditioning
2
and filtration systems in a large industrial facility.
Such systems monitor and maintain temperature and
Example:
humidity within preset levels.
The low temperature for a certain day was 28°F (-2°C). The
Tables and graphs have been developed to show
high temperature for the same day was 36°F (2°C). What
the pressure, temperature, heat content, volume of air,
was the number of heating degree days in Fahrenheit?
and steam content of air. A pressure of 29.92 in. Hg
Solution for Fahrenheit degrees: (76 cm Hg) is used as standard atmospheric pressure.
These psychrometric charts display a representation of
degree days (F)= 65°F - 28°F + 36°F air properties in a visual format. Psychrometric charts
2 are important in the designing and sizing of air-condi-
= 65°F-32°F tioning systems. Their use ensures efficiencies based
= 33 heating degree days on the specifics of a site. Psychrometric charts will be
further described in a later section.
If the temperature conditions continued for two
days, the result would be 66 heating degree days. If Psychrometer
Monday has 30 cooling degree days and Tuesday has Airflow over a wet-bulb thermometer should
20 cooling degree days, the result is 50 cooling degree be quite rapid to ensure accuracy. In the past, a sling
days for the two days. psychrometer was often used to whirl a pair of ther-
Celsius degree days are calculated the same way mometers, one dry-bulb and one wet-bulb. The benefit
as Fahrenheit degree days. For the equations below, of a sling psychrometer was that it offered a simple,
use the Celsius numbers from earlier. rapid measurement of relative humidity without using
tables, charts, or formulas, Figure 27-15.
Solution for Celsius degrees: To use a sling psychrometer, the wick on the wet
bulb was saturated and then the sling psychrometer
degree days (C)= 1soc _ high temp + low temp was whirled. When the mercury stopped dropping,
2
= 1soc - 20c + (-2oq
2
= l8°C-0°C
= 18 degree days (C)
Degree days can be added by weeks, months, or
for a season. To do this, add all of the heating degree
days together for the period and record the total. Then,
add all of the cooling degree days together for the
period and record the total. The two totals provide an
estimate of the heating and cooling demands for the
period. You can then divide the totals by the numbers
of days in the period to determine the average daily
heating and cooling demands for the period.

27.2.4 Psychrometric Properties of Air

Psychrometry is the science studying the thermo- Johnson Controls, Inc.
dynamic properties of air and water vapor. Knowledge Figure 27-14. A computerized building automation system can
of psychrometry allows the technician to better control control energy usage, environmental conditions, fire alarm and
temperature and humidity of the air in an air-condition- suppression systems, and security systems throughout a building.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 697

End cap Wet-bulb Figure 27-17 shows the lines on the psychro-
metric chart that represent constant conditions. In
Figure 27-17A, the red lines represent constant dry-
bulb temperature. These lines represent the tempera-
ture of the air without accounting for the effect of
humidity. They are always vertical lines.
In Figure 27-17B, the red lines depict constant
wet-bulb temperatures. These lines represent the tem-
perature of the air adjusted for the effect of humidity.
In Figure 27-17C, the red lines represent constant
specific humidity. The specific humidity is simply a
measure of the quantity of moisture in the air. These
lines are always horizontal. You will notice that on the
left side of the graph, the red lines all end at different
points, leaving the left edge of the graph as a curve.
This occurs because there is a maximum amount of
moisture that air at any given temperature is capable
of holding.
For example, air with a temperature above 35°F
(l.7°C) is capable of holding 30 grains of moisture per
pound, but air must be over 80°F (26.7°C) in order to

Humidity sensor Humidity sensor

and air temperature and air temperature
sensor sensor
Abbeon Cal, Inc.
Figure 27-15. A sling psychrometer uses a dry-bulb and a
wet-bulb thermometer to determine relative humidity.

the wet bulb would be read immediately, followed by

reading the dry bulb. The wet-bulb temperature was
placed over the dry-bulb temperature scale on a psy-
chrometer slide rule. An arrow on the scale indicated
the relative humidity.
I
Electronic psychrometers can measure dew points
even in extremely cold conditions. They can also dis-
play relative humidity, temperature, and dew point
simultaneously. Some digital psychrometers provide a
port so the data they collect can be downloaded to a
PC, Figure 27-16.

Psychrometric Charts
A psychrometric chart is a graph of the properties
(dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures, relative humid-
ity, specific volume, and specific humidity) of air. It is
used to determine how changes in one property affect A B
the other properties of the air. At first glance, a psy- Extech Instruments Corp.

chrometric chart may seem complicated and difficult Figure 27-16. Electronic psychrometers are available in
to read. However, once you familiarize yourself with numerous configurations. A-This digital psychrometer
measures relative humidity (rh) directly and calculates wet-
the lines on the graph and what they represent, you bulb temperature. B-This psychrometer can be used to
will find a psychrometric chart to be a relatively simple measure air's relative humidity, surface temperature, and
and useful tool. dew point. This model includes a port for connecting the
instrument to a personal computer.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

698 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

.35 .35
~ ~
.40 §. .40 §.
.45 ,8 .45 ~
~ a:
.50 i 50 'ffi
:,: :,:
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.c .c
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.80"' .80 cl!
.90 .90

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Dry-Bulb Temperature (' F) Dry-Bulb Temperature (' F)

A B
.35 .35
~ ~
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Dry-Bulb Temperature (' F) Dry-Bulb Temperature (' F)

C D
.35 .35
~ ~
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.90 .90

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Dry-Bulb Temperature (' F) Dry-Bulb Temperature (' F)

E F
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 27-17. A psychrometric chart is a graph of temperature and humidity conditions. Because of the interdependent
relationships among different air properties, the graph is useful for determining unknown air properties based on known
properties. Lines representing various properties are shown in red on the charts. A-These lines represent constant dry-bulb
temperatures. B-These lines represent constant wet-bulb temperatures. C-These lines represent constant specific humidity
levels. D-These lines represent constant relative humidity levels. E-These lines represent constant specific volumes.
F-These scales are used to determine the total heat energy in the air sample and the ratio of sensible heat to latent heat.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 699

hold 160 grains of moisture per pound. The quantity of heat requirements when heating or cooling processes
moisture air can hold increases as the temperature of are plotted on the graph.
the air increases.
In Figure 27-17D, the red lines represent constant Reading a Psychrometric Chart
relative humidity (%). The relative humidity is the ratio Each point on a psychrometric chart represents air
between the amount of moisture the air is capable of at a specific set of conditions. The primary conditions
holding (which is dependent on its temperature) and displayed on the graph are dry-bulb temperature, wet-
the amount of moisture the air is actually holding. The bulb temperature, specific humidity, relative humidity,
100% relative humidity line, the upper curve along and specific volume. If any two values are known, the
the graph, is also known as the dew point or satura- chart can be used to determine the other values.
tion temperature line. The line for air with 0% relative To plot a point on the chart, simply find the value
humidity would be completely horizontal and posi- of your first measured property on the appropriate
tioned right on top of the dry-bulb temperature scale. scale. Then, find the value of the second measured
Note that the curvature of the lines increases as the property on the appropriate scale. Follow the lines
relative humidity increases. extending from those values until they intersect inside
In Figure 27-17E, the red lines represent constant the graph.
specific volume. Keep in mind that specific volume is For example, imagine a sling psychrometer is
inversely proportional to the air's density. As specific used to measure dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures.
volume increases, air density decreases. Also, note that The dry-bulb temperature is soap (26.7aq and the wet-
the specific volume increases with temperature and bulb temperature is 60aF (15.6aq. Refer to Figure 27-18.
humidity. This is Charles' law in action. With pressure Locate soap on the dry-bulb temperature scale at
maintained at a constant value, specific volume and the bottom of the graph and 60aF on the wet-bulb scale
temperature will both increase or decrease together. on the left side of the graph. Trace the lines extending
With more volume, more moisture (humidity) can be from those points (orange line for dry-bulb tempera-
absorbed into the air. ture and green line for wet-bulb temperature) until
In Figure 27-17F, the scales representing enthalpy they intersect on the graph at Point A This is the point
and sensible heat ratio are shown in red. You will that represents the properties of the air.
notice that the lines on these scales do not extend Place a straightedge through Point A and parallel
across the graph. In order to plot these values on the to the specific humidity lines. Follow the straightedge
graph, a technician would position a straightedge so to the specific humidity scale on the right side of the g
it crosses the graph and aligns with the hash mark for graph (see the dotted blue line). Note that the specific
the desired value on the scale. humidity of the air is roughly 45 grains per pound.
Enthalpy is the total heat content in the air sample. Point A is sitting on the curve that represents a relative
Remember that there are two different types of heat. humidity of 30% (red curved line).
Sensible heat changes the temperature of the air, and To the left of Point A is the specific volume line
latent heat changes the level of humidity in the air. The that represents 13.5 cubic feet (yellow line). If you look
hash marks on the scale at the left side of the chart rep- to the right of Point A, you see the specific volume line
resent the sum of latent heat and sensible heat in the that represents 14.0 cubic feet (pink line). Since Point A
sampled air in Btu/lb. Note that if these hash marks sits between these two lines, the air's specific volume is
are extended so they cross the graph, they would be 13.75 cubic feet per pound.
parallel to the wet-bulb temperature lines. Next, place a straightedge along the wet-bulb tem-
The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is the amount of perature line and extend the line so it intersects with
heat that affects the air temperature compared to the the enthalpy scale. Note that the air contains approxi-
total heat added to or released from the air. It is shown mately 26 Btus of heat energy per pound.
on the scale at the right side of the chart. A horizontal Point B on the graph represents standard comfort
line on the graph represents a change in dry-bulb tem- conditions. Point B has the same dry-bulb temperature
perature only (pure sensible heat). A vertical line on the as Point A However, the specific humidity scale to the
graph represents a change in the air's moisture content right of Point B indicates that the air at Point B contains
only (pure latent heat). The lines on the sensible heat approximately 75 grains per pound of moisture, com-
ratio scale are horizontal at the bottom of the scale and pared to 45 grains per pound at Point A. As a result,
more angled at the top of the scale. This occurs because the relative humidity at Point B is 50% rather than 30%.
the values at the top of the scale represent an increased To the upper left of Point B, you will see that the
percentage of latent heat and a decreased percentage wet-bulb temperature is about 67aF, and its enthalpy is
of sensible heat. This scale is useful for determining 31 Btu/lb. In order to change the air from the condition

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

700 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

.35

160 .40
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f:::,
ui
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20 :iii:

30 40 50 60 70 80 100
Dry-Bulb Temperature (°F)
Point A Point B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 27-18. A typical psychrometric chart. All of the graph lines relating to conditions at Point A are shown in color. Point B
represents standard comfort conditions. Notice that Point Bis directly above Point A, indicating that the air at Point Bis the same
dry-bulb temperature as the air at Point A, but with more humidity.

shown at Point A to the condition at Point B, 5 Btus of In the following example, use dry-bulb tempera-
latent heat and 30 grains of moisture would need to be ture and relative humidity to find the dew point. Refer
added to each pound of air. to Figure 27-19.
In the following example, use dry-bulb and wet-
bulb temperatures to determine the relative humidity. Example:
Refer to Figure 27-19. A sample of air has a dry-bulb temperature of 80°F
(27°C) and a relative humidity of 60%. Determine the
Example: dew point.
Dry-bulb temperature is 75°F (24°C). If the wet-
bulb temperature is 60°F (16°C), what is the relative Solution:
humidity? Find where the 80°F (27°C) dry-bulb line crosses the
60% relative humidity line. This point is labeled B. If
Solution: the air represented by this point were cooled with-
Follow the vertical line corresponding to the 75°F out a change in moisture content (represented on the
(24°C) dry-bulb temperature. Then follow the 60°F psychrometric chart by the dotted horizontal line),
(16°C) wet-bulb temperature line. These lines cross the dew point line would be intersected at about 65°F
each other at Point A. This point is just above the 40% (18°C). This is labeled as Point C.
relative humidity line. Therefore, the correct answer Therefore, 65°F (18°C) is the dew point for the
would be about 41% relative humidity. sample of air. The 80°F (27°C) temperature and the

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 701

60% relative humidity could represent a typical sum- Study the psychrometric chart carefully. It pro-
mer evening. Dew would appear on surfaces when the vides a simple way for determining the various condi-
65°F (18°C) temperature was reached. tions of air. Remember, the warmer the air, the more
In the following example, use dry-bulb tempera- moisture it will hold.
ture and specific humidity to find relative humidity.
Using Psychrometric Charts
Refer to Figure 27-19.
Many air conditioning problems in this text will
Example: require the use of a psychrometric chart. When air con-
Find the relative humidity when the dry-bulb tem- ditions are plotted for the various stages in a heating,
perature is 75°F (24°C) and the specific humidity is ventilation, or air-conditioning process, a psychromet-
100 grains per pound of dry air. ric chart can reveal exactly what is happening during
each stage of the process.
Solution: People can be comfortable under a variety of tem-
First, find the vertical line representing a constant dry- perature and humidity combinations. Most people
bulb temperature of 75°F (24°C). Follow that line until are comfortable in an atmosphere with the relative
it crosses the horizontal line representing 100 grains of humidity between 30% and 70% and the temperature
moisture per pound of dry air. The intersection point is between 70°F and 85°F (21°C to 29°C). These tempera-
labeled Point D. This point falls between the 70% and ture and humidity conditions are plotted on a psychro-
80% relative humidity lines. The answer would be a metric chart in Figure 27-20. Every point inside the red
relative humidity of about 77%. lines represents a comfortable set of air conditions .

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Dry-Bulb Temperature (°F)
Point A Point B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 27-19. With practice, you should be able to quickly and easily read psychrometric charts.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

702 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

.35

160 .40
it"
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Dry-Bulb Temperature (°F)
Comfort
zone Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 27-20. The four extremes of the human comfort zone are plotted on this psychrometric chart. Any combinations of
temperature and humidity that falls within the red lines can be considered comfortable.

The HVAC industry exists because nature does representing all the processes used in the conditioning of
not always provide these ideal conditions. HVAC sys- air. This gives scientists and engineers the data they need
tems must modify existing air conditions to bring them to design and evaluate new HVAC systems.
into a comfortable range. To accomplish this, air-condi-
tioning systems use a combination of heating, cooling,
humidification, and dehumidification processes. 27.3 Comfort Conditions
These processes can be modeled on the psychro- A more technical graph showing the comfort zone
metric chart. See Figure 27-21. For example, Point A in is provided in Figure 27-22. This comfort zone repre-
the figure shows a dry-bulb temperature of 40°F and sents a considerable area. However, any point in this
a relative humidity of 10%. The desired condition is area provides relative comfort under equal conditions
Point B, 75°F and 50% relative humidity. The HVAC sys- of clothing and work. A room that is 75°F with a high
tem must increase the temperature of the air by 35°F (red relative humidity will feel basically the same as a room
line) and increase the humidity by 50 grains per pound that is 80°F with a lower relative humidity. This means
of air (blue line), which would result in a relative humid- both rooms have the same effective temperature.
ity of 50%. Plotting the air conditions at key stages in the
air-conditioning process provides a good visual model
of the changes that occur during the process.
27.3.1 Effective Temperature
A psychrometric chart can be used to plot the actions Effective temperature is the combined effect of
of the evaporators, heaters, and chillers in an HVAC sys- dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, and air
tem. Advanced psychrometrics can provide equations movement that provides an equal sensation of warmth

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 703

.35

160 .40
~
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.45 e
0
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Point A Point B g
Goodheart-W11/cox Publisher
Figure 27-21. If the current air conditions are represented by Point A and the desired air conditions are represented by Point B, the red
line indicates how much the temperature must increase. The blue line represents the amount of moisture that must be added to the air.

or cold. Therefore, on a psychrometric chart, the effective the evaporation of moisture (sweat) and by heat radia-
temperature is the temperature at 50% relative humidity tion from the skin's surface.
that yields the same heat loss as actual environment.
In the summertime, air conditioned buildings
27.3.2 Temperature-Related Illnesses
are usually kept at temperatures approximately l0°F
to 15°F (5.6°C to 8.4°C) below the outside temperature. Temperature-related illnesses are called ther-
Some people are quite sensitive to thermal shock when mal disorders. In cold climates, it is possible for body
entering or leaving an air conditioned space. This temperature to drop a few degrees below normal due
shock is lessened if the difference between inside and to lower metabolism. If body temperature drops too
outside temperatures is reduced. Wearing a sweater or far below normal, hypothermia results. Hypothermia
coat when indoors also reduces the shock. causes disorientation, numbness, loss of motor control,
The comfort range for most people varies from and eventually tissue damage, organ failure, and death.
season to season. In summer, the comfort zone ranges High temperatures can also cause illness, espe-
between 72°F (22°C) db (dry-bulb temperature) at 90% cially if there is also high humidity. Jobs involving high
rh up to 87°F (31°C) db at 23% rh. In winter, it is between air temperatures, radiant heat sources, high humidity,
66°F (19°C) db at 70% rh up to 80°F (27°C) db at 20% rh. direct physical contact with hot objects, or strenuous
Typically, people are most comfortable if their skin physical activity have a high potential for causing heat
surface temperature is 91°F (33°C). This skin tempera- stress. OSHA provides examples of methods to reduce
ture is usually maintained in cold weather by wearing heat stress hazards in the workplace. These methods
adequate clothing. In hot weather, it is maintained by include wearing light clothing, drinking one pint of

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

704 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

VAPOR
Gagge et al. , Ashrae transactions, ENTHALPY PRESSURE
Vol. 77, 1971 , part I. IN. MM
Hg Hg
~ Ashrae comfort standard 55-74.
.036
1.3
55
.028

*The envelope applies to lightly clothed, sedentary

individuals in spaces with low air movement, where 1.2
.026 30.0
the MRT equals air temperature.
.034

.024 1.1
50

.032

.022 1.0
25.0

.020 E .030
~ 0.9
0 45
=i
-<
.018 ~
-I
0 0.8
.028 20.0
~
-I
.016 0
"Tl

~
0.7
-I 40
.026
.014 gJ
.018 <
)>
'U 0.6
0 15.0

.012 ~
:-i .024
.016 0
"Tl 0.5
)>
.010 ,E 35

.022 0.4 10.0

.014 .008

0.3
.006 .020
30
.012

0.2 5.0
.004

.018
.010
.002 0.1

25

.016

15 20 25 C 30 35

15 20
.014
.010 .012
Reprinted by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia
Figure 27-22. Graph showing the comfort zone in relation to dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, and relative humidity
line. Note that the Humidity Ratio scale on the right side of the graph list represents the ratio of water vapor to air.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 705

water (preferably 50°F to 60°F) per hour, scheduling increased danger of heat strokes and cardiovascular
frequent rest periods in shaded or air-conditioned difficulty, Figure 27-23.
recovery areas, reducing the physical demands of the At comfortable temperatures, the chart also shows
job, rescheduling strenuous activity to a cooler time in that there is no sensation of either warmth or cold. Also,
the day, blocking out direct sunlight and heat sources, there are no apparent physiological effects. Moving
and avoiding beverages containing alcohol or caffeine. down in temperature to very cold conditions, the body
is uncomfortable. Physiologically, the body attempts to
correct this condition by shivering. In extremely cold
27.3.3 Comfort-Health Index (CHI) conditions, the body attempts to maintain its core tem-
The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating perature by shutting down circulation to the extremi-
and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) recog- ties. Extreme cold can cause an increased risk of death,
nizes a Comfort-Health Index, which lists effective particularly in older people.
temperatures, the sensation associated with each tem-
perature, and the effects that each temperature have
on human physiology and health. This chart indi-
27.4 Air Movement
cates that the human body attempts to adjust to very Air movement affects comfort. Cool, dry air cir-
hot conditions by increasing sweating and the flow of culated past a warm body will speed heat flow from
blood. These physiological conditions may result in an the body. Evaporation will increase, which cools the

Comfort-Health Index
New T•11 Temperature Level Comfort Range Physiological Response Health Effect
5 ca 1e
oc OF
Limited tolerance Limited Body heating Circulatory collapse
tolerance Failure of regulation
40

Very hot Very Increasing stress caused by Increasing danger of heat

I
100
uncomfortable sweating and blood flow strokes
35
Hot Cardiovascular
embarrassment
90 Warm Uncomfortable

30
Slightly warm Normal regulation by sweating
and vascular change
80
25 Neutral Comfortable Regulation by vascular change Normal health

70 Slightly cool
20

Cool Slightly Increasing dry heat loss

uncomfortable
Urge for more clothing or Increasing complaint from
15 60 exercise (behavioral reg .) dry mucosa and skin (water
Cold Vasoconstriction in hands vapor pressure <10 mm Hg)
and feet Muscular pain Impairment of
Very cold Uncomfortable Shivering peripheral circulation
10 50

Adapted from the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, from the 1993 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals
Figure 27-23. Comfort-Health Index indicating sensory, physiological, and health responses to prolonged exposure to various
effective temperatures.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

706 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

body. During cold days, a person exposed to outdoor a structure should include the maximum wind veloc-
atmospheric conditions often feels much colder than ity expected for the area.
the thermometer shows. This chilling effect is due to During the winter months, the windchill index
wind velocity and relative humidity. The term wind- (chill factor) is used to describe the combined effect
chill describes this uncomfortable feeling. of temperature and wind speed. The windchill index
chart is published and maintained by the United States
Weather Bureau. The chill factor is based on both tem-
27.4.1 Wind
perature and wind speed. For example, at a temperature
The Beaufort Scale is frequently used by the of 0°F (-18°C) and a wind speed of 10 mph, the wind-
United States Weather Bureau for indicating wind chill index temperature is -16°F (-26°C), Figure 27-25.
velocity. It is divided into a series of levels, from zero People exposed to air temperatures below freezing
for calm winds to twelve and above for hurricanes. are at risk for frostbite, which is essentially a freezing
Each value represents a classification of wind veloc- of the skin. The exposure time required for frostbite
ity along with descriptions of its effects. Wind velocity to occur gets shorter as wind speed increases or tem-
values and effects according to the Beaufort Scale are perature decreases. In addition, the body's physiologi-
shown in Figure 27-24. cal response to the cold is to reduce blood flow to the
An increase in wind velocity increases the heat exposed areas, causing those areas to cool even faster
loss of a heated structure, thereby impacting the effi- while reducing overall heat loss from the body's core.
ciency of a heating system. The calculated heat load for

Beaufort Scale of Wind Velocity

Beaufort Wind Velocity Terms Used in
Observed Wind Effects
Number Mph Knots NWS Forecasts

0 Less than 1 Less than 1 Calm; smoke rises vertically

1 1-3 1-3 Directions of wind shown by smoke drift; but not by wind
vanes Light
2 4-7 4-6 Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; ordinary vane moved by
wind
3 8-12 7-10 Leaves and small twigs in constant motion; wind extends Gentle
light flag
4 13-18 11-16 Raises dust and loose paper; small branches are moved Moderate
5 19-24 17-21 Small trees in leaf begin to sway; crested wavelets form Fresh
on inland waters
6 25-31 22-27 Large branches in motion; umbrellas used with difficulty
7 32-38 28-33 Whole trees in motion; inconvenience felt walking against Strong
wind
8 39-46 34-40 Breaks twigs off trees; generally impedes progress Gale
9 47-54 41-47 Slight structural damage occurs; leaves and branches Severe
blown from trees Gale
10 55-63 48-55 Seldom experienced inland; trees uprooted; considerable
structural damage occurs
Storm
11 64-72 56-63 Very rarely experienced; accompanied by widespread
damage
12 or Higher 73 or Higher 64 or Higher Very rarely experienced; accompanied by widespread Hurricane-
damage Typhoon
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 27-24. Beaufort Scale of wind velocity.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 707

• Windchill Chart Pro Tip

Measuring Air Velocity
Note that the vane anemometer, the swinging-
vane anemometer, and the pitot tube are used to mea-
sure air velocity, but they are not accurate at very low
air velocities.

Anemometers
Vane anemometers measure airflow velocity
using a small propeller. When the propeller is placed
in an airstream, it revolves as air flows past the blades.
The revolution of the propeller is directly proportional
to the velocity of the airstream. An electronic instru-
National Weather Service
ment connected to the propeller monitors the rotation
Figure 27-25. To use a Windchill Chart, find the approximate
temperature on the top of the chart. Find the approximate wind
of the propeller. It then calculates the distance traveled
speed at the left edge of the chart. The number that appears by the air based on the number of degrees the propel-
at the intersection of the temperature column and wind speed ler rotates. Next, it divides this distance by the time
row is the windchill index. elapsed and then converts the value to standard units
and displays the velocity of the airflow. The electronic
instrument performs these calculations many times
per second and averages the results to provide an accu-
27.4.2 Air Velocity Measurement rate reading, Figure 27-26.
Outside air velocity, or wind, is measured in Some anemometers include a function that allows
miles per hour (mph) or knots. Indoor air velocity is the users to enter the cross-sectional area of the duct,
usually expressed in feet per minute (fpm). It is pos- which the meter then multiplies by the air velocity to
sible to calculate the volume of air flowing through determine the rate of airflow in cubic feet per minute.
a duct in cubic feet per minute (cfm). To do this, To use a vane anemometer, carefully place the pro-
multiply the air velocity by the cross-sectional area peller in the airstream at a right angle to the airflow. g
of the duct. Measurements can be taken in areas such as vents,
Maintaining the proper rate of air movement returns, registers, and exhausts. Allow it to reach a
in a conditioned space is very important. Air move- constant speed (after about one minute), then trip the
ment is necessary to supply fresh air to the space. registering mechanism.
If the air moves too fast (a draft), a person feels Another type of anemometer is placed over the
uncomfortable. If the air movement is too slow, the duct grille. The technician inputs the cross-sectional
air becomes stale (contaminated) and lacks oxygen. area of the duct into the instrument. The LCD read-
If air flows through an occupied space at more out displays the airflow exiting through the grille in
than 15' to 20' per minute (4.5 m/min to 6 m/min), cubic feet per minute (cfm). With this data, the oper-
occupants of the space will feel a draft. It is difficult ator can calculate the number of Btus going into the
to develop accurate instruments to measure drafts. space through each grille by multiplying the volume
The usual method is to use a smoke generator and a of airflow by the appropriate temperature factor,
stopwatch. The flow of the smoke through the space Figure 27-27.
is timed. If the smoke moves at a rate exceeding 15' A hot-wire anemometer has a small wire element
to 20' per minute, a draft is indicated. often made of tungsten. Current is passed through the
Several different instruments can be used to element to heat it. As the temperature of the element
measure air velocity. The following devices are most increases, so does its resistance. Airflow passing over
commonly used: the element cools the wire and reduces its resistance.
• Vane anemometer By measuring the current draw through the element,
the anemometer can calculate the velocity of airflow
• Hot-wire anemometer
over the wire, Figure 27-28.
• Swinging-vane anemometer A swinging-vane anemometer operates on the
• Manometer and pitot tube (measures velocity principle that incoming air will push on a small vane,
pressure) causing it to deflect at different angles as the air velocity

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

708 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

metal vane
probe

B-Heavy-Duty Vane Anemometer

A-Mini Thermo-Anemometer with Detachable Probe
Extech Instruments Corp.
Figure 27-26. Two different vane anemometers. A-Mini thermo-anemometer that has an integral vane and can measure the
rate of airflow and the air temperature. It is capable of displaying air speed in multiple formats, including the Beaufort Scale, and
can calculate windchill. B-Heavy-duty vane anemometer with a detachable metal vane probe. It is designed to measure airflow
rate even under extreme temperature conditions.

changes, Figure 27-29. To measure airflow, the instru- to place the instrument directly in the airstream. The
ment or connections from it are put directly in the air- tips of these tubes are placed in the airflow and divert a
stream. Long pitot tube probes are often used to extend small column of the airflow into the meter, Figure 27-30.
the reach of the instrument in cases where it is difficult Swinging-vane anemometers are entirely mechanical.
Because they have no mechanisms that are likely to spark,
they are very safe in environments where electronic meters
pose an explosion risk. However, as the temperature of the
air being measured changes, the sensing mechanism in the
instrument expands and contracts, which can throw off the
instrument's readings. The instrument is calibrated for use
at a temperature of 68°F (20°C). Corrections must be made
if the duct temperature is not at 68°F (20°C).

Formula used to correct airflow velocity calculations

for temperature deviations:

airflow velocity in fpm = 460 + T x instr~ment

TIF Instruments, Inc. where 460 + 68°F readmg
Figure 27-27. Anemometer that reads air velocity and T = Fahrenheit temperature of air in duct
automatically calculates airflow volume.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 709

Pitot tube
probe

GrayWolf Sensing Solutions, LLC

Extech Instruments Corp.
Figure 27-30. A pitot tube extension allows the technician to
Figure 27-28. A heavy-duty CFM hot-wire anemometer.
measure airflow velocities in ducts that are difficult to reach.

I
This pitot tube is being used with an electronic environmental
test that has an anemometer function.

Pitot Tube and Manometer

A pitot tube is an instrument used to measure
total air pressure and static air pressure. A pitot tube
is always positioned so the open end of the tube is
pointed directly into the airflow, Figure 27-31.
Air passing through the nose of the pitot tube repre-
sents the total air pressure. The total air pressure equals

Static pressure holes

Bacharach, Inc.
Total pressure hole
Figure 27-29. A swinging-vane anemometer provides fast
measurements. The instrument is held in the airstream. It is Dwyer Instruments, Inc.
entirely mechanical, requiring no batteries or external power Figure 27-31. Pitot tubes come in a variety of styles. This
source. pitot tube has a handle and telescoping tubing.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

710 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

the static air pressure plus velocity pressure. Remember

that static air pressure is based on the density of the air.
Velocity pressure is the force exerted by the air's move-
ment. The outer tube, with the holes on the side, measures
just the static pressure. The difference between the total
pressure and the static pressure is the velocity pressure.
This pressure difference is measured in inches of water.
The pressure can be measured by connecting the ends of
the pitot tube to the ends of a manometer. This technique
is typically used for measuring air pressures inside of
ductwork, Figure 27-32. A
If the air is in motion, the total pressure is always
greater than the static pressure. This pushes the fluid in
the manometer toward the static pressure side. At first
Pitot tube
glance, the concept of velocity pressure may seem to
violate Bernoulli's principle. However, velocity pressure
is measured by bringing the airflow to a stop inside the
manometer. The still air inside the manometer is pres-
surized as additional air tries to enter the pitot tube, com-
pressing the air that is already there. The faster the air is
moving, the more air tries to squeeze into the tube, and
the more it pressurizes the air that is already inside. In
other words, the velocity pressure is exerted when the air-
flow is slowed or stopped, not when it is moving without
resistance through the duct. See Figure 27-33.

Formula for using velocity pressure to calculate

velocity:
Velocity (V) =Velocity conversion factor
x Square root of velocity
pressure in inches of water (P)
where
Velocity conversion factor
= 4005 (for standard conditions)
V =4005 ~pv

Example:
If the velocity pressure is 1" of water, what is the
velocity?

Solution:
V = 4005 (~1") D Total air pressure (velocity A.P. + static A.P.)
= 4005 X 1 D Static air pressure
= 4005 ft/min
B
Example: Dwyer Instruments, Inc.
If the velocity pressure is 0.25" of water, what is the Figure 27-32. An inclined manometer is used with a pitot tube
velocity? to measure air velocity pressure, which can then be used to
calculate air velocity. A-A typical inclined manometer. Note
Solution: the level on the upper right. The manometer must be level
V = 4005 ft/min (-Y0.25") to provide an accurate reading. B-A drawing of a pitot tube
= 4005 ft/min x 0.5 connected to an inclined manometer.
= 2002.5 ft/min

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 711

•• • • • • Velocity Conversion Factors

• •
• • • •
Specific Volume (ft3/lb)* Velocity Conversion Factor

• • • • • • 11.5 3720

• 12.1 3818
13.2 3980
13.4** 4005
14.1 4118
A 15.1 4260
16.2 4410

17.1 4530

*Values for any conditions may be read from the psychrometric

chart.
**Standard
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 27-34. The velocity conversion factor changes with
Static pressure Total pressure change in air density (effect of temperature, humidity, and
decreases (static pressure+
altitude).
velocity pressure)
increases
B
27.4.3 Ventilation
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 27-33. Velocity pressure. A-With no airflow, the Ventilation is a term applied to changing the air
pressure on both sides of the pitot tube is equalized. B-When in a building. In any space occupied by people, breath-
the air is moving, static pressure is reduced. Pressure on the ing reduces the oxygen content. Activities in the space
right side of the tube is increased due to velocity pressure. may add some pollutants to the environment. The most
economical way to maintain health and comfort condi-
tions is by replacing the air. This is done by bringing in g
The conversion factor of 4005 shown in the equa- outside air to ventilate the space.
tions is accurate for standard conditions. However, Sometimes it is desirable to quickly replace all the
the velocity conversion factor changes based on the air in the confined space. This is done by opening win-
specific volume (density) of the air. You can find the dows and doors, flushing the space completely with
specific volume for any set of conditions by using a 100% outside air.
psychrometric chart. You can then cross-reference the Most heating systems provide continual replace-
specific volume with the conversion factors listed in a ment of air. A small percent of the air in the condi-
chart such as the one shown in Figure 27-34. tioned space is continually replaced. This is done by
To obtain correct velocity readings, take several slowly exhausting some of the air and bringing in
readings in various parts of the duct and then aver- fresh air from outside. In homes, the gradual change
age the readings. The American Society of Heating, may not be noticeable. There is always a small amount
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers of air entering and leaving the home. This movement
(ASHRAE) has determined a recommended pattern of air occurs through the cracks around windows and
of testing location points for measuring pressure doors. It also takes place through doorways each time
in both rectangular and circular ducts as shown in doors are opened.
Figure 27-35. Some building materials are porous (contain
Turbulent airflow can affect the ability of a pitot many tiny holes). Thus, a large amount of air may fil-
tube to accurately measure pressures. A pitot tube ter in and out of a building. The amount of infiltration
should be used only where the duct is very long. depends on the wind velocity and temperature differ-
The length of the duct downstream of the measuring ence between the inside and the outside of the build-
location should be a minimum of 10 times the duct ing. Air tends to enter the building on the upwind side
diameter. If precise measurements are required, air and leave the building on the downwind side.
straightening vanes should be located upstream from Since warm air is lighter than cold air, it tends to
the pitot tube. rise in a room. In buildings with more than one story,

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

712 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

t
0.074 Li
0 0 0 0 0 0-
t 0.288L

i
j
0.500 L
0 0 0 0 0 0
0.712 L
0.926 L
0 0 0 0 0 0 L

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0
I
--j

~
-
~0.437W-
0.235 W

0.563 W ------+-
~

~
0.061 W
0.032 D
0.135 D
0.321 D
1+--- 0.679 D - - - - - + - 1
0.765 W
- - - - - - 0.865 D _ _ _ _...,
0.939W
1 + - - - - - 0.968 D - - - - -
w
- - - - - - - D ----------s~

Rectangular Duct with Five and Six Locations Circular Duct with Six Locations

Air Velocity Reading Locations- Air Velocity Reading Locations-

Rectangular Duct Circular Duct
No. of Points Position Relative No. of Points Position Relative
Across Duct to Inner Wall Across Duct to Inner Wall
5 0.074, 0.238, 0.500, 0.712 , 6 0.032 , 0.135, 0.321 , 0.679,
0.926 0.865, 0.968
6 0.061 , 0.235, 0.437, 0.563, 8 0.021 , 0.117, 0.184, 0.345, 0.655,
0.765, 0.939 0.816, 0.883, 0.981
7 0.053, 0.203, 0.366, 0.500, 10 0.019, 0.077, 0.153, 0.217, 0.361,
0.634, 0.797, 0.947 0.639, 0.783, 0.847, 0.923, 0.961

Adapted from the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, from the 1993 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals
Figure 27-35. Rectangular and circular duct cross-sections identifying the recommended locations for measuring pressure in a
duct. An average of the readings will produce average duct velocity.

the warm air rises from the lower floors to the upper may leave the building at the lower levels. The cold air
floors. The rising air slightly raises the pressure in the is replaced by warmer air entering at the upper levels.
upper areas of the house and slightly lowers the pres- See Figure 27-36B.
sure in the bottom parts of the house. The increased Whenever air is exhausted from a space, it
pressure causes some warm air to escape through the must be replaced. The air brought in from outdoors
upper surfaces of the building. This lost air is replaced should be cleaned and adjusted to have the same
by cold air, which enters at the lower levels because of temperature as the indoor air. Replaced air is condi-
the reduced pressure there. See Figure 27-36A. tioned to provide a comfortable room environment.
During the summer cooling season, the opposite This conditioned air brought into the room is called
situation occurs. Cold air tends to flow downward and make-up air.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 713

------
Warm air increases
pressure and pushes -- - -----
Lower pressure
on upper floor
-- --
interior air outside
--
Warm air rises to second level
allows hot outside
air to infiltrate
Warm air falls
--
-- -- - - --..
- ..--

- --
Negative pressure Higher pressure on

--
in lower level lower level pushes
draws in outside ,.,,,.. interior air outside ........
air

A-Heating season B-Cooling season

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 27-36. Indoor airflow is affected by the differences between density and temperature of indoor and outdoor air.
A-Heating season. B-Cooling season.

Thinking Green
Make-Up Air
In some buildings, one area of the building may
require localized exhaust because of poor air quality
while the other areas of the building remain relatively
Combustion
exhaust vent • Fresh
air inlet

clean. For the dirtier areas, it may be more energy effi- Fresh air for
cient to supply make-up air from clean, air-conditioned combustion
spaces of the building than to bring in outdoor air and

I
80% efficiency
condition it. furnace

A structure that keeps inside air pressure slightly

above atmospheric pressure has a positive pressure. A
structure that maintains an air pressure slightly below
atmospheric pressure has a negative pressure. Depending
on stratification and airflow through a building, upper
rooms in tall, heated structures may be slightly above
atmospheric pressure. The lower rooms may be slightly
below atmospheric pressure because warm air rises.
The process of combustion requires oxygen from
the air, which can reduce its oxygen content. The oper-
ation of fuel-burning furnaces, stoves, water heaters,
and fireplaces tend to cause a negative pressure, as it Thermostat-operated fan
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
takes in fresh air for combustion and exhausts it out of
the building. The negative pressure resulting from this Figure 27-37. This thermostat-operated fan turns on
whenever the furnace turns on. It draws in air from outdoors
could cause a considerable amount of air leakage into
to provide fresh air for combustion. This helps to keep the
the house through the walls and cracks. To maintain furnace operating at high efficiency and prevents the building
positive pressure, use dedicated ductwork and a fan or from having negative pressure.
blower of some kind to bring in fresh air, Figure 27-37.

Cold air will sink to the floor, and the warmer air will
27.4.4 Stratification rise to the ceiling. This will result in a gradual differ-
If there is no air movement within a room, the air ence in air temperature from the floor to the ceiling,
may tend to settle into layers of differing temperatures. which is known as stratification, Figure 27-38.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

714 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

enter a space and become heat. Glass is a rather poor

conductor of heat. However, it freely allows light
to pass through it. In this way, energy that enters a
building as a light ray becomes trapped in the room
78°
as heat.
The surfaces of buildings exposed to sunlight are

II 74°
72°
70°
li also heated by the sun's rays. This heat source must be
considered when calculating the heating and cooling
requirements of air-conditioning systems. Many build-
ing materials are poor conductors of heat. Because of
this, there is a lag or delay between the time the radiant
heat energy strikes the building surface and the time
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
the heat enters the conditioned space.
Figure 27-38. Stratification occurs in rooms with little air
movement. Warm air rises to the top of the room, while heavy
Color has a considerable effect on the amount of
colder air falls to the bottom of the room. heat absorbed from the sun's rays. Black and red absorb
much more heat than white and yellow. Likewise, sur-
faces designed to radiate heat are much more efficient
if they are painted with dark rather than light col-
Stratification tends to make smoke haze hover in ors. Light-reflecting surfaces, such as polished metal,
layers. The layers make it difficult to get rid of smoke. chrome, and nickel plate, do not absorb heat easily and
Because of stratification, if a thermostat is located in do not radiate heat efficiently from their surfaces.
the upper part of a room with no air movement, the
temperature difference between the thermostat setting
and the air the occupants feel will be more noticeable. 27.5.2 Heat Sinks
A certain amount of air movement is needed in the A warm body radiates heat rays. When heat rays
room to prevent stratification. strike another surface, there are two common effects:
• Heat rays that strike another surface of the
27.5 Factors Affecting Indoor Air same temperature will reflect back. There is no
increase or decrease in heat in the body being
Conditions struck by the radiation. Imagine that a body
The temperature and humidity levels in a condi- giving off heat rays is totally surrounded by a
tioned space can be affected by the materials inside surface at the same temperature as that body.
and surrounding the conditioned space. Appliances Then all the surfaces, including the central
and other electrical devices generate heat. Dark objects body, receive back as much radiation as they
absorb sunlight during the day and release it at night give off. All the surfaces and the central object
when the temperature falls. Plumbing fixtures and remain at the original temperature.
potted plants can add humidity to the air. • If radiant heat strikes a surface colder than the
Heat and humidity can be transferred into or out radiating body, the heat rays do not all bounce
of the conditioned space through windows or poorly back. Some of the radiant heat is absorbed into
insulated walls. Different building materials and tech- the colder surface. This surface becomes what is
niques result in different rates of heat transfer. In the called a heat sink.
summertime, heat from outdoors tends to migrate On cold days, heat flows from a heated room to a
through the walls, windows, doors, ceilings, and cold window surface. A person sitting close to a win-
floors into the house. In the winter, heat from inside dow under such conditions will feel cold. This is due
the house tends to transfer to the outside. Proper insu- to the loss of some of their heat into the heat sink. The
lating materials and weatherproofing techniques can same will also be true if the walls of the room are not
minimize heat transfer. well insulated. If the walls are cold, they become a heat
sink.
27.5.1 Sun Heat Loads
Radiant heat (light) from the sun furnishes a tre-
27.5.3 Vapor Barriers
mendous amount of heat energy. If a glassed-in sur- Water vapor flows easily through all porous sub-
face is exposed to this light energy, the energy will stances. Water in vapor form remains a vapor as long

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 715

as its temperature is above the dew point. However, When it contacts the cold undersurface of the paint,
when its temperature drops to the dew point, the water droplets of water are formed, causing the paint to peel.
vapor condenses into droplets.
In modern housing, water vapor is kept from
passing through walls and toward surfaces where it
27.5.4 Heat Insulation
might condense. This is done by using moisture-proof In extremely hot or cold climates, it is desirable to
materials, such as aluminum foil and plastic sheeting, use materials that do not transfer heat readily. Reducing
to form a vapor barrier. The barrier keeps water vapor heat conductivity helps maintain desired air-condition-
from passing from warm surfaces to cold surfaces. ing temperatures more economically. Usually, spaces
Vapor barriers should always be installed on the warm in the structure can be filled with insulating material
side of a heated space. to help prevent the flow of heat through the structure.
Lack of proper vapor barriers is often indicated by Modern buildings are usually insulated with mineral
peeling paint near kitchen and bathroom areas. The wool, expanded mica, balsam wool, urethane, and
moisture from these areas travels through the walls. sometimes cork in either sheet or granular form.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Psychrometry is the science studying the
thermodynamic properties of air and water
• Weather describes atmospheric conditions. In vapor. Psychrometers measure dry-bulb
reference to outdoor conditions, the term climate and wet-bulb temperature and are used
refers to the long term weather trends for a region. to determine the relative humidity in the
In reference to indoor conditions, it describes the air. Psychrometric charts are a graph of
typical conditions maintained in the space. the interrelationships between dry-bulb
temperature, wet-bulb temperature, specific
• Air-conditioning systems simultaneously control humidity, relative humidity, specific volume,
temperature, filter airflow, and adjust humidity to dew point, and enthalpy in air mixtures. A
maintain desired conditions inside a space. technician that knows any two of these values
• The atmosphere, or air that surrounds the earth, can use a psychrometric chart to look up
is composed of several distinct layers. Air is the others. Each stage in an air-conditioning
composed mostly of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, process can be plotted on the chart so the
and carbon dioxide, with other gases present technician can see the demands placed on the
in smaller quantities. Air exerts a pressure system.
on everything it surrounds. At sea level, the • A wide range of temperature and humidity
pressure (atmospheric pressure) is 14.7 psia combinations provide a comfortable
(101 kPa) at a temperature of 69.8°F (21°C). environment for humans. People perceive
• Humidity is the moisture vapor contained in different combinations of humidity, airflow,
air. The quantity of humidity in the air affects and temperature as equivalents. This perceived
evaporation rates. Drier air results in more temperature is called effective temperature. The
rapid evaporation, which in turn provides more Comfort-Health Index lists different effective
cooling effect. Air at a given temperature can temperatures and the physiological responses
hold only a certain amount of moisture. The to those temperatures.
warmer the air is, the more moisture it can hold. • Air movement affects comfort. Cool, dry air
• Relative humidity is the expression of the circulated past a warm body will speed heat
quantity of moisture in air compared to the loss from a body. Evaporation will increase,
maximum amount of moisture the air can hold which cools the body. The chilling effect due to
at the current temperature. Relative humidity is wind velocity and relative humidity is referred
usually expressed as a percentage. to as windchill.
• Dew point is the temperature at which the • Indoor airflow must be great enough to provide
current amount of moisture in the air would effective ventilation and prevent temperature
result in complete saturation of the air (100% stratification, but must not be so strong that it
relative humidity). At dew point, moisture in makes the space feel drafty. Ventilation in the
the air begins to condense. form of make-up air is necessary to maintain
• A hygrometer is an instrument that measures oxygen levels, minimize or eliminate negative
moisture in the air. Palm-held electronic pressure in a building, and provide combustion
hygrometers can use the power of mobile air for fuel-burning appliances, such as gas
devices and PCs to display, record, document, furnaces, stoves, water heaters, and ovens.
annotate, and report measurements. These • Various types of anemometers are used
units typically can measure relative humidity, to measure air velocity. A pitot tube is an
temperature, dew point, wet-bulb temperature, instrument that measures total air pressure
and more. and static air pressure. The difference between
• Air temperature can be expressed as a dry- the total pressure and the static pressure is the
bulb temperature or a wet-bulb temperature. velocity pressure.
A dry-bulb temperature is a measurement of • Indoor air conditions can also be affected by
the air's temperature without adjusting for the sun loads, heat sinks, and heat and humidity
effect of humidity. Wet-bulb temperature is a migration. Vapor barriers prevent infiltration
measurement of the air's temperature that is of moisture into a building, and heat insulation
adjusted for the effect of the air's humidity on reduces heat transfer between indoors and
evaporative cooling. outdoors.

716 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 27 Air Movement and Measurement 717

8. Degree day calculations are based on a

Review Questions temperature of _ _.
Answer the following questions using the information in A. 32°F (0°C)
this chapter. B. 50°F (10°C)
C. 65°F (18°C)
1. The conditions that are normally maintained D. 98.6°F (36°C)
in an indoor space are referred to as its .
A. climate -- 9. The science of studying the thermodynamic
B. effective temperature properties of air and water vapor is called
C. psychrometry
D. weather A. stratification
B. hygrometry
2. According to ASHRAE, the process of C. enthalpy
treating air so as to control simultaneously D. psychrometry
temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and
distribution is called 10. The Beaufort scale
A. air conditioning A. lists windchill factors
B. dew pointing B. indicates levels of wind velocity
C. heat sinking C. is a psychrometric chart
D. ventilation D. lists average daily heating and cooling
demands for a period of time
3. Earth's atmosphere contains about 23%
byweight. 11. Which of the following instruments is used
A. argon to measure air velocity?
B. nitrogen A. Psychrometer.
C. oxygen B. Chilled mirror hygrometer.
D. sulfur dioxide C. Anemometer.
D. All of the above.
4. When air temperature reaches 100% relative
humidity, it is at its _ _ point. 12. Which type of anemometer is entirely
A. desiccant mechanical?
A. Vane anemometer.

I
B. dew
C. hygrometric B. Swinging-vane anemometer.
D. wet-bulb C. Hot-wire anemometer.
D. None of the above.
5. Air with 75% relative humidity contains
_ _ of the moisture it is capable of holding. 13. Changing the air in a building is called _ _.
A. one-fourth A. stratification
B. one-half B. desiccation
C. two-thirds C. ventilation
D. three-fourths D. None of the above.

6. Starting at sea level and rising higher 14. For a building to maintain positive pressure
in altitude through the troposphere, with various fuel-burning appliances
atmospheric pressure _ _. operating, a(n) _ _ should be used.
A. drops A. fan or blower
B. remains the same B. heat sink
C. rises C. psychrometer
D. weighs more D. swinging-vane anemometer

7. A hygrometer is an instrument that measures 15. When radiant heat strikes a surface that is
colder than the radiating body, _ _.
A. air pressure A. some of the radiant heat is absorbed into
B. enthalpy the colder surface
C. moisture in the air B. the heat rays will reflect back
D. wet-bulb temperature C. the radiating body becomes a heat sink
D. Both A and C.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER28 Air Quality

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Identify the agencies and standards that regulate
indoor air quality.
• Categorize indoor air pollutants as solid or gas
pollutants and provide examples of each.
Recall the factors that affect indoor air quality.
Recognize the main sources of pollutants that
adversely affect residential and commercial indoor
Chapter Outline air quality.
• Summarize the processes used to assess residential
28.1 Indoor Air Quality Standards and Guidelines
and commercial indoor air quality.
28.2 Air Pollutants
28.2.1 Solid Pollutants • Summarize the steps that can be taken to prevent
28.2.2 Gaseous Pollutants indoor air quality problems.
28.3 Indoor Air Quality • Differentiate between sick building syndrome,
28.3.1 Residential Indoor Air Quality building-related illness, and multiple-chemical
28.3.2 Indoor Air Quality in a Commercial Setting sensitivity.
28.3.3 Preventing IAQ Problems • Compare the different types of air filters available.
28.3.4 Classifications of Indoor Air Quality Issues
• Summarize the different air cleaning methods used
28.4 Air Cleaning
to improve indoor air quality.
28.4.1 Air Filters
28.4.2 Electronic Air Cleaners • Explain the operation and maintenance of ultraviolet
28.4.3 Ionizing Air Purifiers air treatment system.
28.4.4 Ultraviolet Light • Differentiate between heat recovery ventilators
28.5 Indoor Air Quality Systems (HRVs) and energy recovery ventilators (ERVs).
 Chapter 28 Air Quality 719

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

air filter infiltration Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
asbestos Legionnaires' disease you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
atmospheric dust spot MERV (Minimum • When an atom has an imbalance of electrons and
efficiency Efficiency Reporting protons, it is ionized. If an atom has more electrons
bacteria Value) than protons, it is a negatively charged ion. If
bioaerosols mold an atom has more protons than electrons, it is a
building-related illness multiple chemical positively charged ion. (Chapter 12)
(BRI) sensitivity (MCS) • There are two kinds of static charges-positive
carbon dioxide (CO) nitrogen oxide (NO) and negative. An object with a negative charge has
carbon monoxide (CO) ozone (0) accumulated more electrons than protons, and an
DOP H EPAP Method pollen object with a positive charge has more protons than
dust pollen count electrons. (Chapter 12)
electronic air cleaner pollutant
• Objects with the same kind of charge repel each
energy recovery ventilator radon (Rn)
other. Objects with different charges attract each
(ERV) sick building syndrome
other. (Chapter 12)
exfiltration (SBS)
fractional efficiency test smoke • In any space occupied by people, activities in the
fumes sulfur dioxide (SO) space may add some pollutants to the environment.
heat recovery ventilator synthetic dust weight The most economical way to maintain health and
(HRV) arrestance comfort conditions is by replacing the air. This is
indoor air quality (IAQ) UVG done by bringing in outside air to ventilate the space.
(Chapter 27)

Introduction
A good air-conditioning system delivers clean air to
the space being conditioned. Air quality control includes g
more than just the removal of contaminants. Indoor air
quality (IAQ) includes the status of indoor air as mea-
sured by temperature, humidity, fresh airflow, pollutants,
and chemicals in an enclosed space.
720 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

28.1 Indoor Air Quality Standards Fumes

Fumes are small, solid particulates suspended in
and Guidelines the air. They form by the condensation and solidifica-
ASHRAE Standard 62 is a widely recognized tion of gaseous materials. These materials ordinarily
standard relating to indoor air quality. ASHRAE are solids but have been put into a gaseous state, usu-
Standard 62 offers equipment and system require- ally by an industrial or chemical process. These par-
ments, as well as minimum ventilation rates, which ticles are about 1 micron in size.
should result in indoor air quality that would be accept-
able to human occupants. Standard 62 establishes the Smoke
IAQ-related standard for the design, construction, Smoke is composed of solid particles carried
startup, operation, and maintenance of ventilation sys- into the atmosphere by gaseous products of incom-
tems used in commercial structures. plete combustion. Particles vary in size from 0.1 to
Standard 62.1 ties ventilation rates to the number 13 microns.
of occupants in a given space. For example, the rate for
office space where smoking is not allowed is 20 cubic
Bioaerosols
Bioaerosols are airborne microorganisms, such
feet per minute (cfm) per person.
as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mold, rust, dust
Code Alert
mites, mildew, and yeasts. They are found both indoors
and outdoors. Excessive moisture indoors increases
IAQ Standards the growth of some microorganisms.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Certain types of humidifiers, water spray sys-
Health (NIOSH) has developed specific criteria and tems, and wet porous surfaces act as breeding grounds
exposure limits for pollutants. The Occupational Safety for the microorganisms found in bioaerosols. For
and Health Administration (OSHA) also sets permis- instance, humidifiers kept at a lukewarm temperature
sible exposure limits (PELs) for hazardous substances.
may provide an excellent breeding place for bacteria.
Also, surfaces of dehumidifiers may become breeding
places for bacteria and fungi. These surfaces should be
28.2 Air Pollutants
A pollutant is a substance that is in some way
a detriment to comfort, health, and a desirable envi-
Comparative Micron Examples of Typical
ronment. The Federal Clean Air Act of 1970 gave the Sizes Contaminants
Environmental Protection Agency the power to estab-
lish and enforce standards for clean air.

0
Heavy atmospheric dust
Three common indoor air pollutants are asbes-
Ash
tos, bioaerosols, and radon. Asbestos was often used
in the past as a form of insulation. Bioaerosols are air- 10+ microns Particles visible to the naked eye
borne microorganisms that breed in humid conditions.
Radon is a naturally occurring gas that has been found Average atmospheric dust
to cause cancer. Asbestos, bioaerosols, and radon will
be discussed further below. 0
5-1 0 microns
Pollen
Mold

28.2.1 Solid Pollutants

Light atmospheric dust
Solid air pollutants are particles of various sizes 0 Bacteria
that are suspended by air currents. They are classified
into the following general groups: dust, fumes, smoke, 1-5 microns Pollen
bioaerosols, and asbestos, Figure 28-1.
Oil fumes and smoke
Dust
0 Bacteria
The term dust refers to the small particles that
become temporarily airborne from wind, a sudden 0.3-1 microns Suspended dust particles
earth disturbance, or mechanical work on a solid. The
origin of dust can be animal, vegetable, or mineral. Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Dust particles are usually 1-200 microns in size. Figure 28-1. Relative sizes of common air contaminants.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 28 Air Quality 721

sterilized from time to time to maintain a safe operat- for asbestos is accomplished through environmen-
ing condition. tal monitoring, including visual assessment and, if
needed, bulk sampling.
Bacteria
Bacteria are simple, single-cell microorganisms Safety Note
that are responsible for the transfer of many diseases.
Many manufacturing processes, health care environ- Asbestos
ments, and food service environments require the Asbestos is a carcinogen (cancer-causing agent).
removal of bacteria. Several techniques can be used to Breathing asbestos fibers can also cause serious lung
control bacteria. diseases, such as asbestosis, which may result in loss
The FDA recommends the use of one teaspoon of of lung function, disability, and even death. Removal of
asbestos should only be done by professional asbestos
chlorine bleach to one quart of water to disinfect home
abatement companies.
surfaces, such as counters, that may be contaminated
by bacteria. Use bleach with caution, since it may dis-
color some surfaces. Studies have shown that a high
water heater temperature of at least 140°F (60°C) is 28.2.2 Gaseous Pollutants
effective in controlling Legionella bacteria in single- Common gaseous pollutants include carbon mon-
family residences. oxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (S02),
Mold photochemical oxidants, and nitrogen oxides (NOJ.
Mold is a growth of minute fungi that forms on Photochemical oxidants result from the effect of sun-
vegetable and animal matter. Many typical air condi- light on hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. They react
tioning applications provide a favorable environment and produce smog. Terpene, a hydrocarbon released
for their growth and development. This is particularly from growing trees, is sometimes considered a pollut-
true if moisture is present. The spores from certain ant, as is methane, which is produced by the decompo-
molds can cause illness. sition of vegetable matter.
In addition to the pollutants already mentioned,
Pollen chlorine, paints, insecticides, and volatile solvents
The term pollen refers to the small particles release polluting vapors. Many vapor-caused illnesses
released by plants as part of their reproductive cycle. are difficult to identify. However, illnesses often dis-
During certain seasons, plants (most notably rag- appear after patients are removed from the polluted g
weed, timothy grass, goldenrod, and roses) release environments.
pollen grains into the atmosphere, creating irritat-
ing symptoms and ailments for many people. These Sulfur-Based Gaseous Pollutants
ailments include hay fever, rose fever, and other Sulfur dioxide (S0 2) is a common gaseous pol-
respiratory difficulties. For this reason, removal of lutant. It is produced by burning coal, gas, or oil.
pollen from the air is an important function of air Hydrogen sulfide results from some industrial pro-
conditioning. Pollen grains vary in size from 10 to cesses, particularly papermaking. Depending on the
100 microns. makeup of these gases, they may contain carcinogens,
A pollen count is a measurement of the amount which are harmful to human health.
of pollen in a given space. The amount of pollen can
be measured by exposing an adhesive-coated surface Carbon Monoxide (CO)
to the atmosphere for 24 hours. The number of pollen Carbon monoxide (CO) is a deadly poison. It is
grains in a square centimeter determines the pollen an odorless, colorless gas that leaves a metallic taste in
count for the previous 24 hours. the mouth. Carbon monoxide replaces the oxygen in
red blood cells. Health effects from exposure to carbon
Asbestos monoxide are shown in Figure 28-2.
Asbestos is a naturally occurring mineral that Carbon monoxide is produced by the incomplete
forms fiber bundles. It is known for its strength and combustion of fuel. A common source is automobile
fire resistance. It was once used in the construction of engine exhaust. Fuel-burning furnaces also produce
commercial buildings, such as in furnace insulation carbon monoxide. It is present in the combustion cham-
materials, tiles, and in various coatings. Exposure ber, heat exchanger, flue, and stack. Carbon monoxide
to asbestos normally occurs in four settings: dur- may be found inside homes or offices due to poorly
ing acquisition (mining), manufacturing (insulation, vented combustion appliances, faulty chimneys, or
brake linings), installation, and removal. Sampling cracked heat exchangers.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

722 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Ozone is a substance that can be either beneficial

Effects of Carbon Monoxide Exposure or detrimental to health. Ozone is a disinfectant and is
Parts Per sometimes used to purify water or to maintain a ster-
Health Effects
Million (ppm) ile atmosphere. It also removes odors in such places
200-400 Slight headache
as cold storage rooms and hospitals. In these applica-
tions, a very small amount of ozone is used. However,
1000-2000 Heart palpitations (within .5 hours of in larger concentrations, it may be harmful to health.
exposure) Symptoms that ozone can induce include chest pain,
1000-2000 Staggering (within 1.5 hours of exposure) coughing, throat irritation, and congestion. It can also
worsen current respiratory conditions.
1000-2000 Mental confusion, headache, nausea, and An ozone concentration of 0.1 parts per million
vomiting (after 2 hours of exposure)
(ppm) is generally considered the maximum level
2000-2500 Unconsciousness (within .5 hours) permissible for an eight-hour exposure. For continu-
ous occupancy, ozone should not exceed 0.01 ppm.
2500 Collapse; death will occur prior to any
warning symptoms
The effect doubles for each 15°F (8°C) increase in
temperature. The use of some electronic air clean-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher ers may slightly increase ozone content. Ozone con-
Figure 28-2. Breathing carbon monoxide can result in centration is measured with ozone monitors. See
unconsciousness and death. Figure 28-3.

Radon (Rn)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Radon (Rn) is an odorless, tasteless, radioactive,
Carbon dioxide (CO) is a gaseous, nontoxic com- inert gas that occurs naturally in soil and rocks. It
bination of carbon and oxygen that results from com- is formed from the natural decay of uranium and is
bustion and respiration. The concentration of CO2 in found in some industrial wastes.
exhaled breath is fairly constant, approximately 3.8%. Radon has been shown to cause lung cancer.
Once the CO2 leaves the mouth, it mixes with the sur- When inhaled, it settles in a person's lungs. The radio-
rounding air. active particles then begin to damage the lung tissue.
When people exhale CO2, they also exhale other Radon gas comes from the soil and rock upon which a
gases, odors, bacteria, and viruses. When these build building is built. It may enter a building through small
up in a space due to poor ventilation, poor air qual- cracks in concrete floors, floor drains, sump pumps,
ity results. When this occurs, occupants often com- and pores in hollow-block walls. See Figure 28-4.
plain of fatigue, headaches, and general discomfort. Radon can be detected using a charcoal canister
Carbon dioxide (CO2) does not create these symptoms. or a small container called an alpha track detector,
However, high CO2 concentrations indicate that these
other pollutants may also be present.

Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)

Nitrogen and oxygen atoms combine to form
nitrogen oxide (NOx) compounds. Nitrogen oxide is
formed at high temperatures, such as those developed
during combustion in an automobile engine. Nitrogen
oxide is one of the substances common in the photo-
chemical oxidants that produce smog. It is unstable
and changes back to nitrogen and oxygen easily at
lower temperatures.

Ozone (0 3) .
Ozone (0 3) is a form of oxygen photochemically
produced in nature. The chemical formulas for oxygen
(02) and ozone (OJ are similar, differing by only one
additional atom of oxygen per molecule. In the upper Ozone Solutions, Inc.
atmosphere, ozone is made by ultraviolet light reacting Figure 28-3. Wall-mounted ozone sensors are very sensitive
with oxygen. It may also be produced by an electric and allow for two adjustable set points. Ambient ozone levels
discharge in the air, such as lightning. from outside are detected.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 28 Air Quality 723

Steps to Reduce Radon Exposure

Steps can be taken to reduce radon exposure in resi-
dential homes. To stop gases from entering the home, a
gas permeable layer, which often consists of a four-inch
layer of clean gravel, can be placed beneath the floor or
in shower slab of the house. Plastic sheeting can be placed on top
Radon enters
of the gas permeable layer and under the floor or slab. A
Water PVC pipe can be run from the permeable layer, through
through cracks in
well the house, and vented out the rooftop. In this manner the
foundation walls
gases are allowed to vent out without entering the home.
An electrical junction box is often needed for the instal-
lation of an electric venting fan (an in-line fan). The fan
draws the radon from beneath the home and through a
pipe where it is then exhausted outdoors.
Large cracks can be filled with cement grout.
Caulking compounds suitable for concrete can be used
for small cracks. Painting basement walls and floors
with two coats of an epoxy paint is recommended.

+ Organic Vapors
Floor Radon in
Organic vapors are a major source of air pollution.
Radon enters
through cracks drain well water Portable odor monitors use a highly sensitive metal-
Radon and openings oxide thermal conductivity sensor. Vapors that can
released from in slab be measured by such instruments include acetic acid,
bedrock
formaldehyde, ammonia, anesthetic gases, hydrogen
into soil
peroxide, mercury vapor, nitrogen dioxide, nitrous
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
oxide, and ozone. Numerous readings are initially
Figure 28-4. Potential sources of radon.
made to set the quality standards or acceptable odor
levels. Once this is established, the monitor will then
identify the odor level at any time. g
Figure 28-5. The detectors are usually placed in the Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) include
living areas of the house, where they absorb con- a variety of chemicals, some of which have short-
taminants in the air over a period of time. At the term and long-term negative health effects. Organic
end of the testing period, the detectors are sent to a chemicals are used in many household products.
laboratory for analysis. If the results show the pres- VOCs are emitted by a wide variety of products,
ence of radon, the entry points of the gas must be including cleaning and disinfecting supplies, pesticides,
located and repaired. furnishings, and office equipment. These products can

A-Charcoal Canister B-Alpha Track Detector

RTCA-Radon Testing Corp of America, Inc.; National Cancer Institute
Figure 28-5. Radon detectors. A-Charcoal canister test kit. B-Alpha track detector.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

724 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

release organic compounds while in use, as well as to • Lack of maintenance to the home and its HVAC
some degree when stored. system. Filters in the ventilations system should be
changed regularly. HVAC ducts should be cleaned
periodically. Any moisture-related issues should
28.3 Indoor Air Quality be corrected as soon as possible to prevent mold
problems. The furnace and gas appliances must be
Indoor air quality (IAQ) has become an increasing properly vented and in good working order.
concern as a result of the unforeseen consequences of Indoor air pollutants can come from many sources,
improved building standards. Building design, con- including household chemicals, pets, and dirt brought in
struction, and synthetic building materials have made from outside the home. Allergens and molds may form
buildings tighter. The resulting reduced infiltration of inside the house due to high humidity levels. Modern
outdoor air and the vapors released from the new build- homes are built to be energy-efficient. In order to make
ing materials have diminished the quality of indoor the home energy-efficient, much of the natural ventilation
air. As building standards and construction methods in the home is eliminated. Such homes rely on the HVAC
evolved, building occupants began reporting building- systems to bring in an adequate amount of fresh air.
related symptoms at a growing rate. Building-related
symptoms include headache; fatigue; eye, nose, and Thinking Green
throat irritation; confusion; dizziness; and skin rashes.
Controlling Indoor Air Quality
The most energy-efficient method of relieving IAQ
28.3.1 Residential Indoor Air Quality problems is to identify the source of pollutants and
reduce them at their source. Although increasing venti-
According to studies by the American Lung lation can often improve indoor air quality, doing so typi-
Association, US residents spend about 65% of their time at cally also increases energy usage. Limiting the number
home and stay indoors 90% of that time. As a result, there of pollutants in the air improves indoor air quality without
is a growing awareness of the importance of indoor air increasing energy consumption.
quality to good health. According to the U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services and the Surgeon General's
Office, approximately one-quarter of preventable illness Indications of IAQ Problems
worldwide is a result of poor environmental quality. The Sensitivity among people to indoor air pollutants
following are primary causes of poor IAQ in homes: varies, often making it difficult to determine if a resi-
dential dwelling truly has an IAQ problem. When a
• Decreased fresh air infiltration due to tight
resident complains about odors, health problems, or
construction and weatherproofing measures.
lack of comfort, an IAQ problem may be indicated. If
Homes must be equipped with adequate and
an IAQ problem is suspected, the technician should
appropriate ventilation systems. If drafts are
attempt to uncover the cause and extent of the prob-
eliminated, another means of bringing fresh air
lem. Health complaints related to poor IAQ tend to
into the house must be provided.
diminish when the person leaves the residence.
• Fumes and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Potential sources of indoor air pollutants include
released from adhesives, paints, and synthetic smoke (cigarette, cigar, or pipe), unvented gas appli-
building materials. Building and finishing materials ances (stove, dryer, or hot water heater), pesticides
must be used properly. Materials intended for used indoors, hobbies (such as model making or jew-
outdoor use should not be used indoors unless such elry making), exhaust from motor vehicles left run-
use is approved by the manufacturer. ning in an attached garage, stored chemicals, pets with
• Moisture infiltration and seepage. Homes must be fur, below-ground living areas, and insulation made of
properly sealed to prevent moisture infiltration. urea-formaldehyde or asbestos. Questionnaires, such
Any moisture- or flood-related problems should be as the one in Figure 28-6, help the technician identify
corrected as quickly as possible. Ventilation should potential indoor air pollutants.
be provided for bathrooms, kitchens, and other areas
where steam or excessive humidity is generated. High-Risk Individuals
• Occupant habits. Environmental tobacco smoke is a Some individuals have an increased susceptibility
major cause of indoor pollution with a great potential to indoor air pollutants. People with increased risk fac-
for adverse health effects. A home should be cleaned tors include the following:
regularly to prevent the buildup of excessive dust • Children younger than four years of age.
and unpleasant or unhealthy air contaminants. • People older than sixty years of age.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 28 Air Quality 725

Potential Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants-Residential

Discuss each of these items with the homeowner and circle Yes or No. Yes answers identify
potential sources of indoor air pollutants.

Do any residents smoke? Yes No

Are there any unvented gas appliances, such as a stove, dryer or hot water heater? Yes No
Are pesticides used indoors? Yes No
Do any residents have hobbies such as woodworking, jewelry making, pottery, or model making? Yes No
Is there an attached garage where motor vehicles are left running or chemicals are stored? Yes No
Are there any furry pets living inside? Yes No
Is any part of the living area below ground? Yes No
Is the residence insulated with urea-formaldehyde or asbestos? Yes No
Are the burner or pilot flames on gas appliances yellow instead of blue? Yes No
Are scented candles used indoors? Yes No
Was the building constructed or remodeled recently? Yes No
Was pressed wood furniture or paneling installed recently? Yes No
Are air fresheners or deodorizers used indoors? Yes No
Are there musty odors present? Yes No
Are clothes dry cleaned frequently and stored in closets? Yes No
Are toilet bowl deodorizers or mothballs containing paradichlorobenzene used indoors? Yes No

Chart based on data from AERIAS Air Quality Science IAQ Resource Center
Figure 28-6. Checklist of potential sources of indoor air pollutants.

• People confined to the home for more than twelve temperature and humidity may offer clues to indoor
hours per day. environmental problems. Such complaints may include
• People undergoing chemotherapy. one or more of the following:

I
• People with a compromised immune system. • Drafty or stale areas of the residence.
• People with asthma, allergies, bronchitis,emphysema, • Humidity levels above 60% or below 40%.
or a heart condition. • Interior areas that seem stuffy or musty.
Maintaining a good indoor air quality is especially • Areas that are too hot or too cold.
important if an individual who has one of these risk
• Noticeable lack of air movement.
factors is living in the residence. A high-risk individ-
ual is more likely to develop building-related illnesses. • An odor of mold or mildew.
Poor indoor air quality could also threaten an individ-
ual's health by aggravating a preexisting condition. Residential Assessment
Complaints regarding IAQ generally fall into four
Home and Residential Inspection major categories:
If a resident complains of an indoor air quality issue, • Ventilation-related complaints. Symptoms appear
the building should be thoroughly inspected. Areas of the to be related to inadequate ventilation, and no
home that generate IAQ complaints and typical causes of strong emission sources are noted.
those complaints are shown in Figure 28-7. • Source-related complaints. Timing of symptoms
Prior to completing a home inspection, the tech- coincides with the presence of a source of pollution
nician should listen to the occupant's IAQ complaints. or contamination.
Next, the technician should walk through the home
and visually inspect areas of the home that are likely • Chemical or biological hypersensitivity. The
to cause the IAQ issues. During the inspection, the individual reacts to the presence of small
technician should complete a checklist similar to the quantities of chemicals or bioaerosols, which does
one shown in Figure 28-8. The technician will need the not appear to affect others.
occupants' input in order to complete such a checklist. • Perceived IAQ problems. Symptoms are unrelated
Indoor air quality problems are often linked to to IAQ, but may be due to other factors such as dust-,
health and comfort issues. Complaints regarding water-, or food-borne illnesses, skin contact with

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

726 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Bedrooms
dust and dust miles, bacteria and
viruses, pet dander

Bathrooms
mold, midew, bacteria
and viruses, household
deoning agents

Living Areas
carbon monoxide, tobacco smoke,
organic chemkals (from carpeting,
furriture, glues and vamis~I.
pet dander

Garage
rorbon monoxide, paints
and solvents, mold and
mildew, goso~ne fumes,
pesticides and he1bicides
carbon dioxide,
household cleaning
agents, smoke,
formaldehyde

Lennox Industries Inc.

Figure 28-7. IAQ problems common in the various areas of a home.

Home and Residential Building Inspection

The items below refer to residences. Facility managers of multifamily residential buildings should
view inspection checklists for commercial and educational buildings for applicable entries. Yes
answers identify potential sources of IAQ problems.

Is dust visible on the furniture? Yes No

Is dust or dirt staining the walls, ceilings, furniture, or draperies? Yes No
Are cleaning and vacuuming put off or not done regularly? Yes No
Does the vacuum system use filters that are not high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters? Yes No
Is food kept out overnight? Yes No
Is there evidence of pests such as cockroaches, rats, or mice? Yes No
Can people smell chemicals or other odors when they enter the residence? Yes No
Do cooking odors linger for several hours? Yes No
Are there leaks around or under sinks? Yes No
Is there condensate on windows, window sills, or window frames? Yes No
Do the cold water pipes have condensation on them? Yes No
Do the walls have condensate on them? Yes No
Does water get backed up in the drains? Yes No
Do toilet leaks occur? Yes No
Are there brown stains or discoloration of ceilings, walls, or furnishings? Yes No
Is mold growing anywhere in the residence? Yes No
Is soot present around the furniture, boiler, or hot water heater? Yes No
If residence is heated with gas or oil furnace, can the odor of gas or oil fumes be detected? Yes No
If residence is heated with wood, can the smell of wood smoke be detected? Yes No
Are any paint or furnishing odors noticeable when entering the residence after being away? Yes No

Chart based on data from AERIAS Air Quality Science IAQ Resource Center
Figure 28-8. A home and residential building inspection document helps the technician identify causes of poor indoor air quality.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 28 Air Quality 727

toxic materials, infectious disease, or psychological 28.3.2 Indoor Air Quality in a

or sociological influences such as stress.
The initial interview of the occupant will identify
Commercial Setting
IAQ complaints. The technician should discuss the con- Poor indoor air quality can also be a problem in
cerns with the occupant and perform an inspection in an the workplace. Building-related symptoms have been
effort to identify obvious causes. In many cases, the cause proven to negatively affect productivity. Studies have
of the IAQ complaint can be quickly identified and cor- shown that productivity can be increased by improving
rected. If the cause of the IAQ complaint cannot be identi- the working environment. Lack of adequate environ-
fied during the inspection, further tests are required. mental control (such as temperature and humidity) and
In some cases, an in-depth investigation by an elevated pollutant levels contribute to poor IAQ.
IAQ expert will be necessary. The consultant may fol- Confirmation of an indoor air quality problem can
low a process to diagnose the IAQ issue and recom- be difficult because the sensitivity to indoor pollut-
mend potential solutions. This process may include ants varies from person to person. If the occupants of a
identification of complaint patterns, assessment of the building complain about building-related symptoms, a
HVAC system, determining and prioritizing of sources trained technician should perform a systematic inves-
of pollution, testing of air pollutants, and making con- tigation to determine if an IAQ problem exists. A form
clusions and recommendations. like the one shown in Figure 28-9 can help to iden-

Potential Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants-Commercial

The items below refer to offices. Yes answers identify potential sources of IAQ problems.

Is the office dirty or dusty? Yes No

Is the office not cleaned or vacuumed (with HEPA system) thoroughly and regularly? Yes No
Can debris be seen falling from the air supply? Yes No
Does the air supply outlet have condensates or black soil on it? Yes No
Are there any new furnishings or electronic equipment in the office? Yes No
Are scented cleaners used to clean the office? Yes No

I
Does trash sit in the office for more than eight hours? Yes No
Does the office have pests such as cockroaches, rats, or mice? Yes No
Are pesticides used in the office? Yes No
Are chemicals used in the office? Yes No
Can people smell chemicals or other odors when they enter the office? Yes No
Has a fluid spill been allowed to stand? Yes No
Are permanent markers or other graphic materials used in the office? Yes No
Are photocopiers, laser printers, or photo processing equipment used in the office? Yes No
Are perfume, aftershave, or other strong odors present? Yes No
Does water back up in the drains? Yes No
Do toilet leaks occur? Yes No
Are there leaks around or under office sinks and/or water fountains? Yes No
Is there condensate on windows, window sills, or window frames? Yes No
Are there musty odors? Yes No
Has there recently been a remodeling project that produced dust or chemical odors? Yes No
Do the cold water pipes have condensation on them? Yes No
Has condensate been present on the indoor side of exterior walls? Yes No
Are there brown stains or discoloration of ceiling tiles or walls? Yes No

Chart based an data tram AERIAS Air Quality Science IAQ Resource Center
Figure 28-9. A form can help a technician identify possible causes of IAQ complaints in a commercial building.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

728 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

tify potential sources of IAQ problems in a commer- issues. The importance of regular maintenance and
cial setting. The technician is able to answer many of inspection should be stressed. If the building's staff
the questions by performing a visual inspection. The takes a proactive role, potential indoor environmental
remaining questions can be answered by interviewing issues can be alleviated or reduced. Recommendations
the building's occupants. to staff may include the following:
The technician should examine both the indoor • Use fewer toxic supplies and materials.
ventilation system and the total ventilation system.
• Use only the exact amount of chemicals needed.
When evaluating the systems, the technician should
answer the following questions: • Do not use chemicals in air ducts.
• Are the outside air intakes located near a source of • Do not use ozone-generating air cleaners.
pollution? • Conduct activities, such as roofing, painting, and
• Are any of the vents (supply or return) blocked? remodeling, after hours.
• Do the air ducts have fiberglass liners? • Clean the living/working spaces regularly.
• Is vehicle exhaust seeping inside? • Use vacuum cleaners with HEPA filters.
• Are odors from restrooms noticeable outside the • Clean carpets one to two times each year to remove
restrooms? allergens, mold, and dust.
• Is there an odor of mold or mildew? • Control sources of moisture by eliminating or
• Is there an odor of chemicals? preventing them.
• Are fume hoods being used correctly in areas • Use air filters with a MERV rating of 12. MERV
where chemicals are being used? is the Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value, a
Health problems associated with indoor air measurement scale developed by ASHRAE to rate
pollution include the following: headaches, itchy the effectiveness of air filters.
eyes, confusion or dizziness, breathing problems, • Develop maintenance and inspection plans for
sore throat, nasal congestion, drowsiness, skin rash, HVAC system.
fatigue, and increased allergy or asthma attacks. If
several people, especially those who work in a par- 28.3.3 Preventing IAQ Problems
ticular area, have similar complaints, there may be
an indoor air problem. To effectively deal with IAQ issues, HVAC tech-
Complaints about temperature and humidity are nicians must become familiar with the various causes
often clues to indoor air problems. Such issues may and effects, Figure 28-10. Prevention of IAQ problems
include any of the following: drafty or stale air in the office, in residential and commercial buildings requires a
humidity levels above 60% or below 40%, temperature too four-step approach:
hot or too cold, or complaints of noise or crowding. 1. Controlling indoor pollutants and sources.
2. Providing adequate ventilation and filtration.
Commercial IAQ Assessment 3. Maintaining acceptable indoor environmental
Assessment of IAQ problems in commercial build- conditions.
ings is similar to the assessment of IAQ problems in 4. Educating occupants, such as residents and
residential settings. Investigations are often prompted maintenance staff.
by complaints regarding odors, health concerns, or
comfort concerns. Complaints may be ventilation- Control of Indoor Pollutants
related, source-related, the result of chemical or biolog- Indoor pollutants can be controlled using a vari-
ical hypersensitivity, or perceived IAQ problems that ety of measures. The following are some actions that
are actually caused by other factors. can be taken to control pollutants at their source. When
A more in-depth, thorough investigation may discussing IAQ complaints with customers, explain
need to be conducted by an IAQ expert. This expert will that these simple actions can improve the quality of the
attempt to identify complaint patterns, assess HVAC air inside their home or business:
systems, determine pollutant sources, test air pollut- • Select and use nonaerosol and nontoxic products
ants, and develop conclusions and recommendations. whenever possible.
• Coat pressed-wood products with polyurethane
Educating Occupants and Staff
to reduce formaldehyde emissions.
Residents and building maintenance staff should
be educated regarding the causes and remedies of IAQ • Maintain a moderate temperature and humidity.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 28 Air Quality 729

IAQ Problems and Solutions

Source of IAQ Problem Symptoms Ideal Levels Possible Solutions
Volatile Organic • Respiratory difficulties Minimal voes • Install a heat recovery ventilator (HRV)
Compounds (VOCs) • Allergies • Install an energy recovery ventilator (ERV)
• Install an air purification system
Bioaerosols and other • Respiratory difficulties Minimal • Use high efficiency (MERV-13 or higher) filter
airborne particulates • Allergies particle count • Install a germicidal light on evaporator coil
Humidity • Discomfort 25%-55% • Humidifiers
• Increased fungal growth • Dehumidifiers
Temperature • Discomfort 68°F-81°F • Install a better thermostat
• Instruct customer on proper system operation
CO 2 (poor ventilation) • Stale air 700 PPM CO 2 • Install a heat recovery ventilator
• Sick building syndrome • Install an energy recovery ventilator
• Replace filters regularly
co • Illness Zero PPM • Repair furnace or gas appliance
• Death • Do not operate vehicles or gas-powered
equipment in an attached garage
• Install a CO detector
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 28-10. Symptoms associated with poor IAQ, the likely causes, and their solutions.

• Install and use exhaust fans in bathrooms, kitchens, • Ensure that outdoor air intakes are free of
and other areas that produce excessive humidity. obstruction and potential pollutant sources.
• Repair any plumbing leaks immediately. • Provide exhaust ventilation in rooms with higher
• Remove lint around and under the clothes dryer pollutants, such as bathrooms and kitchens. g
on a regular basis.
Maintaining Acceptable Indoor Environment
• Use fragrance-free, nonaerosol personal care
Conditions
products.
To maintain acceptable indoor environmental condi-
• Clean the carpet and upholstered furniture on a tions, temperature, humidity, and airflow must be kept at
regular basis using a HEPA vacuum system. acceptable levels. Keep humidity levels between 40% and
• Use a dehumidifier to reduce humidity, if 60% by running the cooling system when humidity is high
necessary. or by using humidifiers and dehumidifiers to maintain
• Have the HVAC system and chimney inspected proper levels. Maintain temperature between 72°F and
each year and perform proper maintenance of 76°F (22°C and 24°C) by properly programming the ther-
HVAC system. mostat. Make sure adequate ventilation is maintained by
programming the thermostat to operate the fan occasion-
Providing Adequate Ventilation and Filtration ally if it has that capability. Also, make sure furnace filters
To maintain adequate ventilation and filtration, are replaced on schedule. Locate and eliminate unwanted
the technician should ensure that the design and drafts. Drafts can bring in unwanted humidity, transfer
operation of the HVAC system is in accordance with heat between the indoors and outdoors, bring in dust and
ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor other contaminants, and make occupants uncomfortable.
Air Quality, and ASHRAE Standard 129, Measuring
Air Change Effectiveness. Air filters with a Minimum 28.3.4 Classifications of Indoor Air
Efficiency Reporting Value (MERV) of 13 should be
used. Be certain that filters fit correctly and are changed
Quality Issues
regularly. There should be a maintenance and inspec- Problems with indoor air quality can cause a
tion plan for the HVAC system, including at least the variety of symptoms in occupants. Often these symp-
two following steps: toms lead to the diagnosis of one of three classified

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730 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

conditions: sick building syndrome (SBS), build- Inadequate preventive maintenance can provide the
ing-related illness (BRI), or multiple chemical sen- nutrients that bacteria such as Legionella need to thrive.
sitivity (MCS). The majority of IAQ concerns stem Proper equipment design and proper maintenance of sys-
from poor ventilation, poor filtration, and contami- tems may reduce the risk of bacteria growth. Periodic dis-
nated HVAC systems. infecting also helps to prevent the bacteria's growth.
The HVAC system should be checked whenever
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) evidence indicates the presence of diseases, such as
One of the most commonly diagnosed IAQ condi- humidifier fever, allergic asthma, and allergic rhini-
tions is sick building syndrome (SBS). It can usually tis. The system must be checked to determine if any
be confirmed when approximately 20% or more of a microorganisms are present. An initial walk-through is
building's occupants complain of drowsiness, fatigue, recommended, with visual inspection for possible res-
eye and skin irritations, or respiratory problems. SBS ervoirs and sites of contamination. If a suspected site
health problems appear to be due to the building. The is located, a sample should be obtained and analyzed.
symptoms frequently disappear when individuals are
removed from the environment. In cases of sick build- Multiple Chemical Sensitivity (MCS)
ing syndrome, a specifically diagnosable illness is not A small portion of the population has experienced
identified. multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS). This is a condi-
OSHA describes sick building syndrome as a tion that is unexplained, manifesting itself in reported
reaction to chemical, physical, or biological stim- sensitivities and adverse reactions to low levels of
uli. According to NIOSH (National Institute of chemicals, bioaerosols, and other irritants. Individuals
Occupational Safety and Health), a deficiency in the that develop multiple chemical sensitivity appear to
ventilation system is the largest single cause of SBS. have abnormal sensitivity to contaminants in the envi-
Sick building syndrome can be caused by any combi- ronment. MCS can also be referred to as chemical hyper-
nation of the following factors: sensitivity or environmental illness.
• Poor temperature/humidity control.
• Poor ventilation and lighting. 28.4 Air Cleaning
• Improper maintenance and system design.
Many IAQ problems can be solved or avoided by
• Airborne chemicals or pollutants. cleaning the air in an enclosed space. Filtering is one
• Excessive noise. of the most common methods of cleaning the air. It is
possible to remove almost 100% of air contaminants;
Building-Related Illness (SRI) however, doing so can be expensive. Removal of 90%
Building-related illness (BRI) is a diagnosable to 95% is much more common and practical.
illness caused by exposure to airborne agents. BRI
symptoms do not disappear when the occupant moves
to a more favorable environment. BRI differs from SBS 28.4.1 Air Filters
in that SBS has no specific cause and no identifiable An air filter is a device made of fibrous materials
illness. used to remove solid particulates, such as dust, pollen,
Examples of BRI include colds, flu viruses, tuber- mold, and bacteria, from circulating air. Having an air
culosis, measles, and smallpox. BRI illnesses can per- filter in series with an air handler allows the filter to
manently damage health and, in extreme cases, may passively remove contaminants from the air. Air filter
be fatal. In BRI cases, the services of a qualified health efficiency is measured by the following three factors:
professional should be sought immediately. There are
• Total weight of dirt collected.
numerous causes of BRI, including viruses spread by
the airflow system, stagnant water, toxins and aller- • Size of the smallest particle that can be removed.
gens, radon, and microscopic airborne biological • Degree of discoloration on the exhaust side of the
agents, such as spores and fungi. filter being tested.
A specific example of a building-related illness is Air filters and electronic air cleaners are rated
Legionnaires' disease. Symptoms include headache, by ASHRAE Standard 52.2, which determines effi-
high fever, and respiratory problems. This disease is ciency by the size of particle that the filter will cap-
caused by the Legionella bacteria, which can live in ture, Figure 28-11. Manufacturers often rate their air
cooling towers, evaporative condensers, and domestic filters as 90-98% efficient. This usually refers to an air
water systems. filter's ability to capture only large particles (3.0-10.0
microns). See Figure 28-12.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 28 Air Quality 731

There are five basic types of air filters:

Air Filter Efficiency
• Disposable filters.
Particle Size
Particle Type Class • Washable filters.
(Microns)
Small E1 0.3-1.0 • Electrostatic filters.
Medium E2 1.0-3.0
• Carbon filters.
Large E3 3.0-10.0
• HEPA filters.
Each type of air filter serves the same basic func-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher tion of removing pollutants from the air. The major dif-
Figure 28-11. Air filter efficiencies are usually a measure of ference is the amount of pollutants each removes from
the percentage of class E3 large particles the filter is capable a specific volume of air over a given period.
of capturing.
Code Alert
Air Filters
Minimum Efficiency Reporting Values Local building codes may dictate the way central
and Applications heating and air conditioning systems are to be filtered.
Typical Codes may dictate what media can be used, airflow
MERV Typical Application
Contaminant requirements through the filter, and the flammability
limits of any treatment (such as an adhesive or static
13 through All bacteria Hospital inpatient
spray) that is to be applied to the filter element.
16 Most tobacco care
(0.30 to smoke General surgery
1.0 microns) Smoking lounges
Droplet nuclei Disposable Filters
Cooking oil Superior commercial As their name implies, disposable filters are
Copier toner buildings meant to be discarded when they become dirty. There
Face powder are several different types of disposable filters avail-
Paint pigment able on the market. Two common types of disposable
filters are fiberglass panel filters and pleated media
9 through 12 Legionella Superior residential panel filters. These filters generally consist of a card-
buildings
(1.0 to Lead dust board frame, filter material, and sometimes a thin g
3.0 microns) Milled flour Better commercial metal grille, Figure 28-13.
buildings
Coal dust In most residential applications, these disposable
Hospital laboratories
Auto emissions filters have a thickness of 1". Disposable filters for com-
Nebulizer drops mercial use can be several inches thick. The efficiency
Welding fumes
rating of this type of filter is usually low to medium.
5 through 8 Mold Commercial Washable Filters
(3.0 to Spores buildings
Washable filters are designed to be used repeat-
10 microns) Hair spray Better residential edly. The filters can be removed, cleaned as directed,
buildings
Cement dust dried, and reinstalled. Washable filter media materials
Industrial include synthetic media, such as polyester and foam,
Snuff
workplaces
Powdered milk aluminum expanded metal mesh, and wire cloth.
Paint booth inlets
1 through 4 Pollen Minimum filtration Electrostatic Filters
Spanish moss Residential Static electricity, a buildup of charged particles, is
Dust mites Window air the reason dirt and dust cling to walls, drapes, and
Sanding dust conditioners ceilings. Static electricity also attracts dirt and dust to
vertical and overhead surfaces.
Paint spray
Static electricity is often generated when two sur-
Dust
faces rub together and are then separated. For example,
Textile fibers rubbing a cloth on a rubber ball will build up surplus
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher electrons on the ball, giving it a negative charge. The
Figure 28-12. Chart of MERV ratings and typical cloth will lack electrons, giving it a positive charge.
contaminants found in various applications. This imbalance of electrons is called static electricity.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

732 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Static Electricity
Material Electrical Charge
Asbestos +++++++++
Glass ++++++++
Human hair +++++++
Nylon ++++++
Wood +++++
Lead ++++
Silk +++
Aluminum ++
A
Paper +
Cotton -
Steel --
Sealing wax ---
Hard rubber ----
Acetate rayon -----
Nickel copper ------
Brass silver -------
Synthetic rubber --------
Orlon ---------
Saran ----------
Polyethylene -----------
Teflon ------------
Silicone rubber -------------
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
B
Figure 28-14. A variety of materials and their abilities to
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher; Camfil Farr Co. generate static electricity. Materials nearer the top of the
Figure 28-13. Two types of disposable filters are most list will tend to have a positive (+) charge, while materials
common. A-Fiberglass panel filters are generally the least nearer the bottom will tend to have a negative (-) charge. The
expensive options, but are also the least effective at filtering farther apart the substances are on the list, the greater their
small particles. B-A pleated-type disposable air filter. The combined ability to generate static electricity when they are
folds in the filter material increase the filtering surface. touched together.

If the imbalance of electrons is great enough, the elec-

Thinking Green
trical charge will jump an air gap and create a spark.
Under the right conditions, this spark could cause a Passive Electrostatic Filters
fire or explosion. Different materials have different In many cases, a passive electrostatic filter can be
potentials for generating static electricity, Figure 28-14. installed in an HVAC system to improve filtering capabil-
Basically, an electronic air cleaner puts a static ity without increasing energy consumption. The electro-
electrical charge on all particles in the air that pass static charge is produced by the friction of air blowing
through it. These charged particles are then attracted across the fibers in the filter, so no outside power source
to collector plates with an opposite electrical charge. is required. Several manufacturers produce electrostatic
coating that can be sprayed onto a disposable filter to
Electronic air cleaners are also called electrostatic air
give it an electrostatic charge.
cleaners, electronic filters, or electrostatic filters.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 28 Air Quality 733

Carbon Filters Disposable Carbon

An air filter made of activated carbon can remove prefilter filters
solid particles, odor-causing gases, and bacteria. In
activated-charcoal form, the carbon can be made from
various substances, including coconut shells and petro-
leum refining by-products. The activated charcoal will
adsorb as much as 50% of its weight in foreign gases.
Because of its ability to reduce odors, this type of air
filter is often used in air conditioners and in refrig-
erators. Figure 28-15 shows an activated carbon filter
assembly.
It is possible to recycle used carbon filters.
However, this is usually done by the manufacturers.
They remove and process the carbon for reuse.

HEPA Filters
A HEPA (high-efficiency particulate air) filter
removes a high percentage of particles in air as the air
passes through an air purifier. To qualify as a HEPA fil-
ter under US government standards, a filter must cap-
ture 99.97% of airborne particles 0.3 microns or larger.
A micron is one-millionth of a meter.
HEPA filters perform significantly better than ionic
Camfil Farr Co.
and electronic air cleaners. They also often improve in
Figure 28-15. Activated carbon filter assembly equipped with
performance over time, whereas dirt accumulation on a throwaway prefilter.
the plates causes a decrease in performance in the ionic
and electronic air cleaners. HEPA filters are used in a
variety of applications, including medical facilities and
aircraft, Figure 28-16. Fiberglass media

Air Filter Maintenance

Air filters tend to unload excess contaminants
once their capacity has been reached. These contami-
nants are then released downstream in the system,
dirtying heat exchange surfaces, covering the inside of .f
ductwork, and entering the conditioned spaces. This
can result in sooty soil on ceilings, diffusers, and wall
surfaces. A dirty air filter can also affect energy cost
due to inefficient heat transfer at coil surfaces and a
resulting increased fan run time. Air filters should be
changed at approximately 80% of design final resis-
11
d
tance, as energy cost rises sharply with resistance.
1
When installing air filters, check the support of
the air filter frames. Also look for leaks around frames.
Be sure there is no light showing around the frame,
which may allow unfiltered air to leak by. The fit of air
il
filters in frames should be plumb and square.
Visually check the condition of the filter media.
If there are any tears, rips, or holes, replace the filter.
Filters have design specifications providing both initial
and recommended final resistance to airflow. These
are usually stated in inches of water. A manometer Camfil Farr Co.
can be used to measure pressure drop across the filters Figure 28-16. HEPA filters capture very fine particles but do
in inches of water. The two manometer openings are not filter out gases and odors.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

734 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

connected to measure the airflow on the two opposite color or weight, determines the efficiency of the test fil-
sides of the filter. These measurements will indicate ter. For example, if the outlet sample filter collects only
the pressure drop across the air filter. 1% of the amount of particles as the inlet sample filter,
A ventilation system is usually designed to allow the test filter has a 99% efficiency.
the filter pressure drop (resistance) to be about one- The fractional efficiency test is the most advanced
fourth of the total pressure drop (pressure rise across and accurate of the techniques for measuring air filter
the blower fan). For example, if the total pressure rise performance. It uses high-tech equipment to count the
across the fan is 4.0" (10 cm) of water column, then the number of particles trapped by an air filter. The test
allowed pressure drop across the filter is 1.0" (2.5 cm) then classifies the particles based on their size. A chal-
of water column. lenge aerosol is chosen that will be able to accurately
measure the particle sizes. A particle count is taken
Measuring Air Filter Efficiencies both upstream and downstream of the filter. The effi-
Air filters are tested in laboratories. They can also ciency of the filter is calculated based upon each size
be tested on the job. One test determines how many range.
0.3 micron-size particles the filter can remove. This test
is made by measuring the interference with diffused 28.4.2 Electronic Air Cleaners
(scattered) light. To increase filtering surface or area in
air filters, many different designs are used. A popular Electronic air cleaners have four main parts:
method to increase the area is to use pockets or pleats • Frame.
to trap the air. • Power supply.
As described in ASHRAE Standards 52.1 and 52.2,
three common methods are used to measure air filter • Prefilter and airflow distributor.
performance: • Electronic cell (electronic grid).
• Atmospheric dust spot efficiency. Electronic air cleaners are available as stand-alone
units or for installation in ductwork. Stand-alone units
• Synthetic dust weight arrestance. can be installed on ceilings or in a portable cabinet,
• Fractional efficiency. Figure 28-17. In addition to the four basic components
Atmospheric dust spot efficiency measures the already described, stand-alone electronic air cleaners are
ability of an air filter to remove atmospheric dust by usually equipped with a fan to draw in and expel air.
evaluating the flow rates on both sides of the filter and Figure 28-18 shows an electronic air cleaner
the quantity of material it captures. This test is used that is designed to be installed at the inlet of the
to assess medium efficiency air filters and air cleaners. return air ductwork. Many electronic air cleaners are
Special filter paper targets are located on both sides of installed closer to the air handler, just before the inlet
the tested filter. The efficiency is calculated based on to the blower. These can be installed in several ways
the quantity of air drawn through the target filter, the depending on the orientation of the air handler and
amount of light transmitted through the target filter,
and the difference in light transmission for the two
paper filter targets. The amount of air and light trans- Purified Ionizing Negatively
mitted through the target filter papers decreases dur- air section charged plates Prefilter
ing the test due to a buildup of dust. screen
Synthetic dust weight arrestance is a measure of Internal
a filter's ability to remove synthetic dust from test air. It
is calculated by comparing the weight of the synthetic
dust that gets caught in the filter being tested and the
weight of the amount of dust fed into the filter.
Another air filter efficiency test is called the DOP
HEPAP Method. The name of the test comes from the
name of the testing particles, dioctyl phthalate. This test
is used mainly with high-efficiency filters. Particles of
0.3 microns are sprayed into the inlet duct of the filter
being tested. Small, white, sample filters collect some Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
of this dust from the airstreams ahead of the test filter. Figure 28-17. Stand-alone electronic air filters may be
Other sample filters collect dust from the air leaving mounted on the ceiling or may be a portable. A ceiling -type
the test filter. The difference in the sampling filters, by electronic air filter is shown here.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 28 Air Quality 735

Front grille Control panel In most electronic air cleaner designs, the air first
passes through a washable filter, often referred to as
the prefilter. The prefilter is usually made of metal
mesh and removes most of the larger particles of dirt,
which helps extend the capacity of the device. After
going through the prefilter, the air passes into the
• electronic part of the filter, called the electronic grid
or electronic cell. In the electronic cell, a wire with a
high positive voltage is positioned between two nega-
tive ground wires. This creates a strong electrical field
between the wires.
As particles in the air pass through the electrical
field, they lose electrons, giving the particles a positive
charge. These particles are then drawn to the grounded
collector plates, which have a negative potential rela-
tive to the wires, Figure 28-20.
A common design variation has both posi-
tively charged and negatively charged plates. In
these designs, the positive plates repel the posi-
tively charged particles as the negatively charged
General Filters, Inc.
plates attract and trap them. Since the plates work
Figure 28-18. Electronic air cleaner installed at the inlet of the
together, the particles are moved to the negative
return air duct.
collector plates more quickly. This design is better
than the negative plate-only design in high-airflow
the available ductwork, Figure 28-19. Regardless of applications because it reduces the chances that a
the type of electronic air cleaner being used, the pur- charged particle can pass all the way through the
pose is the same- to remove airborne particles, such filter before being captured by the collector plates.
as smoke, dust, mold spores, pollen, and bacteria from A typical household electronic air cleaner is shown
the air. in Figure 28-21.

I
i
~ - - -;
--------------

Electronic air
Electroni:::
cleaner
t
cleaner
Downflow
furnace

Airflow

A B C D
Honeywell, Inc.
Figure 28-19. Electronic air filters may be installed in various places in ductwork. A-horizontal in the return air side.
B-lndividual units at room air returns. C-ln an upflow orientation. D-ln a downflow orientation.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

736 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Power
• indicator
• • light

------ Prefilter blocks

large particles

Airflow
•

---__...

(-) (+)

Negatively charged
collector plates attract
and hold positively
charged particles

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 28-20. A simplified drawing shows how an electronic
air cleaner works. The prefilter traps large particles. The small
particles that pass through the prefilter become positively charged Honeywell, Inc.
when they pass between the positive and negative wires in the Figure 28-21. A whole house electronic air cleaner is capable
electronic cell. Positively charged particles are attracted to and of removing 93% of medium size particles (1.0-3.0 microns)
captured by the negatively charged collector plates. and 98% of large particles (3.0-10.0 microns).

Safety Note to its proper position. Tum on the power. With proper care
Electronic Air Cleaners and maintenance, these filters last indefinitely.
Electronic air cleaners must be installed level and
Electrical potentials as high as 12,000 V are devel-
oped between the wires in the electronic cell. Due to
plumb to provide efficient airflow. Airflow should be
the high voltages used to ionize pollutants, electronic evenly distributed across the face of the air cleaner for
air cleaners can be dangerous. Always disconnect the maximum efficiency. If the unit is installed near an
unit from its electrical supply before servicing. In addi- airflow elbow, movable air vanes or baffles should be
tion, it is important that the unit be cleaned according installed inside the duct to help the air flow smoothly
to the recommended schedule. If excess dirt is allowed around the bend. A fine-mesh screen or filter should
to build up inside the unit, the high voltages in the elec- be installed ahead (upstream) of the filter to prevent
tronic cell may cause arcing, which could result in a fire excessive lint from entering the unit. Excessive lint
or explosion. interferes with electronic air cleaner operation.

The electronic cells and prefilter must be cleaned

every two to three months. Most electronic air clean- 28.4.3 Ionizing Air Purifiers
ers have cleanable filters. To clean the electronic cell and If charged particles are allowed to pass from the ven-
screens, disconnect the power and then remove the filter. tilation system into a room, they will stick to walls, furni-
Clean the filter with a mixture of warm water and mild ture, and other surfaces. Ionizing the air in the room can
detergent. Rinse the filter with hot water until the water neutralize the static electrical charges that cause dirt and
runs through clean. Dry the filter thoroughly and return it dust to stick to walls and other surfaces. Ionizing means

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 28 Air Quality 737

to give a positive or negative charge to atoms or molecules installation. Return air duct installations are common
by adding or removing electrons. When the air is ionized, and purify all return air before it is warmed or cooled
electrons are exchanged between the negatively charged and distributed throughout a building. During cool-
air and the positively charged dirt and dust. When elec- ing operation, evaporator coils often condense mois-
trons are added to the dust particles, they lose their electric ture from the air. The moisture and air temperature
charge. The electrically neutral dirt and dust is no longer can turn an evaporator coil into a breeding ground for
attracted to the walls and other surfaces, so it settles to the mold and bacteria. For this reason, an HVAC system
floor. The dirt and dust can then be collected with a HEPA may need a UV light installed near its evaporator coil,
vacuum system. Figure 28-23.

Caution
Air Purifiers and Ozone
Some ionizing air purifiers produce ozone as a by-
Indicator Ultraviolet
product. In excessive concentrations, ozone can irritate
lights light probe
eyes and the respiratory system. The manufacturer's
instructions should be followed closely when using an
ionizing air purifier.
i

28.4.4 Ultraviolet Light

Wavelengths within the short wave, or C band,
of UV light (UVC) are effective germicidal light wave-
lengths. UVC lamps use electrical discharge through
low-pressure mercury vapor enclosed in a glass tube. A
The lamp transmits UVC light, primarily at the mer-
cury wavelength of 254 nanometers. This wavelength Ultraviolet light fixture Furnace
has been found to be efficient in the killing of microor-
ganisms. Therefore, UVC from mercury lamps also is
referred to as UVG (ultraviolet germicidal). When used
appropriately, UVGs destroy viruses, bacteria, and
fungi. The type of microorganisms and quantity killed
depends on the length of exposure to the ultraviolet
rays and the output or intensity of the lamps.

Safety Note
Ultraviolet Light
Avoid looking at or being exposed to ultraviolet light
rays. Ultraviolet lights are harmful to eyes and skin. The
risk of skin and eye damage increases with the length
of exposure.

Ultraviolet light duct fixtures may be used for resi-

dential and commercial applications. Residential units
are often a single or double ultraviolet ray tube assem-
bly. A common location for UV lights is in the return
air duct just upstream of the air handler, Figure 28-22.
Near an UV light installed, any access door to
Return air duct Blower
the ductwork must be equipped with a safety shut-
B
off switch that turns off the lamps if someone opens a Allanson Inc.
door. When the lamps are on, the rays must cover the Figure 28-22. A-The knobs at the end of the bulbs are used
full cross-section of the duct to be effective. to turn and secure the bulbs in place in the assembly. B-The
UV lights may be installed in different locations, probe of this residential ultraviolet air purifier is placed in the
depending on the system and the objective of the return air duct.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

738 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Above the Evaporator Coil Inside the Evaporator Coil Return Air Duct Installation
Field Controls, LLC
Figure 28-23. Reference manufacturer literature for recommended installation locations of UV lights.

Commercial HVACR systems may also use UV

lights. Always check manufacturer recommended loca- Cleaning an Ultraviolet Air Treatment
tions for a UV light before installation. Location may System
depend on the type of system and its orientation. A Ultraviolet lamps should be cleaned
commercial HVAC rooftop unit installation is shown in regularly to maintain an air treatment system.
Figure 28-24. Cleaning recommendations are as follows:
UV lights should be cleaned quarterly and 1. Disconnect the power to the HVAC system.
replaced annually. Sealed lamps contain mercury, so
2. Unplug the ultraviolet air treatment system
caution must be taken.
cord from the electrical outlet and allow the
Safety Note lamps to cool for at least 15 minutes.
3. Rotate the lamp knob counterclockwise and
Ultraviolet Operation
gently pull the lamp knob to remove the lamp(s).
To verify that lights are in operation, check the lamp
light indicator on the lamp knob. Never look directly at 4. Holding only the lamp knob, wipe the lamp
the lamps while they are illuminated. glass using a soft cloth with window cleaner
applied to it. Do not touch the lamp surface
with your hands. Use only the cloth.
5. To ensure that the lamp indicator continues to
function, use a moistened cotton swab to gen-
tly remove any dust that may have collected
between the lamp light indicator on the base
and the black lamp base.
6. Wipe the lamps with a clean, dry cloth.
7. Put the clean lamps back into the unit base.
8. Plug the cord into the electrical outlet.
9. Verify the operation of the ultraviolet lamp(s)
by viewing through the lamp light indicator
on the lamp knob.
10. Reconnect the power to the HVAC system.

Steril-Aire, Inc. High-volume commercial systems often contain

Figure 28-24. Technician installing a single UV light tube in multiple lamps, which are used inside large air han-
an ultraviolet light assembly on a commercial unit. dling equipment. Units should be equipped with lamps

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 28 Air Quality 739

that do not produce ozone. These units provide both UV lights

odor control and germicidal protection, Figure 28-25. I
Lamp installation is needed in cooling coils and
drain pan areas, since these are areas of high contam-
ination. Use of UV lights in these locations can reduce
the need for chemical cleaning agents. Additional
light fixtures may be installed in the ductwork if
heavy contamination exists there.
Lamps should remove 80-90% of the bacteria
in domestic and commercial systems. They should
remove at least 99% in hospital operating and recov-
ery rooms. Systems that remove more than 99% of
the bacteria are more expensive but may be required
in some applications. Since these lamps are stronger
than their commercial and residential counterparts,
no human exposure to the light generated can be per-
mitted. The useful life of a lamp varies with output,
but may be as high as 9000 hours.
Refrigerant coils
Steril-Aire, Inc.
Figure 28-25. This commercial air handler has rows of
28.5 Indoor Air Quality Systems ultraviolet lights. Additional lights increase the system's ability
In the past, natural air exchange through infiltration to remove pollutants.
(leakage of air into a building) and exfiltration (air leav-
ing a building through doors, windows, and other con-
Return Fresh air
struction joints) was assumed satisfactory. Additional air duct intake
exchange of air was provided by the opening of doors and Germicidal
light
windows. Today, systems that provide ventilation and
increase air quality are recommended due to the increas-
ingly tight envelope of newer home construction, through
increased insulation and sealing.
An important responsibility of a residential
home's HVAC system is maintaining the quality of the
air. Some residential homes are equipped with com-
plete indoor air quality systems. An indoor air quality
system is a controlled ventilation system that exhausts
stale humid air and reduces pollen, dust, odors, and
other pollutants. A complete system consists of numer-
ous components, including an air conditioner, high-
efficiency variable-speed furnace, humidifier, air
purification system, UV germicidal light, and a heat
recovery ventilator (HRV) or energy recovery ventila-
Thermostat
tor (ERV). The components in this type of system are Furnace/air device Indoor Condensing
coordinated to ensure adequate ventilation, heating, handler coil unit
and cooling, Figure 28-26.
Rheem Manufacturing Company
To maintain indoor air quality, stale indoor air
Figure 28-26. The components of a complete home air
is exchanged with fresh outdoor air. However, while quality system are shown here.
outdoor air may be fresh, it is often not at the same
temperature and humidity as the conditioned indoor
air. To reduce the energy loss that would be required A heat recovery ventilator (HRV) is a heat
to recondition incoming fresh air, HVAC systems route exchanger that passes incoming fresh air and outgoing
incoming fresh air through an HRV or an ERV. Heat stale air through a series of parallel passages. As each
recovery ventilators (HRVs) and energy recovery ven- airstream passes through the HRV, heat is exchanged,
tilators (ERVs) deliver fresh air into a home's interior so the incoming air is closer to the temperature of the
and improve ventilation. outgoing air, Figure 28-27.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

740 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

air is removed from bathrooms, the laundry room, and

kitchen.
An ERV transfers both heat and moisture (usu-
ally the stale air in winter and the fresh air in sum-
mer) to the airstream that is drier. In colder climates,
where heating is important, an HRV is appropriate. An
ERV is used in warmer climates where humidity con-
trol is important. ERVs and HRVs are most commonly
connected to the ductwork. Installations and arrange-
ments may vary, Figure 28-28.

Field Controls, LLC Indoor

Figure 28-27. Removing a side panel reveals this heat air
recovery ventilator's heat exchanger. exhaust

-------MERV-8
filters
An energy recovery ventilator (ERV) is con-
structed and operates in the same manner as an HRV;
however, an additional component allows ERVs to
transfer heat and also humidity.
ERVs and HRVs are mechanical ventilation sys-
Fresh
tems. HRV/ERVs are referred to as balanced systems.
air inlet
An HRV recovers some of the heat that would other-
wise have been exhausted. Through the use of fans,
HRV/ERVs provide a flow of fresh outdoor air into
the house while exhausting out the same amount of RenewAire
stale indoor air. In a typical installation, fresh air is Figure 28-28. An energy recovery ventilator (ERV) used for
brought to the living room and bedrooms, and stale residential and small commercial applications.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • To improve air quality, air can be cleaned with
air filters, ultraviolet lights, or a combination of
• ASHRAE Standard 62.1 provides guidelines these measures.
for indoor air quality. The National Institute • Numerous types of air filters are available,
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) including disposable filters, washable filters,
and the Occupational Safety and Health electrostatic filters, carbon filters, and HEPA
Administration (OSHA) regulate indoor air filters. Disposable air filters consist of a filter
quality in the workplace. material with a thin metal grille mounted
• Indoor air quality is a measure of the combined in a cardboard frame. This type of filter
effects of temperature, humidity, airflow, generally has a low-to-medium efficiency
pollutants, number of occupants, and other rating. Washable air filters can be cleaned
factors in an enclosed space. and reused.
• A pollutant is a substance that is in some way • Electrostatic air filters ionize particles in the air.
a detriment to comfort, health, and a desirable The particles are then drawn to collector plates
environment. that have an opposite charge. Most electronic
air filters have a prefilter that blocks large
• Solid pollutants include dust, fumes, smoke, particles. The electronic cell captures smaller
bioaerosols, and asbestos. Gaseous pollutants particles.
include sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, radon, • Carbon filters use activated charcoal to filter
and organic vapors. out particles and adsorb odors and fumes.
Because of its odor-reducing abilities, this type
• The amount of time people spend indoors of filter is commonly used in refrigerators and
in combination with newer energy-efficient air conditioners.
building standards and new synthetic building
materials has made indoor air quality a • HEPA filters capture 99.97% of particles 0.3
growing concern. In residences, poor indoor air microns or larger as they pass through the air
quality can be caused by decreased ventilation, purifier.
fumes, moisture, the habits of occupants, and • The rating of an air filter's efficiency is a
lack of maintenance of the home or HVAC reflection of its ability to filter out particles g
system. of a certain size. Air filter efficiency can be
• IAQ problems in commercial settings can be measured by atmospheric dust spot efficiency
caused by inadequate ventilation, inadequate tests, synthetic dust arrestance tests, and
filtration, work-related chemicals, cleaning fractional efficiency tests.
chemicals, pesticides, mold, mildew, air • Ultraviolet lights are used to reduce
pollutants being brought in from outdoors, bacteria, mold spores, viruses, and other
or overcrowding. To maintain acceptable microorganisms. UV lights are frequently
indoor environmental conditions, temperature, installed in ductwork or near an evaporator coil
humidity, and airflow must be kept at and/or drain pan. In commercial applications,
acceptable levels. multiple UV bulbs are often used.
• Exposure to poor indoor air quality can • Complete air quality systems combine air
cause sick building syndrome (SBS), conditioning, heating/cooling, air purifier,
building-related illness (BRI), or multiple UV germicidal light, and heat recovery
chemical sensitivity (MCS). Symptoms of ventilator or energy recovery ventilator.
SBS are building-related and disappear System components work together to ensure
when the occupant leaves the building. BRI that the temperature, humidity, and overall
is caused by exposure to airborne agents air quality are maintained at the proper
that lead to a diagnosable illness. MCS levels.
results in abnormally high sensitivities and
adverse reactions to low levels of chemicals,
bioaerosols, and other irritants.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 741

742 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• A heat recovery ventilator (HRV) passes 6. Which of the following statements is false?
incoming fresh air and outgoing stale air A. An individual with multiple chemical
through a series of parallel passages. As each sensitivity reacts to small quantities of
airstream passes through the HRV, heat is chemicals or bioaerosols.
exchanged, so the incoming air is closer to the B. Complaints about temperature and
temperature of the outgoing air. An energy humidity can offer clues to indoor
recovery ventilator (ERV) operates in the same environmental problems.
manner as an HRV but transfers humidity as C. People between the ages of five and sixty
well as heat. have an increased susceptibility to indoor
air pollutants.
D. Unvented gas appliances are a potential
Review Questions source of indoor air pollutants.
7. Two common types of disposable filters are
Answer the following questions using the information in
this chapter. A. pleated media filters and carbon filters
1. A standard that includes equipment B. carbon filters and fiberglass panel filters
and system requirements and minimum C. fiberglass panel filters and HEPA filters
ventilation rates that result in acceptable D. pleated media filters and fiberglass panel
indoor air quality is _ _. filters
A. ASHRAE Standard 52.2 8. A(n) _ _ filter is often used in refrigerators
B. ASHRAE Standard 62 because of its ability to reduce odors.
C. ASHRAE Standard 90.1 A. washable
D. ASHRAE Standard 170 B. HEPA
2. Which of the following is a gaseous C. electrostatic
pollutant? D. carbon
A. radon 9. Which of the following is a measure of air
B. asbestos filter efficiency?
C. fumes A. Total volume of dirt collected.
D. bacteria B. Total weight of dirt collected.
3. Carbon monoxide is C. Size of the largest particle that can be
A. formed from the natural decay of uranium removed.
B. a nontoxic combination of carbon and D. Total weight of the particles that can be
oxygen removed.
C. a result of incomplete combustion of fuel 10. The most accurate of the techniques for
D. photochemically produced in nature measuring air filter performance is the _ _.
4. Diminishing quality of indoor air is due to A. atmospheric dust spot efficiency test
B. DOP HEPAP method
A. reduced infiltration of outdoor air C. fractional efficiency test
B. vapors released from new building D. synthetic dust weight arrestance test
materials 11. In most electronic air cleaners, the larger
C. Both A and B. particles and dirt are removed by a(n) _ _.
D. Neither A nor B. A. carbon filter
5. Fumes and volatile organic compounds B. electronic grid
(VOCs) are released from _ _. C. electronic cell
A. paints D. prefilter
B. adhesives 12. Ultraviolet lamps should be cleaned _ _.
C. synthetic building materials A. daily
D. All of the above. B. quarterly
C. every three years
D. never

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 28 Air Quality 743

13. Common installation locations for ultraviolet

lights for germicidal protection include the
following, except _ _.
A. above the evaporator coil
B. inside the evaporator coil
C. in the combustion chamber
D. in the return air duct
14. Fresh air is delivered into a home's interior by

A. energy recovery ventilators

B. heat recovery ventilators
C. humidifiers
D. Both A and B.
15. An ERV is
A. a heat recovery ventilator
B. not a heat exchanger
C. used where only heat is important
D. used where humidity control is important

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER29 Air Distribution

Chapter Outline
29.1 Air Properties and Behavior
29.1.1 Weight
29.1.2 Heat in Air
29.1.3 Stratification
29.2 Air Circulation
29.2.1 Room Air Movement
29.2.2 Return Air Ducts
29.3 Basic Ventilation Requirements
29.3.1 Calculating Air Changes
29.3.2 Attic Ventilation
29.3.3 Basement Ventilation
-
?'

29.4 Air Ducts Learning Objectives

29.4.1 Types of Duct Systems
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
29.4.2 Duct Construction
• Recall the properties of air that affect air distribution
29.4.3 Fiberglass and Other Nonmetal Ducts
system design or installation.
29.4.4 Duct Dimensions
29.4.5 Registers, Diffusers, and Grilles • Categorize air circulation systems.
29.4.6 Dampers • Determine the basic ventilation requirements for a
29.4.7 Elbows given space.
29.5 Duct Sizing • Identify the basic types of air duct systems.
29.5.1 General Duct Design Guidelines
• Explain the relationships between air distribution and
29.5.2 Duct Sizing Procedure
duct sizing and design.
29.5.3 ACCA Manual D
29.6 Fans • Understand the procedure for correctly sizing ducts.
29.7 Air Curtains • Identify types and classifications of fans.
 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 745

Technical Terms • Dry-bulb temperature is a measurement of the air's

temperature without adjusting for the effect of humidity.
air curtain gable fan Wet-bulb temperature is a measurement of the air's
airflow friction chart grille temperature that is adjusted for the effect of the air's
aspect ratio induced draft humidity on evaporative cooling. (Chapter 27)
available static pressure Manual D • Total air pressure is static air pressure (which is
(ASP) multiple-blade damper based on the density of the air) plus velocity pressure
axial flow fan oil canning (which is the force exerted by the air's movement).
butterfly damper primary air (Chapter 27)
device pressure losses radial flow fan • A pitot tube measures total air pressure and static air
(DPL) register pressure. Air passing through the nose of the pitot
diffuser return air duct tube represents the total air pressure. (Chapter 27)
duct split damper
ductboard starting collar
effective length
elbow
throw
total effective length (TEL)
Introduction
external static pressure total pressure drop Air-conditioning systems condition the air and dis-
(ESP) unvented attic tribute it. They are designed to distribute air to the proper
forced draft vented attic space in amounts that provide the most comfort to the
friction loss whole house fan occupants of the conditioned space.
friction rate When a radiator or a room convector system is
used, air distribution is simple. An example of this type
of air distribution is a radiator. The heat exchange units
Review of Key Concepts are located along the outside walls. During the heating
season, heated air rises from the radiator along the wall. It
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
mixes with the cold air adjacent to the cold wall. Natural
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
air currents (convection) then move the air mixture
• Sensible heat is the heat energy absorbed or released to
throughout the room. Many heating systems use motor-
change the temperature of a substance. Heat that brings
about a change of state with no change in temperature driven fans to help circulate the air. g
A good air-conditioning system delivers clean air to
is called latent heat. (Chapter 4)
the space being conditioned. Proper ventilation can also
• Boyle's law states that the volume of a gas varies help control humidity levels in indoor air. Uncontrolled
inversely to the pressure, provided the temperature humidity from bathrooms, laundry rooms, and shower
remains constant. (Chapter 5) rooms can cause condensation on windows and walls.
• Charles' law states that at a constant pressure, the Proper ventilation can also control odors from cooking,
volume of a confined gas varies in direct proportion smoking, or other household activities.
to the absolute temperature. (Chapter 5)
• Dew point is the temperature at which the current
amount of moisture in the air would result in
complete saturation of the air (100% relative
humidity). At the dew point, moisture in the air
begins to condense. (Chapter 27)
746 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

29.1 Air Properties and Behavior Latent heat in air is the heat or energy stored
within the moisture in the air. When water vapor con-
Before designing or installing an air distribution denses, it changes from a vapor to a liquid. This pro-
system, the basic properties of air must be understood. cess releases heat from the water. The latent heat in the
Failure to consider the behavior of air will result in a air is the amount of heat that would be released if all of
poorly designed system. Some properties to consider are the moisture in the air condensed out of the air.
the weight of air, the manner in which air absorbs heat, Since colder air is not capable of holding as much
and the way air separates into layers (stratification). moisture as warmer air, the air is much drier dur-
ing the winter season. A humidifier adds moisture
29.1.1 Weight to the air. Moisture is commonly added while air is
being heated to bring the air as close as possible to the
Air has definite weight. Although they are invis- human comfort level, or approximately 70°F (21°C) db
ible, the gases that compose air have a definite mass and 30% rh during winter months.
and, therefore, weight. Figure 29-1 lists the density of Relative humidity is much different from absolute
air under various temperature and relative humidity or specific humidity. Relative humidity compares the
conditions. air being treated to that same air that is completely
One pound (0.454 kg) of dry air at 70°F (21°C) at stan- saturated (100% relative humidity). Saturation is the
dard atmospheric pressure occupies a space of 13.35 ft3 point where no more moisture can be added to the air.
(0.378 m 3). If there is 50% relative humidity, one pound of It is the maximum amount of moisture that the air is
air and moisture mixture takes up 13.51 ft3 (0.383 m 3) of capable of holding.
space. Because air is a gas, it obeys the gas laws (Boyle's For example, assume that a volume of air at 80°F
and Charles'). Therefore, as the temperature rises or the (27°C) is capable of holding 0.022 lb of moisture per
pressure drops, air expands to fill a greater space. Also, as pound of air or 0.022 lb/lb when the air is saturated. If
relative humidity increases, each pound of air will occupy this volume of air is actually holding only 0.011 lb/lb
a greater space. Each water molecule weighs less than of moisture, then the air has a relative humidity of 50%
each nitrogen or oxygen molecule. A gas made up only (0.011 lb/0.022 lb x 100 = 50%). This air at this moment
of water molecules would weigh a little more than half has only half the amount of water vapor that it is capa-
as much as an equal volume of dry air, provided that the ble of holding.
pressure remains constant. Absolute humidity is the actual amount of moisture
in the air, which would be the 0.011 lb/lb of moisture
in the previous example. The moisture content is often
29.1.2 Heat in Air expressed in grains of moisture per pound of air. There
Two types of heat can be added or removed from are 7000 grains for every pound of moisture. Thus, the
air-sensible heat and latent heat. When sensible heat absolute humidity of the air from the previous example
is added into air, an increase of dry-bulb temperature would be 77 grains/lb (0.011 lb x 7000 grains/lb).
occurs. Likewise, when sensible heat is removed, there Another component that will add latent heat
is a decrease in dry-bulb temperature. into air is an evaporative cooling system, typically

Density and Volume of Air

Air Temp Dry Air 50%rh 100% rh
(OF) Density (lb/ft 3) Volume (ft3/lb) Density (lb/ft 3 ) Volume (ft3/lb) Density (lb/ft 3 ) Volume (ft3/lb)
0 0.08635 11.58 0.08632 11.585 0.08628 11.59
50 0.07786 12.84 0.0774 12.915 0.0769 12.99
70 0.07492 13.347 0.074 13.51 0.0731 13.68
100 0.0709 14.10 0.06856 14.585 0.06635 15.07
120 0.0685 14.60 0.0643 15.55 0.0606 16.50
150 0.0652 15.30 0.0565 17.70
200 0.0600 16.70

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-1. The density of air at various temperatures and relative humidity. Water vapor weighs less than an equal volume of
dry air.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 747

used in the southwest region of North America dur- Ceiling diffusers

ing the summer months. An evaporative cooling
system adds moisture into the air to give a cooling
effect. Because of the excessive sensible heat and the
lack of moisture in the air, water will easily vapor-
ize as it is introduced into the air. This will cause
a cooling effect by increasing the rh level of the air
while at the same time lowering its dry-bulb (sen-
sible) temperature. Taking the 100°F db and 10% rh
air and adding moisture brings the air closer to the
human comfort levels for summer, which is about
75°F (24°C) db and 50% rh.
The evaporator coil in a comfort cooling system
removes both sensible and latent heat from the air in
regions that maintain higher relative humidity lev-
els during summer months. As air circulates over the
evaporator coil, the sensible temperature is reduced to
the dew point temperature of the air. When the dew
point temperature is reached as the air comes in con- Raymon-Danco Corp.
tact with the evaporator coil, the moisture in the air Figure 29-2. These ceiling-mounted air diffusers are barely
condenses and is sent down a drain system. For each noticeable. Diffusers are placed around the room to prevent
pound of moisture removed from the coil, about air stratification.
970 Btus will be removed from the air. As both sensible
and latent heat decreases, the air will move closer to its
indoor target summer design db temperature of 75°F
(24°C) and a relative humidity of 50%. 29.2 Air Circulation
In warm air heating, three basic systems are used
29.1.3 Stratification to circulate the air:

In a given space with no drafts, warm air tends to • Gravity. g

rise and cold air tends to settle. If air is not deliberately • Intermittent forced-air.
moved, the air will settle at different heights according • Continuous forced-air.
to its temperature. This condition is called stratifica- The gravity system is no longer popular. Too much
tion. To prevent stratification, the air in an occupied energy is lost before the conditioned air reaches the
space must be kept moving. room being heated. Most installations use an intermit-
If thermostats or humidistats are placed too high tent forced-air system, in which a thermostat controls
in a room, they may be exposed to air that is warmer the blower fan in the air handler or furnace plenum
and more humid than the air felt by the occupants. chamber. The thermostat turns on the blower when-
If thermostats or humidistats are placed too low in a ever sensed temperature becomes too far above or
room, they may be exposed to air that is cooler and below the setpoint. Continuous forced-air systems are
less humid than the air felt by the room's occupants. growing in popularity. These provide a more constant
For this reason, it is important that these devices be temperature in rooms.
positioned at the proper level. Air distribution systems designed to provide cool-
Proper placement of supply and return duct out- ing as well as heating may need the ability to move
lets is also an important factor in preventing stratifica- different volumes of air depending on mode of opera-
tion. Poor placement of supply duct outlets or return tion. A cubic foot of cooled air will not change room
duct inlets could cause air to move only in certain parts temperature as much as a cubic foot of warmed air.
of the room while becoming stagnant (not moving) in This is because of the greater temperature differences
others. Furnishings can also obstruct air movement. produced. Warmed air comes out of the duct many
To minimize the airflow blockage caused by furnish- degrees warmer than the room air it is replacing.
ings, duct outlets are often located high up in the room Cooled air is not all that much cooler than the room
or in the ceilings. In these locations, the outlets may air it is replacing. Therefore, greater quantities need to
be concealed or given an attractive appearance. See be moved into the room to achieve the desired effect.
Figure 29-2. In average conditions, a 30% to 50% airflow increase is

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748 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

required. Either of the following two methods can be Supply plenum Return plenum
used to increase the airflow:
• Use of a two-speed or variable speed blower.
• Use of an adjustable pulley system for belt-driven
blowers. A larger motor pulley is used during
the heating season and a smaller pulley is used
during the cooling season.

29.2.1 Room Air Movement

Air entering a conditioned space through ducts
must circulate without causing annoying drafts. Air
circulation depends on the number and size of the duct
supply outlets and return inlets. It also depends on the
velocity of the air moving through the supply outlets.
Air delivered to the room from the supply duct
is called primary air. Primary air pushes against and
mixes with air already in a room. The outlet velocity is Supply branches
the speed of the air as it leaves the duct outlet. The dis- Hi-Velocity Systems
tance the air travels from the duct outlet before it slows Figure 29-3. This small duct, high-velocity air distribution system
to 50 fpm is called the throw. shows supply air going to the inside perimeter of the building and
The overall size of the supply outlet is not impor- the return air originated from the center of the building.
tant. The total area of the air openings in the fixture
determines the fixture's capacity. The spread of the air
that leaves the fixture is important. 29.3 Basic Ventilation
Requirements
29.2.2 Return Air Ducts
Air normally contains about 21% oxygen. People
Airflow through return air ducts is almost always need a certain amount of oxygen in the air in order
caused by the pulling action of a fan or blower. If the to breathe comfortably. Depending how far below this
return airflow does not match the airflow into a room, level the oxygen content falls, people can experience
the flow of air will not be properly balanced. a variety of symptoms including discomfort, breath-
If there is more return air than supply air, the room ing difficulty, drowsiness, disorientation, unconscious-
will have a negative pressure. This condition is known ness, and even death.
as being starved for air. Rooms that are starved for air If a room is tightly sealed, anyone in that room
are cold during the heating season and warm during will slowly consume the oxygen. As the oxygen is con-
the cooling season. To correct the problem, more sup- sumed, the amounts of carbon dioxide, water vapor,
ply air must be delivered to the room. and various impurities increase. As the oxygen con-
Return duct inlets should be placed in the strati- tent in the air decreases and the carbon dioxide lev-
fied (stagnant) air zone of a room. During the heating els increase, the room begins to feel stuffy. Continued
season, return air ducts would be located near the exposure to the oxygen-deficient air would cause peo-
floor. During the cooling season, such ducts should ple to experience progressive symptoms, beginning
be located near the ceiling. Ideally there would be with drowsiness and ending in unconsciousness and
two return duct inlets-one near the ceiling and one death. For these reasons, living spaces must have air
near the floor. The higher duct would be closed dur- with a sufficient oxygen content. It is very important
ing the heating season, and the lower one closed dur- that fresh air be admitted to provide necessary oxygen.
ing the cooling season. However, due to expense and The air must also be kept at a reasonable temperature.
practicality, most homes have only one return duct In the past, fresh air entered the space by infiltra-
inlet. Therefore, placement of the return duct inlet is tion through door and window openings and cracks
determined by the type of construction in a building in the structure. However, modern construction tech-
or whether the primary usage will be cooling or heat- niques reduce this air leakage. As a result, in modern
ing. In all cases, return duct inlets should be located homes and workplaces, an air-conditioning system
at the farthest distance from the supply duct outlets, must furnish fresh air. Modern air-conditioning sys-
Figure 29-3. tems should have a controlled fresh-air intake. This

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 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 749

fresh air is conditioned and mixed with the recircu- energy recovery ventilator (ERV). These devices have
lated air before it reaches the room, Figure 29-4. four air duct connections: fresh air inlet, fresh air out-
Fresh air can be brought into a building using a let, exhaust air inlet, and exhaust air outlet. Two ducts
fresh air duct connected between outdoors and the connect to outdoors. One brings in fresh air, and the
return air ducts. When the air handler's blower is other exhausts stale indoor air to the outdoors. HRVs
operating, fresh air can be drawn in and conditioned and ERVs transfer heat between incoming fresh air
before being circulated through the conditioned space. and outgoing exhaust air. The heat transfer helps to
A screen or mesh at the inlet to the fresh air duct pre- maintain steady indoor temperatures. HRVs and ERVs
vents insects and other critters from entering. This provide fresh air that has the least effect on indoor tem-
fresh air duct connecting outdoors and the return air perature. These units circulate air using a fan. HRVs
duct is usually regulated by a motorized damper or a and ERVs are covered in Chapter 28, Air Quality.
barometric damper. Some conditioned air leaves a building through
Another method of bringing in fresh air from exfiltration. Exhaust fans in bathrooms and kitch-
the outside uses a heat recovery ventilator (HRV) or ens also remove conditioned air. It is best to bring in

• •
RETURN

Field Controls, LLC

Figure 29-4. A duct to the outdoors is regulated by an automated damper. When the air handler is circulating air, the damper
opens to allow fresh air to flow through the air filter and air handler and past the plenum's UVG light. Fresh air is cleaned, purified,
and circulated into the conditioned space.

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750 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

replacement fresh air through an air system, where Formula for calculating air exchanges per hour:
it can be cleaned and cooled or heated. Bringing in
replacement air through an air-conditioning sys- Air exchanges per hour = 60 min
Time for one exchange
tem also ensures that a definite amount of fresh air
(makeup air) is brought in to provide a healthy oxy- Example:
gen level. Six people occupy a 10,000 ft3 space. Calculate
When fresh air is brought in by the air-condition- the necessary air exchange rate, the time required
ing system, a positive pressure can be maintained in for one complete air exchange, and the number of air
the building to help keep out airborne dirt, dust, and exchanges per hour.
pollen. Positive pressure is higher than atmospheric
Solution:
pressure. Negative pressure is below atmospheric
Required air exchange rate:
pressure. In most cases, a negative pressure should be
avoided, because it reduces the efficiency of exhaust 6 x 15 cfm = 90 cfm
fans and of fuel-fired appliances (furnaces, water heat-
ers, etc.). Maintaining a negative pressure also tends to Time for complete air exchange:
bring in outside contaminants. 10,000 ft3 = 111 min
Certain building areas should have slightly less
90cfm
positive pressure than the rest of the building. A lower
positive pressure (10% to 15% less than the rest of the Air exchanges per hour:
building) reduces the spread of odors. Such areas 60 min = 0_54
would include kitchens, bathrooms, and industrial
111 min
areas where fumes are produced.
Based on the number of occupants, the required
air exchange rate would be 90 cfm. At this rate, it would
29.3.1 Calculating Air Changes take 111 minutes (1.85 hours) to completely replace the
Air changes can be calculated by counting the air in the space, which translates to a little more than
people in a building or by calculating building vol- one-half of a complete air exchange per hour.
ume. It is always necessary to choose the process that An air distribution system can produce positive
produces the greater number of changes per hour. or negative pressure in a building. A positive pres-
To calculate fresh air requirements and air changes sure eliminates infiltration of air from outside or
per hour, the following factors must be considered: from other spaces and ensures that all air entering
• Number of occupants. a building can be filtered before reaching the occu-
pied space. To produce a positive pressure, a special
• Use of the space.
air intake draws outside air into the ventilation sys-
• Dry-bulb temperatures. tem. Negative pressure increases the infiltration at
• Relative humidity. windows and doors. Air that enters by infiltration is
• Amount of fresh air admitted by infiltration. untreated and may be dirty.
• Efficiency of the unit. Residential homes that use fuel-burning appli-
A system in a cooling mode should provide at ances need a sufficient amount of air for proper com-
least 15 cfm (cubic feet per minute) of air per person. bustion. This may not just be a gas-fired or oil-fired
This air exchange rate will provide enough oxygen and furnace but can also include gas stoves, gas clothes
will remove carbon dioxide. In the example below, air dryers, gas water heaters, and other appliances. For
changes are calculated by the number of occupants. proper combustion, all fuel-burning appliances need
sufficient amounts of oxygen from the air. If these
appliances draw in combustion air from the inside of
Formula for calculating required air exchange rate:
the house, the combustion exhaust leaving through
Required Number of the chimney might create a slightly negative pressure
air exchange rate occupants x 15 cfm inside the house. See Figure 29-5.
Ventilation is usually based on air changes per
Formula for calculating the time required for hour for a conditioned space. Building volume can be
complete air exchange: used to calculate air changes per hour. For example, in
a 1000 ft 3 space, three changes per hour would mean
Time for complete air exchange = Size of space 3000 ft 3/hour or 50 cfm. Three changes every hour
Air exchange rate
is the minimum for a residence during the heating

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 751

Positive Air Pressure Negative Air Pressure

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-5. Airflow into and out of a building during the heating season. The red arrows in the diagram indicate airflow. If
combustion air is taken from inside the house, negative air pressure may result.

season. As many as 12 changes per hour are recom- temperatures of the walls, floors, and ceilings must be
mended for cooling large public assemblies, such as controlled. Enough air must also be supplied to pro- ·
crowded auditoriums. Figure 29-6 shows typical air mote good respiration, evaporation, and convection. ,
changes for both the heating and cooling seasons.
It is good practice to keep air blowers running all Code Alert
the time. They provide good ventilation to all parts of Ventilation Recommendations
a building. Variable speed blowers may be used to pro-
ASHRAE Standard 62 provides recommendations
vide more air movement when the heating or cooling regarding ventilation. It provides basic equipment and
system is running and less air movement when those system requirements and minimum ventilation rates that
systems are off. should result in indoor air quality that is acceptable to
An adequate air supply is the best way to control human occupants.
comfort. Body comfort is controlled by evaporation,
convection, radiation, and respiration. Therefore, the
29.3.2 Attic Ventilation
There are two types of attics: unvented and
Typical Air Changes vented. An unvented attic is closed off and essen-
Air Changes per Hour tially made into part of the conditioned space. The
Type of Space underside of the roof is usually heavily insulated to
Heating Cooling
prevent heat loss and heat gain. However, many of the
Homes 3-6 6-9 attics in North America are vented. A vented attic
Office spaces 5-8 6-12 has vents or air openings between its inside and the
outside. In the summer, these openings are intended
Public assemblies 5-10 6-12
to allow hot air to escape. In winter, the openings are
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher intended to allow moisture to flow out and to main-
Figure 29-6. The number of air changes recommended per tain a cold attic temperature (to prevent ice dams
hour for various types of occupancy. from forming).

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752 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

A vented attic space must be properly ventilated. If outward, a gable fan draws hot air out of the attic, and
not, an attic may develop a mildew odor and could become cool air is drawn in from the other vents.
extremely hot. It could reach 150°F (66°C) on a hot summer Another method of mechanically venting an attic
day. This would make it difficult to maintain comfortable uses a whole house fan. A whole house fan is a high-
temperatures in the rest of the structure. volume fan that is placed between the conditioned
Attics are commonly ventilated using louvers or space and a vented attic. It may also be referred to as
vents. Often a building will have upper and lower vents an attic fan. A whole house fan is generally used when
to allow the flow of natural convection. Upper vents outdoor air is cool but indoor air is warm or stuffy. This
may be ridge vents, gable vents, or different types of may occur in evenings after a sunny day during certain
ventilators installed through the roofing. Lower vents seasons. Occupants open the windows of the building
are usually soffit vents. These methods allow fresh air and then turn on the whole house fan. The whole house
to enter and internal air to escape. At the same time, fan blows indoor air into the attic. This removes the
through the inclusion of louvers and screens in these warm, stuffy air from the conditioned space and blows
openings, water, insects, and other objects are pre- the hot air out of the attic. Cool air from outdoors is
vented from entering the vented attic, Figure 29-7. drawn into the building by the whole house fan.
Ideally, a vented attic will have soffit vents and at
least one of the other types of upper vents (gable, ridge, Thinking Green
or ventilator). This arrangement takes advantage of nat- Free Cooling by Whole House Fan
ural convection, allowing hot air to flow out the upper
During certain seasons under the right conditions,
vents and cooler air to flow in through the soffit vents. a whole house fan provides a building with free cooling.
Since not all buildings are constructed to have sof- When outdoor air is cool and indoor air is warm or stuffy,
fit vents, other methods may be employed to promote a whole house fan can blow out the hot air and draw in
airflow. Fans may be used to increase the circulation of the cool air. Running just the whole house fan (instead
air through a vented attic. A gable fan is a fan installed of the blower and compressor) is an economical way of
at a louvered gable opening of a vented attic. It can be managing indoor temperature.
arranged to either blow into the attic or draw air out
of the attic. If blown inward, a gable fan pressurizes Whole house fans have large capacities, ranging
the attic, so that hot air flows out of the vents, as cooler from 1000 to 4000 cfm. It is desirable to have a fan large
air is blown in through the gable. If arranged to blow enough to make the needed air changes. A complete
change of air should be made in the attic every 8 to 10
minutes.

Ridge vent Roof ventilators Example:

(mushroom An attic measures 30' x 60' with an 8' ceiling. An
vents) exhaust fan with a capacity of 1440 cfm is installed.

t Calculate the number of air changes per hour.

Solution:
Volume of attic = Length x Width x Height
= 60' X 30' X 8'
= 14,400 ft3
. . Attic volume
Trme for complete au change = - - - - -
Fan capacity
= 14,400 ft 3
1440 cfm
= 10 min
Air changes per hour = lhour
Time for complete air change
Soffit vents 60min
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 29-7. Ridge vents, gable vents, soffit vents, and roof
lOmin
ventilators all work together to promote air circulation in a =6
vented attic.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 753

The fan described in this example would com- other noncombustible material. Air pressure in the
pletely change the air in the attic every ten minutes, ducts is small, so materials with a great deal of strength
providing six air changes per hour. are unnecessary. Air ducts were originally made of
thin, tinned sheet steel. Later, galvanized sheet steel,
29.3.3 Basement Ventilation aluminum sheet, and insulated ducts were developed.
Ducts can have round, square, rectangular, or oval
Because basements tend to be cool and damp in cross-sections. Round ducts are more efficient because
the summer, mold and odors in those spaces are fre- less material is needed for the same capacity as square
quent problems. How to handle this situation is highly or rectangular ducts. The round design also reduces
dependent on outdoor air conditions. resistance to airflow. Since round ducts have less sur-
If outdoor air is dry, an exhaust fan can be face area, the air inside the ducts is less prone to heat
installed in the basement to reduce dampness and loss or heat gain. However, square or rectangular ducts
mold growth. The fan should remove air from the conform better to building construction. They fit into
floor level of the basement and exhaust it outdoors. walls and ceilings better than round ducts. Also, it is
One method of installing an exhaust fan is to remove easier to install rectangular ducts between joists and
a basement window pane and install the fan with an studs than it is to install round ducts with the same
inlet duct leading down to floor level. However, run- capacity, Figure 29-8.
ning just an exhaust fan in this way could lead to neg- Tables are available that compare the carrying
ative pressure in the building. Also, if any resulting capacities of rectangular and round ducts. There
incoming air is hot, indoor temperature could rise. are several round duct equivalent sizes from which
Remember that hot air naturally rises. Hot replace- to choose. The one selected depends on the one-side
ment air from outdoors that enters the basement dimension desired. For example, ducts 11" high may be
could rise and affect temperature on the ground floor desired to improve appearance. They may be needed
and upstairs. to fit in between joists (a 14" distance), Figure 29-9.
If outdoor air is hot and humid, exhausting the
basement could just replace the cool, damp air with hot,
29.4.1 Types of Duct Systems

I
damp air. This would be a net loss and not solve the
problem of high humidity. If the basement is already Air ducts deliver air to a room or rooms. They
tied in with a forced-air cooling system, the air condi- then return the air to the heating (furnace) or cool-
tioning may be able to reduce the humidity. However, ing (evaporator) system. Figure 29-10 shows a typical
a cooling cycle may not run for a long enough period of
time to reduce humidity levels in a basement. If this is
the case, consider running a dehumidifier in the base-
ment. This should reduce humidity and help to pre-
-
0
vent mold growth.
While basement ventilation is necessary in many Air movement

-
cases, every aspect and contributing factor to a given
situation should be considered. These include outdoor
air temperature, outdoor air humidity, type of HVAC
system in the building, type of construction of the Round
building, power consumption levels, initial investment P1 P2
costs of each available option, long-term cost of operat-
ing each option, and desired basement climate.

-
29.4 Air Ducts
Ducts are passageways that circulate and distrib-
ute air to and from a conditioned space. Ducts work on
the principle of air pressure difference. If a pressure
difference exists, air moves from higher pressure areas
to lower pressure areas. The greater this pressure dif-
D Square
Air movement

- Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-8. Duct shapes can vary. As indicated by the
ference, the faster the air will flow. red arrows, the closer the air is to the duct wall, the slower
Ducts can be made of many different materials. the flow. P1 and P2 indicate pressure along a duct. To create
They are usually constructed from sheet metal or some airflow, P1 must be greater than P2 •

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

754 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

6 6.6 6
7 7.1 7.7 7
8 7.6 8.2 8.7 8
9 8.0 8.7 9.3 9.8 9
10 8.4 9.1 9.8 10.4 10.9 10
11 8.8 9.5 10.2 10.9 11 .5 12.0 11
12 9.1 9.9 10.7 11 .3 12.0 12.6 13.1 12
13 9.5 10.3 11 .1 11 .8 12.4 13.1 13.7 14.2 13
14 9.8 10.8 11.4 12.2 12.9 13.5 14.2 14.7 15.3 14
15 10.1 11 .0 11 .8 12.6 13.3 14.0 14.6 15.3 15.8 16.4 15
16 10.4 11 .3 12.2 13.0 13.7 14.4 15.1 15.7 16.4 16.9 17.5 16
18 11 .0 11 .9 12.9 13.7 14.5 15.3 16.0 16.7 17.3 17.9 18.5 19.1 19.7 18
20 11 .5 12.6 13.5 14.4 15.2 16.0 16.8 17.5 18.2 18.9 19.5 20.1 20.7 21 .3 21 .9 20

Reprinted with permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia
Figure 29-9. To determine the sizes of rectangular ducts needed to equal the carrying capacity of round ducts, find the diameter
of the round duct in the chart. Then, find one side of the rectangular duct by reading upward toward the top of the chart. Find the
other side by reading left to the "Lgth Adj" column. See the Appendix for an expanded chart.

Return inlet
(in floor) Out-of-wall
stackhead

Furnace

Reprinted from Air Conditioning Contractors of America's [ACCAJ Basic Installation Manual, by permission of ACCA
Figure 29-10. Residential layout showing most sheet metal parts used in a duct system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 755

residential air duct system. There are several types of air into the room below. Diffusers may also be used.
supply duct systems. Some installations are a combi- Space between the false ceiling and the real ceiling
nation of different types. Supply duct systems can be may be used as a conditioned return air plenum
categorized as follows: chamber. Some systems use heated panels to provide
• Radial duct system. radiant heating. See Figure 29-13.
• Extended plenum system.
• Reducing trunk system.
Supply Duct Systems
• Perimeter loop system.
• SDHV (small duct, high-velocity) system.
Duct systems may be installed in basements,
crawl spaces, attics, false ceilings, and other struc-
•
tural cavities. Ducts may be installed in concrete
floors (slabs) of homes without basements. Ducts
are usually insulated if the duct system is in a crawl
space or attic. Otherwise, heat gain or loss would
be too great, depending on the season. Figure 29-11
shows the basic designs of conventional supply duct + Radial Duct System
systems.
In basements, the main duct is run across and
just under the floor joists. Branch ducts are then run
between the joists to the diffuser openings. Return
ducts usually use the joists and the floorboards for
Plenum
three sides of the branch ducts (panned joist space).
Then the main return duct is run alongside the con-
ditioned air duct. Extended Plenum
Ducts installed in a concrete slab are usually + System +
made of metal, plastic, or ceramic. The ductwork can
be laid out and the slab poured over it. The branch
ducts usually connect to a perimeter duct. Diffusers
are connected to the perimeter duct at intervals along
the floor. Downflow furnaces are used with perimeter
loop duct systems. In a downflow furnace, return air
enters at the top of the furnace and supply air exits at
the bottom of the furnace.
• • •
Plenum

Reducing Trunk
•• •
I
Supply and return air ducts and branches are System
often secured to a building's structural components. +
This can be done a variety of ways. Any method
used should avoid constricting airways. Common
supplies used to secure ducts in place include straps ~
made of metal, iron, woven polypropylene, or wire,
Figure 29-12.
Some buildings are designed with unit venti-
lators. The ventilator removes older stale air and
replaces it with fresh oxygenated air by automatically
drawing air from the conditioned space. The venti-
lator simultaneously brings in makeup air from the
outside. These two streams of air pass by each other.
In doing so, heat is transferred into the makeup air as
~ - - - - -~
it enters the building. Perimeter Loop System
False ceilings are often used to conceal piping, Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
wiring, heat exchangers, and ducts. The false ceiling Figure 29-11. Overhead views of common supply duct
may have holes to allow movement of conditioned system configurations.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

756 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

29.4.2 Duct Construction

Ducts may be made of metal, wood, fiberglass,
ceramic, or plastic materials. Metal ducts are used for
warm air distribution and for exhaust air ducts. The
metal is usually sheet steel coated with zinc, which is
known as galvanized sheet metal. Galvanized sheet
metal is used because it is inexpensive, strong, and
Metallic Iron corrosion-resistant. Some ducts are made of aluminum
to reduce weight.

Code Alert
Duct Material
Some building codes do not approve of ducts made
of aluminum, fiberglass, or plastic due to fire hazard.
Many flexible ducts made of wire and fabric are also
Polypropylene Wire not permitted if fire could spread through them to other
areas. Check with local authorities having jurisdiction
DiversiTech Corporation for building codes before installing ductwork.
Figure 29-12. Ductwork may be secured into place using
various straps. Sheet metal work is a specialty trade and is done
by skilled sheet metal workers. Sheet metal brakes
and formers are used for making ducts. While shops
may use machines to form ductwork, some assem-
bly and other work must still be done by hand. Sheet
metal workers will need to become proficient in the
use of various hand tools, such as snips and seamers,
Figure 29-14.
Sheet metal ducts expand and contract as they
heat and cool. Fabric joints are often used to absorb
False this movement. Fabric joints can also be used where
ceiling
ducts fasten to a furnace or air conditioner. This pre-
vents most fan and furnace noise from traveling along
the duct metal. However, most duct joints are made
of sheet metal because fabric joints may present a fire
hazard.
Round ducts are often made of flat sheets that are
formed into a circular shape with ends locked together.
Keeping these pieces as flat sheets saves space during
+++++++ transportation. Different seam locking methods makes
assembly easy and quick, Figure 29-15.
To install a length of round duct as a branch sup-
ply, cut a hole in the plenum. Always begin by taking
measurements and determining where everything
will go prior to making any cuts, Figure 29-16.
Round ducts connect to plenum using starting
collars. These are couplings used to join round
ducts to a square duct or plenum. Starting collars
have a tabbed end that is inserted into the plenum
and a crimped end over which is inserted the plain
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher end of a round duct. The tabs are bent to grip the
Figure 29-13. A false ceiling can be used to form a plenum inside of the plenum. Use sheet metal screws to
chamber for either cool or warm air. In the bottom drawing, secure the starting collar and mastic to seal the
water pipes heat or cool the metal panels. joint, Figure 29-17.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 757

Snips Seamers
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher; hi/mar
Figure 29-14. Snips and seamers are common sheet metal hand tools used for forming ductwork.

Seam Locking Methods

Snap Lock

Button Lock

A B
Reprinted from Air Conditioning Contractors of America's [ACCAJ Basic Installation
Manual, by permission of ACCA Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.
Figure 29-15. Two seam locking methods. A-Snap lock. Figure 29-16. A technician cutting a hole in plenum for a
B-Button lock. starting collar.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

758 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Tabbed End

Elbow T-Fitting

Crimped End
Used by permission of Mestek Machinery
~ c;n~ ~~
Figure 29-17. A starting collar connects a round duct to a
plenum. ~ £___/
Round ducts have a plain end and a crimped end. Lateral
To join two lengths of round ductwork, the crimped Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
end of one round duct is inserted into the plain end of
Figure 29-19. These typical branch duct designs are used to
another round duct, Figure 29-18. split or redirect airflow in the ducts.
Two lengths of round ducts are secured together
using sheet metal screws that penetrate the overlap of the
two ducts. Round ducts should be installed so that airflow Lengths of square ductwork can be connected
is going in the direction of the crimped end of a round using a variety of joints. This often depends on the
duct. This reduces the chance of air leakage if the ducts are sheet metal fabricator and the machines used in their
not sealed with mastic. Elbows and other connections for shop, Figure 29-21. Joints should be airtight and strong.
branches are designed using geometric principles. Several Joints may be riveted for added strength and tightness.
types of duct connections are shown in Figure 29-19. Figure 29-22 shows a pop rivet tool that can be used to
Though round ducts are often used as supply air rivet from one side only.
branches, square ducts can also be used for branch
supplies. Take measurements, determine locations,
and mark out the cut before cutting, Figure 29-20.

Used by permission of Mestek Machinery

Figure 29-18. Crimped end of round duct is inserted into the Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp.
plain end of another round duct. When installing, remember Figure 29-20. A technician cutting a hole in plenum for a
that the crimped end should face in the direction of airflow. square duct takeoff.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 759

Sheet Metal Joints

Drive Cleats
5xc? ~~
Double"S"SHp Button Punch Button Punch,
Reinforced "S" Cleat Snap Lock Rivet, or Screw

_____.., c________

Inside Slip Joint

_JLStanding Seam
~ro- L _Jk
_ _ _ _____
Flanged Joint with
Gasket
T-Connector Reinforced "On Center"
Drive Cleat

~
( =====-'----
)
Pocket Slip
"S"Slip

Angle Slip with

Upward Offset
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-21. Typical joint designs used to fabricate sheet metal ducts. The black lines represent the edges of the duct. The red
lines represent parts added to the duct, such as clips, fasteners, and gaskets.

Outside

Inside
I
Hole Drilled and Rivet Inserted

Rivet stem
Outside / cut or pinched
/ bytool

Inside

Riveting Completed

A B
DiversiTech Corporation; Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-22. Pop rivets can be installed in sheet metal and ductwork in places where it would be difficult to install a solid rivet,
such as areas with access only to the outside. A pop rivet is often called a "blind" rivet. A-Riveting tool. B-Riveting procedure.
When the pop rivet is fully expanded, the rivet pliers pinch or cut off the rivet stem. In some cases, the technician may need to
finish breaking off the stem.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

760 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Riveting a Joint Using a Pop Rivet Tool Duct joints in forced warm air systems should be
as leakproof as possible. Leaking joints cut down on
To use a pop rivet tool to rivet a joint: the volume of air that is delivered at the end of long
1. Align the two pieces of metal to be joined. runs. Connect all duct sections with good sheet metal
2. Drill a hole through both pieces of metal. joints. Leaks may also make cold air ducts inefficient.
3. Place the rivet blank in the hole, with the nail- Joints and seams in cold air ducts should be sealed the
like stem facing outward. same way they are sealed in warm air ducts.
Many ducts are insulated (either on the inside
4. Slide the nose of the tool over the rivet stem or outside) to reduce noise as well as heat transfer.
until the nose of the tool presses against the Insulation may be added to the inside of ducts of dif-
head of the rivet. ferent shapes, Figure 29-23.
5. Squeeze the handle, which draws the expander
toward the rivet head, expanding the rivet.
6. When the rivet is fully expanded, the rivet
stem will break off flush with the rivet head.

Many air distribution systems are leaky, and con-

ditioned air is often wasted by leaking into uncondi-
tioned areas. This is wasted energy for the building
owner. However, this loss can be prevented by prop-
erly sealing ductwork.

Pro Tip
Sealing Ductwork
Never use duct tape to seal ductwork. Ductwork is
often located in a home's unvented attic. High tempera-
tures in summer can easily weaken the adhesive of duct
tape, causing it to come loose and undoing any seal. Do
not use duct tape. Use other stronger methods of seal-
ing ducts, such as metal tape

Ductwork should be sealed with mastic sealant or

metal tape. These products are stronger and longer lasting
than duct tape. They can endure the stress that is so often
endured by components installed in unconditioned areas
of a building, such as an attic or crawl space.

w Using Mastic to Seal a Duct Joint

1. Clean off the surfaces to be joined. Wipe with
a dry cloth. If any grease or oily residue is
present, use a cleaning solution.
2. With a gap of 1/4" or less, apply a layer of
mastic on the joint and use a brush to work
the mastic into the joint. Fill the entire joint
with mastic.
3. Spread mastic across the joint about l" on
each side of the joint.
4. If the gap is more than 1/4", place a fiberglass Armace/1 LLC
reinforcing membrane over the joint. Then Figure 29-23. Insulation added to the inside of round and
apply mastic to fill the gap and cover over the square ductwork.
entire membrane.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 761

Installing Insulation into Square 6. Continue following these steps until all sur-
Ductwork faces are dry, clean, and insulated to satisfac-
1. Take measurements of the ductwork. tion, Figure 29-24.
2. Cut insulation to appropriate size.
3. Wipe ductwork surface dry. If any grease or When insulation is added to the outside of a duct,
residue is present, wash with a cleaner and it may be fastened with adhesives or metal clips. Rolls
wipe dry. of insulation can be wrapped around the outside,
4. Apply adhesive to the insulation or to the Figure 29-25.
ductwork. Consult insulation manufacturer Some ducts do not require the addition of
literature for specifics. insulation, because they are manufactured already
5. Position the insulation into place straight, flat, insulated. These ducts are made with a metal inner
and even. Apply pressure evenly to ensure good wall and a metal outer wall. In-between each metal
adhesion between insulation and duct surfaces. wall is insulation and sound absorbent material,
Figure 29-26.

3 4
Armace/1 LLC
Figure 29-24. Some of the steps of installing insulation into square ductwork.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

762 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

A B
CertainTeed Corporation
Figure 29-25. Ducts insulated on the outside. A-A roll of duct insulation. B-Commercial HVAC sheet metal ductwork being
wrapped with rolls of insulation.

Inner metal wall Insulation Outer metal jacket

around the outside of the duct its whole length. These
ducts can be manufactured with fittings that provide a
high level of air-tightness and a labor-savings advan-
tage over some traditional ducts, Figure 29-27.

29.4.3 Fiberglass and Other Nonmetal

Ducts
Some ducts are made of nonmetals, such as fiber-
glass, urethane, plastic, or sheetrock. Ductboard is a
compressed fiberglass panel that can be easily cut with
a knife and formed into a square or rectangular shape.
The fiberglass provides good insulation and a fairly
solid body to serve as ductwork, Figure 29-28.

Photo used with permission of Owens Corning. Copyright ©

2011 Owens Corning Intellectual Capital. LLC.
Figure 29-26. Round duct with insulation sandwiched
between an inner and an outer metal jacket.

If duct systems are noisy, the air velocity may be

too high, there may be turbulence, or the metal edges
of the duct may be producing noise. Some ducts are
lined with an acoustic material to provide a quieter
duct system. Duct sections equipped with silencers are
also available. Such units act as mufflers.
Recent years has seen a different style of metal
ductwork being used more frequently. Spiral ducts are
available in round, oval, and flat oval shapes. These Used by permission of Mestek Machinery
metal ducts are formed to have a spiral seam that wraps Figure 29-27. Round and flat oval spiral ducts.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 763

Some nonmetal ducts have a flexible nature that Textile Sheet metal
may be used for gradual bends. This is needed when ductwork ductwork
connecting air ducts to diffusers or when routing air
ducts through spaces with obstructions. Textile ducts
may be used for high volume air movement in large
commercial applications, Figure 29-29.

Safety Note
Nonmetal Duct Materials
Duct material must not release any loose material
into the airstream. Ducts made of asbestos or fiberglass
should be plastic-coated. Asbestos fibers and fiberglass
particles released into the air are harmful to health.

Round ducts made of nonflammable plastic and

spring-steel wire are often used. They need no elbows
and are easily installed around other piping, beams, and KE Fibertec NA, Inc.
joints. This type of duct generally relies on self-inflation. Figure 29-29. This ice skating rink uses a combination of
traditional sheet metal ductwork and textile ductwork.

The duct inflates when the blower is moving air through

the systems. The duct deflates when no air is being moved,
Figure 29-30.

29.4.4 Duct Dimensions

Any transition in the size of a duct should be
tapered. When reducing the size of a round or rectan-
gular duct, the taper should be approximately 1" for g
every 4" in length. When the duct is being enlarged,
increase the cross-sectional dimensions of the duct 1"
for every 4" to 7" of length.
A The sizes of rectangular ducts must be carefully
chosen. The width and height dimensions should not
be much different. The ratio of a duct's wide side to its

B
Certain Teed Corporation; Photo used with permission of Owens Corning.
Copyright © 2011 Owens Corning Intellectual Capital. LLC.
Figure 29-28. A-Rigid ductboard made of resin-bonded glass OuctSox Corporation

fibers can be cut and bonded into ductwork of different shapes Figure 29-30. Textile duct being used in an underfloor
and sizes. B-Fiberglass ductwork wrapped in aluminum foil. application.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

764 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

narrow side is called the aspect ratio. For example, if reduce panel vibration. Cross-breaking the large pan-
a duct is 18" wide and 6' tall, its aspect ratio is 18 to 6 els prevents oil canning (the sound of expanding
(written 18:6), which can be reduced to 3 to 1 (3:1). and contracting) when the blower starts and stops,
An aspect ratio of 1:1 provides the smallest perim- Figure 29-34.
eter for any given cross-sectional area. This is desir-
able because it maximizes the duct's capacity while
minimizing its material requirements. Multiplying
the cross-sectional area times the length of the duct
yields the duct's volume. When you multiply the duct's
perimeter by its length, you get the surface area of the
duct. As you will recall, the surface area represents
the amount of material required to construct the duct.
Therefore, a rectangular duct with a 1:1 aspect ratio can
hold the maximum amount of air using the minimum
amount of material.
The following example shows how more metal
is used as the aspect ratio increases: Assume a duct Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
is 10" x 10" (aspect ratio 1:1). It has a cross-sectional Figure 29-32. When ducts are installed between floor joists,
area of 100 in 2 while the distance around (perimeter) is adequate working clearance is often allowed between the duct
10" + 10" + 10" + 10" = 40". Another duct with a cross- and joists.
sectional area of 100 in 2 is made 20" wide and 5" deep.
The perimeter of this duct is 20" + 5" + 20" + 5" = SO': or
a 25% increase in metal for each unit of length. Sheet Recommended Gauge Thickness for Round
metal contractors classify ducts by their aspect ratios Metal Ducts
and estimate costs by class. Figure 29-31 lists some Commercial, Residential,
Round Duct
common duct aspect ratios. Galvanized Sheet Galvanized Sheet
Diameter
A duct should not be placed in a stud or joist space Steel (gauge) Steel (gauge)
when its size is equal to the inside dimensions of the Up to 12" 26 30
space. There must be room for fittings and clearance 13" to 18" 24 28
for alignment and expansion. The recommended clear-
19" to 28" 22
ance varies with the type of system. Figure 29-32 illus-
27"to 36" 20
trates a satisfactory duct clearance between floor joists.
Figure 29-33 lists the recommended gauge thickness 35"to 52" 18
for various sizes of round ducts and rectangular ducts.
Ducts going through floors should be protected Gauge Thickness for Rectangular
on the corners by angle iron. Large sections of sheet Metal Ducts
metal or ducts must be cross-broken in the shop to Commercial Residential
Rectangular
Ducts (wide Galvanized Galvanized
side) Sheet Steel Aluminum Sheet Steel
Duct Aspect Ratio (gauge) (gauge)
Duct Class Up to 12" 26 .020" 28
Wide Side (in) Perimeter (in)
(Aspect Ratio) 13" to 23" 24 .025" 26
1 (1 :1) 6-18 24-72 24 24
24"to 30" .025"
2 (2:1) 12-24 36-72
31" to 42" 22 .032"
3 (3:1) 26-40 70-106
43"to 54" 22 .032"
4 (4:1) 24-88 60-220
55"to 60" 20 .040"
5 (5:1) 48-90 116-216
61" to 84" 20 .040"
6 (6:1) 90-144 210-336
85"to 96" 18 .050"
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Over 96" 18 .050"
Figure 29-31. Chart listing common duct aspect ratios, the
range of duct sizes available in those aspect ratios, and the Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
perimeter sizes for those ducts. The aspect ratio is determined Figure 29-33. Recommended gauge thickness for round and
by dividing the width of the duct by its height. rectangular metal ducts.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 765

Deflector adjustment

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-34. Break lines (ridges) are formed on large sheet Continental Industries, Inc.
metal panels or large ducts to make them more rigid.
Figure 29-35. Registers generally have fixed vanes with
movable deflectors to direct airflow.

29.4.5 Registers, Diffusers, and Grilles

The fixtures that cover duct openings serve two
purposes. They control airflow out of the duct and
prevent large objects from entering the duct. There are
several different types of fixtures.
Registers deliver concentrated airstreams into

,I
a room. Many have one-way or two-way adjustable
airstream deflectors. The deflectors can be adjusted
to change the direction of the airflow into the room,
Figure 29-35.

Thinking Green
Sealing Registers
Any registers with ductwork that passes from
unconditioned spaces into conditioned spaces should RectorSeal
be sealed to the drywall or subfloor. This will reduce
Figure 29-36. Diffusers have fixed vanes that are designed to
heat leakage and improve system efficiency.
direct airflow in different directions.

Diffusers are located on the supply side of the

duct system. They diffuse, or spread, the air leaving
grilles. This enlargement also slows air movement and
the duct more uniformly than registers do. Diffusers
reduces noise.
deliver widespread, fan-shaped flows of air into a
room. Some diffusers cause the duct air to premix with
Pro Tip
some room air before leaving the diffuser, and some
diffusers have adjustable dampers. A ceiling-mounted Registers, Diffusers, and Grilles
air diffuser directs air in several directions along the The terms register, diffuser, and grille are often
ceiling, Figure 29-36. used interchangeably. However, there are distinctions
Grilles are nonadjustable fixtures used to cover that should be noted. Be mindful when using these
return duct inlets. Grilles offer some resistance to terms in conversation with HVACR professionals and
airflow, blocking about 30% of the air. For this rea- customers. Make sure everyone understands to which
component you are referring.
son, the duct cross section is usually enlarged at the

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

766 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

29.4.6 Dampers
Controlling airflow is necessary in forced-air
I I
systems. Without this control, some spaces would receive I I
too much air, while others would receive too little. I I
Airflow through ducts can be controlled and adjusted I I

by duct dampers. Duct dampers can be adjusted to bal-

ance airflow. They can also open and close certain ducts andle-+e {J
for zone control. Three commonly used types of damp- Multiple-Blade Damper
ers are multiple-blade, butterfly, and split dampers.
A multiple-blade damper is used primarily in
Adjustable handle
square or rectangular ducts to restrict or completely
shut off airflow to a room or zone. This type of damper
can usually be operated manually or by using an elec-
tric or pneumatic actuator.
A butterfly damper is used in round ducts to con-
trol airflow. It is usually opened and closed using a
manual control handle, but some may be operated by
an automatic actuator. A split damper is used where Butterfly Damper
an air path branches off (splits) in two directions. As
the damper moves, it closes off one branch of the duct
to airflow and opens the other branch. This decreases
airflow in one branch while increasing airflow in the
other branch. Figure 29-37 illustrates examples of each
type of damper.

Pro Tip
Damper Installation Split Damper
When installing a damper, always draw a line on Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
the end of the damper shaft that extends out of the duct,
Figure 29-37. Dampers adjust airflow volumes to help
showing damper position. Labels may help show the
achieve a balanced system. These three types of dampers are
position of the damper blades.
butterfly, multiple-blade, and split.

Damper Controls
Many dampers are automatically controlled for Often dampers are held in a closed position by
either zone heating or cooling. Automatic controls are springs. When a damper must open, the thermostat
used for humidity control or for temperature control. controls a motor to open the damper as much as needed.
Automatic controls are also used to mix two airflows The torque from the motor overcomes the spring pres-
for either fresh air or recirculated air mixes. These sure holding the damper closed. The motor continues
multiple dampers are interlocked by controls to pro- to hold the damper open until the thermostat sends a
vide different mixes and to maintain correct total signal to close the damper. Spring pressure then closes
airflow. Figure 29-38 is a diagram of typical damper the damper. The motor operates the damper through a
installations. gear reduction train.
Automatically controlled dampers open and close Control devices that regulate air volume in a dis-
based on a thermostat's signal. Damper position may tribution system are called variable air volume (VAV)
be regulated by electric motors, pneumatic motors, controllers. These electronic devices are usually part of
hydraulic motors, or solenoids, Figure 29-39. a larger computer-controlled HVAC system. On VAV
If outside air is too cold, thermostats cause power- systems, actuators use either pneumatic or electronic
operated devices to close the outside air damper. control for opening and closing of a damper, based
Thermostats also react if the recirculated air and out- on room temperature. The thermostat modulates the
side air are out of balance. They operate actuators that actuator to open or close the damper, allowing more
open one damper and close the other just enough to or less heating or cooling to the conditioned space. The
produce the correct mix. These actuators are usually advantage is that the room will have less of a tempera-
operated electrically or pneumatically. ture swing, unlike with constant air volume systems.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 767

Bypass ~--

A
--1~ 1 Conditioning coil
Air

Connecting lever

Ii
----- operated by actuating

·~~" ~I ~
/' - )Ex~~4 0
devices 1, 2, 3, or 4

~ __.., Room
i i i
\'--- -J
J~I
B
Conditioning
system

Cooling coil
---
~
00 2 120 V 3 4

---
---
~
~
00
00
00
00
00
00
/
jl
~-
~
Pneumatic
Motor
Hydraulic
Motor
Solenoid Gear and
Rack
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-39. A duct damper for controlling airflow can be
operated by different types of power devices. Four ways to
C 00
control damper action are shown.
Heating coil
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-38. Dampers can be used to control airflow for a
There are two types of fire dampers: static fire damp- g
ers and dynamic fire dampers. Static dampers are used
variety of purposes. A-Dampers can open and close a bypass
to control temperature and relative humidity. B-Dampers can in duct systems where there is little or no airflow when
control fresh air intake, exhaust air, and the blend of recirculated the damper closes. Dynamic fire dampers are required at
and fresh air. C-Dampers can control airflow over cooling or locations in which fan pressure will be on during a fire.
heating coils to maintain a precise temperature. These units are expected to close against the air velocity
and pressure produced by the system fan.
Fire dampers are assigned one of the following
Fire Dampers rating classifications based on their performance:
Automatic fire dampers should be installed in all
• Class A-This classification of fire dampers will
vertical ducts in commercial and industrial buildings.
hold back a fire indefinitely.
Ducts, especially vertical ones, will carry fumes and
flames from fires. Fire dampers maintain the required • Class B-This classification of fire dampers can be
rating of fire-related barriers, such as walls, doors, and used when a two- to four-hour hold is required. This
floors, when they contain ductwork. These dampers class is approved for most general installations.
are designed to close automatically on detection of • Class C-Fire dampers in this class are used
heat. Airflow is stopped, and the passage of flames is where a one-hour hold is required.
limited. Automatic fire dampers should be inspected SMACNA (the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning
and tested at least once a year to ensure that they are in Contractors' National Association, Inc.) publishes
good operating condition. Guideline on Through-Penetration Firestopping. This doc-
Ducts passing through a firewall must have fire ument provides guidance regarding the installation of
dampers. Hour ratings for fire dampers must be 75% ductwork. Vertical ducts serving two or more floors
of the hour rating for the wall, floor, or partition. For must be enclosed in a fire partition. Fire dampers must
example, a fire damper rated for 1.5 hours is used in a be installed in the ducts. However, ducts of less than
fire barrier rated for up to 2 hours. 20 in2 (129 cm2) area do not require a fire damper.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

768 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

--
Fire dampers are usually held open by a fusible
link. Heat will melt the link. The damper will close
either by gravity, weights, or springs. Some fire damp-
ers have electronic sensors that operate a closing mech-
anism. The damper blade latches may use power to
close the damper. Electric power devices may also be Short-radius
used to close the damper. Smoke dampers use a pho- elbow
toelectric device to detect smoke. An electronic device
will trip a holding device and the damper will close.

Code Alert
Fire Dampers
Before installing ducts, check local fire damper
regulations. Make sure that any necessary fire and
smoke dampers are installed. Install the dampers in
strict adherence to the manufacturer's instructions. Long-radius
--
elbow
Smooth Airflow
29.4.7 Elbows Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

Elbows are 90° bends (unless otherwise speci- Figure 29-41. To minimize turbulence and maximize airflow,
make any directional changes in the ductwork as gradual as
fied) in the ducts. Airflow direction is diverted from
possible or use elbows that include guiding directional vanes.
a straight line using elbows. A variety of elbows are
available for different types of ductwork. Round ducts
often use adjustable elbows that can change bend angle
by rotating the interlocking parts, Figure 29-40. system. However, turbulence can be minimized and
Air has inertia, which is to say it has mass and airflow velocity can be maximized by making the
it obeys Newton's laws of motion. Once set in motion, directional changes more gradual by installing long-
air continues moving in the same direction until it is radius elbows. If short-radius elbows must be used,
forced to change. In addition, air is compressible. On turbulence can be minimized by using an elbow with
turns, therefore, it crowds toward the outer side of the built-in directional vanes.
elbow, as shown in Figure 29-41.
When airflow changes direction, it slows down,
compresses, and becomes turbulent. The more
29.5 Duct Sizing
abruptly the airflow changes direction, the more In order for a heating or cooling system to func-
compressed and turbulent it becomes. The increased tion properly, the ducts supplying the conditioned air
turbulence decreases the efficiency of the ventilation must be sized correctly. The duct sizes and damper set-
tings determine the amount of conditioned air deliv-
ered to each room. The amount of air delivered must
be balanced with the room's heating and cooling loads.
Another concern when designing a duct system
is noise. Noise can become a problem if air travels
through the ducts too quickly. A table of recommended
maximum duct velocities is in Figure 29-42.

Code Alert
Duct Sizing
Both the International Residential Code (/RC)
and the International Mechanical Code (/MC) require
residential duct sizes to be determined in accordance
with ACCA's Manual D-Residential Duct Systems or
another approved method. This section provides only
Used by permission of Mestek Machinery
a simplified overview of duct sizing. Refer to ACCA's
Figure 29-40. Round duct elbows have interlocking parts that Manual D for complete duct sizing information.
can be twisted to change the direction and angle of the bend.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 769

Recommended Maximum Duct Velocities

Main Ducts Branch Ducts
Application
Supply Return Supply Return
Apartments 1000 800 600 600
Auditoriums 1300 1100 1000 800
Banks 2000 1500 1600 1200
Hospital Rooms 1500 1300 1200 1000
Hotel Rooms 1500 1300 1200 1000
Industrial 3000 1800 2200 1500
Libraries 2000 1500 1600 1200
Meeting Rooms 2000 1500 1600 1200
Offices 2000 1500 1600 1200
Residences 1000 800 600 600
Restaurants 2000 1500 1600 1200
Retail Stores 2000 1500 1600 1200
Theaters 1300 1100 1000 800
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-42. Recommended maximum airflow velocities for the supply and return of main and branch ducts. This table shows
values for various types of buildings.

29.5.1 General Duct Design Guidelines 5. Calculate the available static pressure (ASP).
When designing a duct system, keep the follow- 6. Prepare a rough sketch of the duct system,
ing general rules in mind: including register and grille locations, dis-
tances, and duct fittings.
• Install the air handler (blower) in a central location.
By installing the air handler near the center of the 7. Calculate the total effective length (TEL) for g
building, the lengths of the longest supply and the duct system.
return ducts are minimized. 8. Calculate the design friction rate for the system.
• Keep duct runs as short as practical. Position ducts 9. Calculate the design air quantity for each
to avoid obstacles and minimize the number of room and each section of ductwork.
fittings required. 10. Use an airflow friction chart or duct calcula-
• Never install a duct in the end of a plenum. Always tor to determine duct sizes for each section of
install ducts in the sides of a plenum. A duct in the ductwork.
end of a plenum will receive too much airflow. 11. If needed, convert circular duct diameter to
an equivalent rectangular duct size.
29.5.2 Duct Sizing Procedure
The steps in the following duct sizing procedure Pro Tip
are described in greater detail in this section.

w Duct Sizing Procedure

1. Obtain room-by-room heating and cooling
Duct Sizing Tools
In practice, duct systems are typically sized using
worksheets, spreadsheets, apps, and computer pro-
grams. These tools simplify the process of duct sizing.
load calculations. However, in order to use these tools correctly, you must
2. Obtain blower data "spec sheet" for the sys- understand the steps in the process and the information
that determines the duct sizes.
tem equipment.
3. Determine the external static pressure (ESP) Before sizing a duct system, you must first know
for the system using the blower data sheet. the heating and cooling loads for the house and you
4. Calculate the device pressure losses (DPL). must have information about the blower fan selected
for the installation.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

770 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Room-by-Room Heat Loads nal static pressure that will result in the blower motor
delivering the correct air volume.
Room Heat Load (Btu/hr)
If the external static pressure is too great, the
Living room 25,000 blower will not deliver enough air to match the loads.
Dining room 15,000 If external static pressure is too low, the blower will
Kitchen 5000 deliver more airflow than is needed.
Bathroom 8000
Bedroom #1 15,000
Pro Tip
Bedroom #2 12,000 External Static Pressure
Total for house 80,000 You can think of external static pressure as the
amount of resistance the air must overcome in traveling
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
from the blower outlet, through the evaporator coil, sup-
Figure 29-43. Example of heat loads for a small house. ply duct, supply register, return grille, return duct, and
filter before returning to the blower inlet. The greater the
number of obstructions and distances along this path,
Heating and cooling load calculation is discussed in
the greater the external static pressure.
Chapter 37, Heating and Cooling Loads. The heating and cool-
ing loads for each room are added to determine the total
load. The loads are expressed in units of Btu/hr. The total Example:
heating and cooling loads are used to select the correct The blower with the specifications listed in
siz.e of the heating and cooling equipment. Figure 29-43 Figure 29-44 is being installed in a system with a
shows an example of heating loads for a small house. design airflow of 1250 cfm. What external static pres-
The airflow through the blower depends on the sure should be used for the duct system design?
speed of the blower and the pressure difference between
the blower inlet and outlet. The blower manufacturer pro- Solution:
vides a specification sheet listing the airflow of the blower Use the medium fan speed row. Read across the
under various conditions. Figure 29-44 shows an example row and find the design airflow of 1250 cfm. Then read
of the information provided on a specification sheet. up the column to find the corresponding external static
pressure, which is 0.5 in. WC.
Pro Tip
Determining Available Static Pressure
Blower Specification Sheets
After the required external static pressure is
When using a blower specification sheet to deter- determined based on the blower data, the next step in
mine the design external static pressure, use the
the duct sizing process is to determine the available
medium blower speed airflow values.
static pressure. The available static pressure (ASP) is
The pressure difference between the blower a measure of the amount of friction or resistance the
inlet and outlet is the external static pressure (ESP). ductwork is designed to provide to the flow of air. This
External static pressure is determined by the duct sys- is used to design the longest duct run.
tem. In turn, the external static pressure determines Device pressure losses (DPL) are pressure losses
the volume of air delivered by the blower. Thus, the in the duct system caused by devices other than ducts.
duct system must be designed to achieve the exter- Figure 29-45 shows examples of some typical items
considered when determining device pressure losses.

Blower Airflow (cfm)

External Static Pressure [in. WC (water column)]
Blower Speed
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Low 1284 1278 1254 1213 1154 1078 984 873 745 599
Medium 1423 1406 1370 1318 1250 1167 1068 953 823 677
High 1560 1525 1477 1416 1341 1253 1152 1037 909 768
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-44. Manufacturers provide "spec sheets" showing the volume of air delivered by a blower at various speeds and at
various external static pressures. When sizing ducts, use this chart to determine the required external static pressure, which is
based on obtaining the design airflow at medium speed.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 771

Device Pressure Loss Additional resistance to airflow occurs anytime

the air flows through a passage that is not straight
Typical Pressure Loss
Item or has a change in cross section. For example, when
(in. WC)
air must pass through a reducer or "turn" as it passes
Filter 0.08-0.15
through an elbow fitting, the airflow experiences
Evaporator coil 0.10-0.30 increased resistance.
Air cleaner 0.20 Duct systems are designed using the concept of
Dampers 0.03 effective length. The effective length of a duct run is
Registers, diffusers, grilles 0.03 determined by adding the physical length of the duct
work to effective length values for each fitting in the
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
duct run. The table in Figure 29-46 shows effective
Figure 29-45. Table listing typical device pressure loss (DPL)
length values for some common duct fittings.
values or ranges for air system components.

Code Alert
The available static pressure (ASP) is determined by Effective Length for Duct Fittings
subtracting device pressure losses (DPL) from the ACCA's Manual D provides effective length values
external static pressure (ESP). for an extensive collection of fittings. Minor variations
between fittings impact the effective length values.
ASP = ESP - DPL Always check this reference carefully to be sure the fit-
ting being used in the field matches the selection used
Example: to determine effective length.
A system with an ESP of 0.5 in. WC has the follow-
ing device pressure losses: In order to determine the effective length for each
• Evaporator coil, 0.15 in. WC supply and return duct run, you must first sketch out
• Damper, 0.03 in. WC the duct system. This sketch must include the locations
of all supply registers and return grilles. Also, all fit-
• Air filter, 0.08 in. WC
tings required to route the ducts through the house
• Supply register, 0.03 in. WC must be included in your sketch. Figure 29-47 shows a
• Return grille, 0.03 in. WC sketch of the supply duct system used to provide air to g
What is the available static pressure for the duct the rooms described in the earlier example.
system?
Example:
Solution: Determine the effective length of the longest duct
Add the values for the various components to highlighted in Figure 29-47. The effective length of all
determine the device pressure losses (DPL): fittings in the duct run is 114'.
DPL = 0.15 in. WC
0.03 in. WC Solution:
0.08in. WC The effective length is the physical length of the
0.03 in. WC duct run plus the effective length of all fittings:
+0.03 in. WC
=0.32in. WC
Effective Lengths for Common Fittings
Then determine the available static pressure (ASP):
Fitting Effective Length (feet)
ASP = ESP - DPL Round branch from trunk 20-50
= 0.50 in. WC - 0.32 in. WC Rectangular branch from 20-75
=0.18in. WC trunk
Supply air boots 20-60
Determining Total Effective Length
Return air boots 10-20
The available static pressure is a measure of the
amount of resistance the ductwork is designed to pro- Return elbow 10-45
vide to the flow of air. Resistance results from the air Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
contacting the interior surfaces of the duct. The amount Figure 29-46. Effective length ranges for common duct fitting
of this resistance in the system depends on the length types. Refer to ACCA's Manual D for effective length values
of the duct. for specific fittings.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

772 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Effective length= (12' + 2' + 8' + 2' +4' + 8') + 114' Determining Friction Rate
= 36' + 114' Friction loss in ducts is the pressure drop result-
= 150' ing from the air contacting the inside surface of the
duct. For the purpose of duct design, friction loss is
Total effective length (TEL) is the greatest effec- typically expressed in units of inches of water column
tive length for a supply duct run in a system added per 100' of duct.
to the greatest effective length for a return duct run. The friction rate for a duct system is the friction
The total effective length is the length of a straight duct loss along the total effective length that results in a
run that would offer the same resistance to airflow as pressure drop equal to available static pressure. The
the most restrictive supply and return duct runs on a friction rate is calculated by the following formula:
system.
Friction rate = ASP (in WC)
Example: TEL (ft) x 100
In the previous example, the effective length of Example:
the longest supply duct run was 150'. If the effective The system used in the previous examples has an
length of the longest return duct run in the system is available static pressure of 0.18 in. WC and a total effec-
135: what is the total effective length for the system? tive length of 285'. Determine the friction rate for the
duct system.
Solution:
To find total effective length, add the effective Solution:
lengths of the longest supply and return duct runs: Using the friction rate equation:
TEL = 150' + 135' ASP
= 285' Friction rate = - - - -
TEL x 100
0.18in. WC
285' X 100
Bedroom #2
= (0.18 in. WC + 285') x 100
= 0.0006 in. WC x 100
= 0.06 in. WC per 100' of duct
Bedroom #1
Determining Air Quantity for Each Room
Each duct run is sized based on the specific vol-
0 ume of air flowing through the run. The first step in
determining the airflow in each branch is to determine
the airflow required for each room. The required air-
flow for a room is found using the following equation:
Heat load for room . fm
Airflow (room) = - - - - - - - x Design c
Total heat load
This process simply divides the design airflow in
Bathroom
proportion to heat loads.

Example:
Determine the room-by-room design air volume
for the six rooms listed in Figure 29-43. The system has
Kitchen a design airflow of 1250 cfm.
8' 4'
Solution:
Living room
25,000
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Living room = - - - x 1250 cfm
Figure 29-47. A simple duct installation. The longest duct run 80,000
is shown in red. = 391 cfm

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 773

. . room = -
D1nmg 15,000
- - x 1250 cfm
80,000 Bedroom #2
188 cfm H (188 cfm)
= 234 cfm
Bedroom #1
. 5000 (234 cfm)
Kitchen = - - -
80,000 X 1250 cfm

= 78 cfm
1250 cfm I --L....L-_....-\ G 422 cfm
8000
Bathroom = - - x 1250 cfm
80,000
= 125 cfm
Furnace
15,000
Bedroom #1 = - - - x 1250 cfm
80,000 703 cfm E
= 234 cfm Dining room
(234 cfm)
12
Bedroom #2 = ,000 x 1250 cfm
80,000
= 188 cfm
Determining Duct Size Living room
After calculating the airflow requirements for (391 cfm)
each room, the airflow through each duct section can A 195.5 cfm B 195.5 cfm
be determined. See Figure 29-48. With the airflow rate Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

I
and friction rate known, the required duct size can be Figure 29-48. Simple duct sketch with design air quantities
determined using an airflow friction chart like the one noted for each duct section.
shown in Figure 29-49.
Airflow friction charts are a graph of duct diam-
larger size will result in less friction and more
eters, airflow rates, pressure drops from friction, and air
airflow; the smaller size will result in more
velocities. Lines parallel to the vertical red dashed line in
friction and less airflow.
the figure represent airflow rates in cfm. Lines parallel
to the blue line represent airflow velocities in fpm. Lines 3. Check the velocity based on the location of the
parallel to the horizontal yellow line represent pressure point. Duct air velocities above 700 fpm can
losses due to friction, and the lines parallel to the green cause excessive noise. Air velocities at sup-
line represent diameters of round duct. Reading an air- ply registers greater than 500 fpm may pro-
flow friction chart is very similar to reading a standard duce drafts. If the velocity is too high, follow
psychrometric chart. If you know any two variables the air quantity line down to the next higher
plotted on the chart, you can find their intersection. You duct diameter. If this point is at an acceptable
can then determine the value of the other two variables. velocity, use the larger duct diameter.
4. For rectangular sections of duct, convert the
ffi Sizing Ducts Using the Friction Chart duct diameter to an equivalent rectangular
size using the chart illustrated in Figure 29-9.
Iii Given the friction rate and air quantity
through a section of duct, use the following
procedure to determine the correct duct size. Example:
1. Find the point where the friction rate (left side Determine the size of duct diameter to use for the
of chart) intersects the air quantity (bottom of duct cross sections labeled A through Hin Figure 29-48.
chart). The system has a friction rate of 0.06 in. WC/100'.
2. Select either the closer or larger of the duct Solution:
diameter lines the point falls between. The The table in Figure 29-50 lists the air quantity at
each duct section, and the chart shows a point plotted

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

774 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

10
7
~i~~~~s~~~7E;:;;~:si;=E~~~~S~~~~i:::E~~~~i~1=S~~E~l;~2=~~~1--~;zilE~;zJ~Szi:1--~~~::::~r:=i=~=;zi 10 7
_......,_t-+-,--+---+t--,..........+-,t----t

5 ......,.__,_,__+-+_,__,._--+-1---1 5
4 -t---<+----+-++--+----, 4
3 r"'--1:::--:1'"-t:::-+71'-t::-,'""s:::--,P--.;:ir'<:t-+~'l::-:f-t-f't-st+t'trr,t--'~-+++-+t---++--I 3

t5 2 2
::::,
0
0
= 0.81
0
0
~.t~~p:;-H1
;c--""1,'-"-<CC7T-;0.8

ai 0.5
C. F'--k-f--"-ls:-P+s:-A'>--d'-'t--.f'hf-"'k7""'<Ct4:P*-:ll.-P.,k--tf-t'--.j-~~...,,.-l'--sl:-~::-fi'~~ 0.5
ai 0.4 ~~:---="bs:-----fl''-s::-ti~ fi.Hk-?'..+""'1::-"l---i"-lt-N-f~ "'I.H--f-'!-.,£---"--sl---""-kf-__::,.,,~-.1--"'! 0.4
cii
s: 0.3 -~ +-f"-._/-+-')<-lc------,l'-"h/Hl'-lc-F'*.,c,...,j-~~~--"'-..t,,C,,..:::,F-+,A'--!c---f--'>..,,_.----f+0"-._/----'1'-s,L...f''"sc! 0.3

0
0.2 ~ ,1--------ct'-<d,'-t--')<-l:+---"k:J'---rlc:f--/''"-s::l-c~-,<.d---t'k--N-"'k±f'--<::-+--""lt'-------i"'k-----P"-<;:"-I 0.2
c:::
Cl)
Cl)

.3C 0.1 ~:t;~~;tt;:'.'.:::::::;t::;:t"1-=:::!t:;:::f--'•:'J '-f--~1::.t::-"'!-+"SirL~...::.Jt--;:-"",--,1/d::,..--,.,/;'-,>...::.""<:,i.t-::-f/J"---r~,'....:,:::,_,*-kc-:-"_::_~'"f-f"t.o,.S...,,2.o,.-..1.,f. .::., .,_S...,d-f'-I.._... 0.1

°B :: ._:::,-..,_I-'-I°"-;J-_-__..,¥'1--->-s--+lt--'t>---'A-+'-1---A'_,_,"714--:_J-,_,_JL?'IJ-1---"7'4---1----"1''--."
0. 08 H4-Hlf.<:--f-~--fl----','-J~ ..p'_,..I----.!:-I--+,._--,1"-+~ls_-,,;.' 0.08
t!: 0. 05 l-+--t-fl--"i-<;f-+------,f--PJ's:----,f-----, W----+-t\----l"--sl--+-------'l-""7+""J(c------iL--")'-t-+-tf-lif-f'l'<!:il--f-+___,,__,:--t-f-----"''>-::'r-r;:: ·----------+'"s,-------"...,.____.__.t----"<c+---""-c-t 0. 05
0.M 0.M
o.w o.w
0.02

0.01 ~~~~---~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~--~-~~----~~0.01
50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000 20,000 50,000 100,000 200,000 400,000
Air Quantity, cfm at 0.075 lb./tt3 (E = 0.003 ft.)
Reprinted with permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, from 1993 ASHRAE
Handbook-Fundamentals.
Figure 29-49. Friction chart for airflow in ducts. Low-volume airflow is indicated by the 50 to 2000 cfm range. High-volume
airflow is in the range above 2000 cfm.

for each quantity at the design friction rate. The selected developed to be used to design both the supply and
duct diameters are listed in the table. return ducts of a building.
The Manual D spreadsheet has worksheet tabs
Pro Tip for effective losses, friction rate, and duct sizing. The
Duct Calculators effective losses for various supply and return fittings
are located in group tabs. Each supply and return fit-
Mobile device apps and programs may be used
in place of duct calculators and airflow friction charts. ting is assigned an effective length, which is input into
These may be used to determine duct sizes. These the appropriate group line, Figure 29-51. The output of
tools provide the same basic information. the worksheet yields a design total effective length for
both the supply and return ducts, Figure 29-52.
The total effective length of the supply and return
duct systems is input into the Friction Rate Worksheet.
29.5.3 ACCA Manual D Blower cfm and component pressure losses are input
The Air Conditioning Contractors of America by the user to generate a Friction Rate Design Value,
(ACCA) is a non-profit organization of HVAC contrac- Figure 29-53.
tors and professionals. ACCA writes standards and The duct sizing worksheet requires the input of
procedures for the design, testing, performance, and the heating and cooling load for each supply run. The
installation of HVAC systems. ACCNs Manual D was program will automatically generate duct sizes for

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 775

round metal ducts. If rectangular ducts are used, enter

Duct Diameter
(inches)
7 t/1171 the height in the column, and the duct size will be cal-
culated. The last column will show the equivalent size
for a flexible duct, Figure 29-54.

1 There are several other alternatives to manual cal-

culation of duct sizing, including duct sizing services,
smart phone apps, and tablet calculators. Apps often

~7
0 allow the user to take a screen shot of the final design
0 0. 1 t--t-,'!...,.+--+-+-+-~""<Cf---+--+-'-s:-1-+---+-f'>
~ 0.08i-----1;-----i----i----t--,ts;:-----t--1r<::-------t-i-----"o/<' numbers and save it for future reference. Physical and

c:::
~ 0.05 t--f----l---fl-'""lc-t-+---+----P*---+~
Cl)
_3 0.04 t--f---f!--+--+-1~------,f---f-
c
~r online duct calculators are popular and easy to use.
These allow the user to input basic information to
determine duct sizes, Figure 29-55.
Smart phone and tablet apps provide the ser-
.Q O. 031----tl----"--l,----t--,4-t~l-----+----'ts+-----+---,c.+----"1,,'-+-+-.+-+---N--- vice technician with the mobility to quickly generate
u duct sizing while on the jobsite. They are also useful
~ 0. 02 ,__,........,,--+--+-*---+-+----+------+----+-,'-+-+-++>+-+- to determine if the existing ductwork in a building
is sized correctly. Figure 29-56 illustrates one type of
smart phone app.
0.01 L......J~....1...-'-'-L.-'---..I.L..-~...;:...Ji...L...I...-.L..l_l(.....L...I(._;:.. More detailed duct sizing can be accomplished
50 100 200 500 1000 by using sophisticated software programs. There
Air Quantity (cfm) are several ACCA-approved software programs that
utilize Manual D standards. These programs allow
Selected Duct Diameter for Duct Sections
the HVAC duct designer to input building configu-
Air Quantity Duct Diameter rations, heating and cooling loads, and generate a
Duct Section
(cfm) (inch)
floor plan that includes duct routing and sizing.
A 196 8 Programs are also available that generate a final
B 196 8 bill of material and cost estimate for project. The
C 391 12' user can customize the duct routing based on the
D 469 12' layout of the building. Supply and return trunks
E 703 16' can be added or deleted as the program automati- g
cally balances the system overall cfm and duct size.
F 828 16'
Figure 29-57 shows the duct layout generated by
G 422 12'
one type of program.
H 188 8
Note 1: Larger duct size used to ensure velocity is less than 700 fpm .
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
29.6 Fans
Figure 29-50. Duct diameters are determined using the Air movement is generally produced by some
airflow friction chart. Red dots represent the intersection of the type of fan. Usually, fans are located in the inlet of
air quantity in the duct section and the design friction loss. the air handler. Air can be moved by creating positive
pressure. It can also be moved by creating negative
pressure. All fans produce both conditions. Negative
Group 1 - Continued
pressure is generated at a fan's air inlet, and positive
Supply Air Fittings at the Air Handling Equipment pressure is created on the exhaust side of the fan.
Reference Velocity = 900 Fpm See Figure 29-58. The air flowing into a fan is called
Reference Friction Rate : 0.08 IWC per 100 Feet
induced draft and the exhaust from a fan is called
forced draft.

-Duk HIW fl
Fans are constructed of metal and plastic. There
IF
0.50 12!) are several types of fans, but the two most popu-
10 e
lar types are the axial flow fan (propeller fan) and
the radial flow fan (centrifugal fan). If air leaves
the fan along the direction the axle is pointing,
ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency Association it is called axial flow. If air leaves the fan at right
Figure 29-51. Example of supply and return duct fittings angles to the axle, it is called radial flow. This is
group assigned effective lengths. shown in Figure 29-59.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

776 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Effective Length Worksheet

Element Supply Run ID Number
Straight Run
Length Length Length Length
Trunk Length
Trunk Length
Trunk Length
Runout Length
Group Effective Group Effective Group Effective Group Effective
Rttings
Letters Length Letters Length Letters Length Letters Length
Group 1 <1111
Group 2 <1111
Group 3 <1111
Group 4 <1111
Group 8 <1111
Group 9 <1111
Group 11 <1111
Group 12 <1111
Other
Other
Other
Other
Other
Total Length 0 0 0 0
Design TEL 0
Element Return Run ID Number
Straight Run
Length Length Length Length
Trunk Length
Trunk Length
Trunk Length
Runout Length
Group Effective Group Effective Group Effective Group Effective
Rttings
Letters Length Letters Length Letters Length Letters Length
Group 5 <1111
Group 6 <1111
Group 7 <1111
Group 8 <1111
Group 10 <1111
Group 11 <1111
Group 12 <1111
Other
Other
Other
Other
Total Length 0 0 0 0
DesiQnTEL 0
ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency Association
Figure 29-52. Manual D Effective Length Worksheet. Trunk lengths and fitting effective lengths are input. Output is the total
effective length.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 777

Friction Rate Worksheet

Step 1) Manufacturer's Blower Data
External Static Pressure (ESP) IWC
Heating Cooling
CFM from manufacturers tables

Fan Speed Med High

Step 2) Component Pressure Losses (CPL)
Direct expansion refrigerant coil
Electric resistance heating coil
Hot water coil
Heat exchanger
Low efficiency filter
High or mid-efficiency filter
Electronic filter
Humidifier
Supply outlet
Return grille
Balancing damRer .,..
UV lights or other device
Total Component Losses (CPL) Error IWC
Step 3) Available Static Pressure (ASP) #VALUE! IWC
Step 4) Total Effective Length (TEL) 0 Feet
Step 5) Friction Rate Desiqn Value (FR) #VALUE! IWC/100

Figure 29-53. Manual D Friction Rate Worksheet.

An axial flow fan is usually direct-driven by fan pressure is the pressure differential between the
mounting fan blades on the motor shaft. These fan inlet and the outlet of a fan. A chart listing the four
blades should be handled carefully. If they are bent or classes of fans and their pressure levels is shown in
twisted, the fan should be replaced. A four-blade axial Figure 29-62.
flow fan is shown in Figure 29-60. Radial flow fans have either backward-inclined
Radial flow fans are commonly referred to as blades or forward-inclined blades. Large fans typically
squirrel cage fans. Radial flow fans can be directly have backward-inclined blades. If the blades were for-
driven by a fan motor or can be driven by a belt and ward-inclined, they would not be able to handle the
pulley system. In direct-drive radial flow fans, the weight of the load. Smaller fans typically have for-
motor shaft is connected directly to the hub of the fan. ward-inclined blades. See Figure 29-63.
Belt-driven fans use a pulley on the motor shaft and Static pressure increases by the square of the fac-
a pulley on the fan shaft. The ratio of the fan pulley tor of increase in the airflow rate. To determine the
to the motor pulley can be adjusted to multiply torque increase in static pressure when airflow has increased,
or to multiply fan speed. A belt-driven radial flow fan first determine the factor by which airflow rate has
assembly is shown in Figure 29-61. increased. For example, if a fan's output is doubled
The Air Movement and Control Association, Inc. from 1000 cfm to 2000 cfm, the factor of increase is 2.
(AMCA) has developed four classifications of fan. This is calculated by dividing 2000 cfm by 1000 cfm.
These are based on fan air pressure output. Total 2000 cfm + 1000 cfm = 2

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

778 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Duct Sizing Worksheet 1

Supply Side Runouts Equiv Rec. Ducts Equiv. Flex

ID Room H- G- Htg Gig Dsn Size fpm Final Height Width

ID Btuh Btuh cfm cfm cfm size

SR1
SR2
SR3

SR4

ID Supply Side Trunks Dsn Size fpm Final Equv Rec. Ducts Equiv. Flex
cfm size
1 2 3 4 5 Height Width

ST2

ST3

ST4

Return Side Runouts Equiv Rec. Ducts Equiv. Flex

ID Room H- G- Htg Gig Dsn Size fpm Final Height Width

ID Btuh Btuh cfm cfm cfm size

RR1

RR2

RR3
RR4
ID Return Side Trunks Dsn Size fpm Final Equv Rec. Ducts Equiv. Flex
cfm size
1 2 3 4 5 Height Width

RT2

RT3

RT4

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-54. Manual D Duct Sizing Worksheet.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 779

Next, calculate the square of the factor of airflow

rate increase. Since 2 was the factor determined, square
the number 2.

Lastly, multiply the static air pressure for the orig-

inal airflow rate of 1000 by the square of the airflow

Cyber Prodigy LLC

Figure 29-56. Smartphone app used for duct sizing.

Elite Soft Inc.

A
Figure 29-57. Duct sizing and routing generated by a software
program.

A :Jc

M1 M2 M3 M4
B Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Figure 29-58. A simple duct and fan installation. Negative
Figure 29-55. Duct calculators. A-By turning the inner wheel, pressure is generated on the intake side of the fan, and
a technician can determine the air volume in cfm, friction rate, positive pressure is generated on the exhaust side of the fan.
and velocity in fpm for different size ducts. B-By moving the A-Intake. B-Fan and motor. C-Exhaust. M1-Atmospheric
inner slide, a technician can determine the air volume in cfm, pressure. M2-Negative pressure. M3-Positive pressure.
friction rate, and velocity in fpm for different size ducts. M4-Atmospheric pressure.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

780 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Axle shaft Radial fan

I

Axle shaft Fan housing

Radial Flow Axial Flow
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-59. Fans are divided into axial and radial
categories based on the airflow they produce. Axial flow
exits the fan parallel to the fan shaft. Radial flow exits the fan
perpendicular to the fan shaft.

Blower motor Pulley and belt

York International Corp.

Figure 29-60. A four-blade axial flow fan.

rate increase (4). In this example, airflow rate doubled,

so the square of the increase factor was 4 (2 2 = 2 x 2). If
the increase factor was 3, then the square of the factor
would be 9 (32 = 3 x 3).
Since airflow rate is directly proportional to the speed
at which the fan is turning, an increase in the fan's speed
B
also results in an exponential increase in the static pres-
sure produced by the fan. Increasing the static pressure York International Corp.

against which a fan must operate reduces the amount of Figure 29-61. Radial flow fan. A-A belt-driven fan in its
airflow delivered by the fan. Figure 29-64 shows how to housing. B-Belt-driven fans use a pulley on the motor shaft.
measure the pressure of a fan.
To determine the fan capacity for an air handler, ducts from the temperature of the air in the supply ple-
use the following formula: num. The 1.08 factor (the density of standard dry air
Output of air handler = 1.08 x temperature rise of 0.075 lb/ft3 x the specific heat of air 0.24 Btu/lb/F x
60 sec/min) is the total external static pressure.
The air temperature rise in °F is determined by For cooling, blowers are often sized to produce
subtracting the temperature of the air in the return 400 cfm/ton of cooling capacity. For most residential

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 781

(j -- --
Fan Designations
Classification Fan Pressure (in. WC)
---
Low pressure, Class I
Medium pressure, Class II
High pressure, Class Ill
Less than 3 3/4" (9.5 cm)
3 3/4"-6 3/4" (17 cm)
6 3/4"-12 1/4" (31 cm)
-
High pressure, Class IV Greater than 12 1/4" (31 cm) _i_ Total Static
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher .....___ pressure pressure
Figure 29-62. Fan classifications designated by the Air T difference difference
Movement and Control Association, Inc.
A

L Static pressure
difference
Backward-Inclined Forward-Inclined B

-- --
Blades Blades
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 29-63. Radial flow fan designs.
-
systems, the total pressure drop (the difference between
-
I
the supply air duct static pressure and the return air
duct static pressure) must not exceed 0.5 in. WC. l_
Velocity
Lpressure

29.7 Air Curtains

C
Certain buildings have garage doors, delivery
docks, and similar boundaries that must be opened Static Total Velocity
on a regular basis. These openings make it difficult to
maintain the indoor climate. One method of reducing
heat loss or gain is to install an air curtain across these
openings.
An air curtain is a powerful stream of air blown
across a building opening that reduces heat loss or gain.
A powerful blower directs airflow across an opening,
such as an open garage door. An air curtain may have
- D
-
a recirculation path so the same air continuously blows Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
across the opening. It stops any natural flow of air from Figure 29-64. Measurements of static, velocity, and total
the building to the outside or any natural airflow from pressures are used to assess fan performance. A-The pitot
the outside air into the building. The purpose of an air tubes measure total pressure on both sides of the fan. The
curtain is to maintain inside air conditions by blocking inlet velocity pressure equals outlet velocity pressure because
the infiltration of outside air through an opening. the same airflow rate is produced on both sides of the fan.
Therefore, the difference shown on the manometer is an
In commercial refrigeration, open display cases increase in static pressure. B-This setup measures the static
with refrigerated contents at supermarkets often use pressure difference between the inlet and outlet sides of the
an air curtain to keep cool air from escaping. fan. C-This setup measures the velocity pressure. D-Some
technicians measure pressure relative to room air pressure.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
• Attics can be vented or unvented. An unvented
Summary attic is closed off and essentially made into
• Before designing or installing an air part of the conditioned space. A vented attic
distribution system, the weight of air, the can achieve adequate airflow using louvers,
manner in which air absorbs heat, and the way various vents, ventilators, or a whole house fan.
air separates into layers (stratification) should Basements often requir ventilation to reduce
be considered. dampness and prevent mold growth. How
this is accomplished is based on outdoor air
• Two types of heat can be added or removed conditions, building construction, the HVAC
from air: latent heat and sensible heat. Devices system, and other considerations.
such as humidifiers, dehumidifiers, and
evaporative cooling systems can be used to • Ducts can have round, square, or rectangular
modify air comfort by changing humidity cross sections. Round ducts are more efficient,
levels. This can affect latent heat of an indoor but square or rectangular ducts conform
climate. better to building construction. Tables are
available that compare the airflow capacities of
• In warm air heating, the three basic systems rectangular and round ducts.
used to circulate air are gravity, intermittent
forced-air, and continuous forced-air. The • Duct systems may be installed in basements,
gravity system is rarely used. Intermittent is crawl spaces, attics, concrete slabs, and within
common, and continuous is becoming more false ceilings.
common. • Ducts are commonly made of galvanized sheet
• Air delivered to a room from a supply duct is metal, because it is durable, inexpensive, and
called primary air. The distance the air travels corrosion-resistant. Sheet metal joints must be
from the duct outlet before it slows down to 50 airtight and strong. Ducts should be sealed
fpm is called the throw. using metal tape or mastic sealant. Never use
duct tape to seal ductwork.
• More return air leaving a room than supply air
entering a room results in a negative pressure • Some ducts are made of nonmetal, such
in the room. Return duct inlets should be as fiberglass, textile, urethane, plastic, or
located at the farthest distance from the supply sheetrock.
duct outlets. • The ratio of a duct's wide side to its narrow side
• Living spaces must have air with sufficient is called the aspect ratio. An aspect ratio of 1:1
oxygen content. Bringing in replacement air provides the smallest perimeter for any given
through an air-conditioning system ensures cross-sectional area.
that a definite amount of fresh air (makeup • Registers, grilles, and diffusers control airflow
air) is brought in to provide a healthy oxygen into and out of ducts and prevent large objects
level. This can be done using HRVs/ERVs or a from entering the ducts.
damper-controlled fresh air inlet. • Duct dampers can be adjusted to balance
• Positive pressure (higher than atmospheric airflow. Three common types are multiple-
pressure) can be maintained in a building blade, butterfly, and split dampers.
to help keep out airborne dirt, dust, and • Fire dampers are designed to close
pollen. Negative pressure (below atmospheric automatically on detection of heat. Automatic
pressure) should be avoided in most cases fire dampers should be installed in all vertical
because it brings in outside contaminants and ducts, as well as ducts passing through
can reduce the efficiency of exhaust fans and of a firewall, in commercial and industrial
fuel-fired appliances. buildings.
• Ventilation is usually based on air changes • When designing a duct system, install the air
per hour for a conditioned space. Air changes handler in a central location, keep duct runs as
can be calculated according to the number of short as practical, and always install branches
people in a building or by calculating building from the sides of a plenum, never the end.
volume. The process that produces the greater
number of changes per hour should be used.

782 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 783

• The effective length of a duct run is determined 3. Return air inlets should be placed _ _.
by adding the physical length of the ductwork A. always near the ceiling
to effective length values for each fitting in B. always along the floor
the duct run. Total effective length (TEL) is C. the minimum distance from the supply
the greatest effective length for a supply duct duct outlets
run in a system added to the greatest effective D. the maximum distance from the supply
length for a return duct run. duct outlets
• With the airflow rate and airflow velocity 4. Negative pressure in a building _ _.
known, a required duct size can be looked up A. enhances the efficiency of exhaust fans
on an airflow friction chart. Airflow friction B. helps keep out airborne pollen
charts are a graph of duct diameters, airflow C. makes a fuel-fired furnace more efficient
rates, pressure drops from friction, and air D. tends to bring in outside contaminants
velocities. 5. A system in cooling mode should provide at
• ACCNs Manual D is used to design a building's least _ _ cfm of air per person.
supply and return air ducts. It includes A. 5
spreadsheets for effective losses, friction rate, B. 15
duct sizing, and other considerations. Other C. 50
tools and apps are also available for sizing D. 100
ductwork.
6. Which shape of ducts provides the least
• Two common fan types are axial flow resistance to airflow?
(propeller) fans and radial flow (centrifugal, A. Hexagonal.
squirrel cage) fans. If air leaves the fan along B. Square.
the direction the axle is pointing, it is called C. Rectangular.
axial flow. If air leaves the fan at right angles to D. Round.
the axle, it is called radial flow. An air curtain is
7. Which of the following is true of sheet metal
a stream of air blown across a building opening
ducts?
to reduce heat loss or gain.
A. They are used for warm air distribution.
B. They are usually coated with zinc.

Review Questions
Answer the following questions using the information in
this chapter.
1. Air expands to fill a greater space as _ _.
C. They expand and contract as they heat
and cool.
D. All of the above.
8. The ratio of a duct's wide side to its narrow
side is called the
A. effective length
I
A. relative humidity increases B. aspect ratio
B. pressure drops C. throw
C. temperature rises D. length ratio
D. All of the above.
9. A rectangular duct with a _ _ aspect ratio
2. To bring fresh air into a building's can hold the maximum amount of air using
conditioned space and minimize how much the minimum amount of material.
it might affect indoor temperature, use a(n) A. 1:2
B. 2:1
A. barometric damper C. 1:1
B. HRVorERV D. 3:1
C. motorized damper
D. soffit vent and ridge vent 10. To prevent oil canning when a blower starts
and stops, _ _ any large panels of sheet
metal ductwork.
A. cross-break
B. doubly insulate
C. perforate with vent holes
D. Use a reveted steel band to reinforce

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

784 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

11. _ _ are usually used as covers for return air 19. The air flowing into a fan is called the _ _
ducts and have no adjustments. draft.
A. Diffusers A. forced
B. Grilles B. induced
C. Registers C. axial
D. Dampers D. radial
12. A _ _ damper is used in round ducts. 20. The ACCA developed Manual _ _ to be
A. butterfly used to design both the supply and return
B. globe ducts of a building.
C. multiple-blade A.A
D. split B. D
13. A fire damper rated for a 2-hour to 4-hour C.J
hold is classified as Class D.N
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
14. Installing long-radius elbows in ducts _ _.
A. maximizes airflow turbulence
B. minimizes airflow turbulence
C. minimizes airflow velocity
D. All of the above.
15. Which of the following is a general guideline
for duct design?
A. Make duct runs as long as possible.
B. Whenever possible, install a duct in the
end of a plenum.
C. Install the blower in a central location.
D. All of the above.
16. Which of the following are not found on
airflow friction charts?
A. Duct diameters.
B. Pressure drops from friction.
C. Air velocities.
D. Heat load.
17. To determine the _ _ of a duct run, add
the physical length of the ductwork to the
effective length values for each fitting in the
duct run.
A. effective length
B. friction rate
C. heat load
D. total pressure drop
18. Duct air velocities above _ _ fpm can cause
excessive noise.
A. 50
B. 150
C. 500
D. 700

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 29 Air Distribution 785

GrayWolf Sensing Solutions, LLC

A portable indoor environment monitor can be used to identify ventilation and sick building syndrome problems. IAQ monitors can
measure the concentrations of several airborne contaminants.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER 30 Ventilation Systelll
Service

Chapter Outline
30.1 Airflow Measurement
30.1.1 Visible Airflow Indicators Learning Objectives
30.1.2 Flow Hoods
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
30.1.3 Air Handler Flowmeter
• Recall the various methods for checking airflow and
30.1.4 Blower Door Testing
air leakage.
30.1.5 Duct Testing
30.2 Special Duct Problems and Duct Maintenance • Explain how to identify, isolate, and correct duct
30.2.1 Noise Problems noise problems.
30.2.2 Drafts • Use proper equipment and techniques to clean a
30.2.3 HVAC System Cleaning duct system.
30.2.4 Balancing the System • Apply knowledge of airflow to balance a duct
30.2.5 Dirt on Walls and Drapes system.
30.2.6 Removing Odors
• Recall methods of removing odors from the air.
30.3 Fan Service
30.4 Filter Service • Summarize periodic maintenance tasks that must be
30.4.1 Service of Disposable Filters performed on fans.
30.4.2 Service of Electrostatic Filters • Explain procedures for inspecting and servicing
30.4.3 Service of Electronic Air Cleaners various types of air filters.
 Chapter 30 Ventilation System Service 787

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

access tools duct booster Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
ACHSO duct sweeper you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
air change duct testing • Air circulation depends on the number and size
air handler flowmeter flow hood of the duct supply outlets and return inlets. It also
balancing inspection tool depends on the velocity of the air moving through
blower door testing noise absorber the supply outlets. (Chapter 29)
cfm2s noise amplifier • Air that flows from a supply register at more than
cfmso noise carrier 500 fpm causes occupants of the space to feel a
clean room noise source draft. (Chapter 29)
cleaning tools thermal precipitation
• Blower fans can be directly driven by the fan motor
duct blaster WRT
or can be driven by a belt and pulley system.
(Chapter 29)

Introduction
Air distribution systems are designed to circulate
clean air without causing discomfort to the occupants.
Two common air circulation issues are drafts and noise.
Monitors are available to determine sources of noise or
drafts.
The airtightness of a building envelope can be tested
using blower door testing, which creates a pressure dif-
ferential between the indoor and outdoor air. Ducts can
be tested by pressurizing the ducts themselves. A system
must be balanced to avoid inconsistencies in room tem-
peratures and humidity. g
Air ducts present a potential indoor air quality (IAQ)
issue. They must be monitored for contaminants. The
technician should take care to check air filters for clean-
ing and replacement.
788 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

30.1 Airflow Measurement To determine airflow rate, both the air velocity and
the size of the opening must be determined. The grille
Special instruments are needed to measure the opening size is the area of the opening, Figure 30-2.
flow and pressure of air. Many of these air-measur- The grille mesh or bars are not considered when deter-
ing instruments were explained in Chapter 27, Air mining the opening size.
Movement and Measurement, along with suggested
positions for placing air-measuring instruments over
grilles. In addition to thermometers and pressure 30.1.1 Visible Airflow Indicators
gauges, the following instruments are useful for air- Drafts of 15 fpm to 25 fpm are allowable within a
flow study: room. If air movement is less than 15 fpm (4.6 m/min),
• Manometer, Figure 30-1. air stagnation results. Air movement more than
• Barometer. 500 fpm at a supply register can cause occupants to feel
a draft.
• Pitot tube.
Smoke is used to determine the amount and direc-
• Anemometer. tion of a draft, to check air movement, and to locate air
• Smoke (as a velocity or leak indicator). leaks. Smoke generators release small puffs of smoke
• Hot-wire anemometer. into the space being tested. The distance the puffs
move in a given time is then observed. Because this is
an imprecise measurement, several readings are taken
and averaged.

Safety Note
Smoke Generators
Some chemicals used to generate smoke present
health hazards if precautions are not taken. Carefully
read and follow all safety warnings provided in the man-
ufacturer's information. Always wear goggles, rubber
gloves, and a respirator when handling these materials.

Nontoxic smoke sticks, smoke guns, and smoke

candles are used for testing. Sticks and candles are
ignited and placed in the air distribution system intake

r1-·__w_id_th_ _ _, I
H e i g h J f - 8 8 8 8 Area = Width x Height
][ c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J c::::::J
Rectangular Grille

Round Grille
Dwyer Instruments, Inc.
Figure 30-1. This digital manometer measures, records, Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
and stores differential pressure and air velocity readings Figure 30-2. Area to be measured when calculating the
electronically. The two upper parts of the high and low volume of air leaving a grille. The area does not include the
pressure inputs for measurement. rim of the grille, but does include strips of metal inside.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 30 Ventilation System Service 789

with the filter removed. The distribution of air and air

balance can then be observed in the system. The smoke
can also be used to check for window and door leaks,
as well as refrigerator door seals. Although the smoke
is nontoxic and harmless to clothing and the build-
ing's contents, long exposure to it is not recommended.
Avoid using too much smoke.

30.1.2 Flow Hoods

Airflow can be measured using various instru-
ments. A flow hood is an instrument used to direct
and calculate all of the airflow through a duct at a
given supply or return. These devices have sensors
that are primarily used to determine air velocity and
air volume. Many can also measure temperature,
relative humidity, and other variables. These often
have remote control devices or connectivity to mobile
devices, Figure 30-3.

30.1.3 Air Handler Flowmeter

Airflow through a central HVAC system's air han-
dler can be measured using an air handler flowmeter.
These devices are placed in the air stream of an air
handler to measure the total airflow of a central sys-
tem. Air handler flowmeters are typically sized to fit
over a large return grille or in the space normally occu-
pied by the system's air filter, Figure 30-4.

30.1.4 Blower Door Testing

To measure air leakage, a technician must first
create a pressure difference. This may be a difference
between the outdoors air pressure and that of the con- TS/ Incorporated
ditioned space, or a difference between the pressure Figure 30-3. An airflow hood raised to a ceiling supply
inside a duct system and that of a conditioned space. register being monitored using a mobile device.
The initials WRT stand for the phrase with respect to
and are used to indicate the reference to which a pres-
ing value of the structure and its air barrier. A "tight"
sure reading is being compared.
building envelope minimizes the amount of uncondi-
Blower door testing is used to determine the air- tioned air passing through into conditioned space. A
tightness of the building envelope. When conducting
tight building envelope has no gaps in its insulation
a blower door test, a technician uses a powerful fan to
and air barrier.
create a pressure difference between the interior of the
structure and the outdoors. The negative pressure cre- Code Alert
ated indoors causes the higher-pressure outside air to
flow in through cracks and openings. The technician Building Envelope
then measures the amount of air flowing through the Local building codes specify the requirements
structure at a specified pressure. This amount of air is for the building envelope. These specifications can be
a measure of the airtightness of the building envelope. very detailed, describing the minimum standards for
The building envelope consists of the components selecting and installing insulation and air barriers in the
various areas of a building. These regulations take into
of the structure, such as walls or floors, separating
consideration the requirements of the space and the
conditioned space from unconditioned space. Two key local climate.
components of the building envelope are the insulat-

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

790 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

(
120

r,
r.

TS/ Incorporated
Figure 30-4. Two common sizes of air handler flowmeters used to measure total airflow through a central HVAC system.

A blower door test shows how effectively the

Pro Tip
building envelope prevents unconditioned air from
infiltrating conditioned space. Blower doors can be Preparing for a Blower Door Test
used to find air leakage sites in the building envelope, When you are preparing a house for a blower door
to test the air leakage rate of the building as a whole, test, keep a list of adjustments you make, such as clos-
and to test the airtightness of the duct system. ing dampers and opening registers. After performing
A blower door system has several components: the test, use your list to ensure that you return the house
to its pretest condition.
• An adjustable door frame fitted with a hard or
fabric panel.
• A variable-speed fan attached to the blower door
frame. f1J Performing a Blower Door Test
• A manometer to measure the pressure difference Blower door test procedures are specific for
between the interior of the building and the each model of blower door. Always follow the
outdoors. blower door manufacturer's procedure when
performing a blower door test. The following
• Airflow sensors to measure the airflow through
procedure is typical of blower door tests.
the fan.
1. Prepare the house for testing:
• Inserts of various size used to adjust the fan's
capacity (available with some blower door • Exterior windows and doors are closed.
systems). • Interior doors are open.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 30 Ventilation System Service 791

For the outdoor measurement, place the end of

the manometer tube away from the buildings
wall in a location protected from any wind.
4. After the baseline pressure difference is
recorded, remove the fan cover and attach a
fan insert (if provided).
5. Activate the fan and adjust the speed until
an interior pressure of -25 Pa with respect to
(WRT) outdoors is achieved.
6. While the pressure is at -25 Pa, perform a
walk-through of the house to make sure that
no damage is occurring.
7. Increase the fan speed until an interior pres-
sure of -50 Pa WRT outdoors is achieved.
8. Record or measure the airflow through the
fan at the -50 Pa pressure. This airflow value
is called cfm50 : _ _.
9. Turn off the blower door fan.
10. Return all equipment in the house to its origi-
nal conditions.

An air change occurs when the volume of air

within a building is replaced with an equal volume of
air. When performing a blower door test, an air change
occurs when the volume of air that has passed through
the blower door fan equals the volume of air within
the building envelope. As described in the earlier pro- g
cedure, cfm 50 is the measured airflow through a blower
The Energy Conservatory door fan when indoor pressure is held at -50 Pa WRT
Figure 30-5. A blower door system being used to test building outdoors. This cfm50 measurement is used to calcu-
airtightness with measured readouts on a mobile device. late the number of air changes per hour (ACH). This
number of air changes when indoor pressure is held at
-50 Pa WRT outdoors is referred to as ACH50 (number
• Dampers (exhaust, intake, makeup air, of air changes at a 50 Pa pressure difference). The for-
mula for calculating ACH50 is as follows:
backdraft, and flue) are closed.
• Exterior dampers for fresh air, continuous ACH = cfm x 60 min/hr
ventilation systems, and HRVs/ERVs are 50 ••
Volume of conditioned space (ft3)
closed and sealed.
• Heating and cooling systems are turned off.
Code Alert
• Combustion appliances are turned off.
Allowable ACH
• Exhaust appliances are turned off.
The International Residential Code (/RC) and the
• Fireplaces and wood stoves are extinguished, International Energy Conservation Code (/ECG) specify
and ashes are cleaned. a maximum ACH 50 of three for most of the United States
• All supply air registers are fully opened. and Canada. The codes allow an ACH 50 of five in some
warmer regions. Refer to the codes for the requirement
2. Install the blower door assembly with the fan that pertains to the specific building location.
blowing out of the house, Figure 30-5.
3. Block the fan opening in the blower door During a blower door test, the air infiltration into
and measure the "baseline" pressure differ- a house is greater than normal due to the depressur-
ence between the interior and exterior: ization of the house. Therefore, infiltration sites can be

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

792 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

more effectively located while conducting the blower

door test. Thermal imaging or smoke generators, such
as smoke sticks or smoke candles, can be used to pin-
point air leaks, Figure 30-6. Thermal imaging is dis-
cussed in Chapter 46, Energy Conservation.
Blower door testing is sometimes used together
......
with duct blasters (air duct blowers). Duct blasters are Smokeys
part of an airflow measurement system designed to
determine the airtightness of duct systems.

Code Alert
Third-Party Blower Door Testing
The International Energy Conservation Code
(/ECG) states that testing must be conducted by an
approved third party where required by the code official.
Certification may be achieved through agencies such
as the US EPA Energy Star program and the Building
Performance Institute.

30.1.5 Duct Testing

To be efficient, ductwork must be properly sealed. DiversiTech Corporation
Ducts are tested to locate leaks or damage so that prob-
Figure 30-6. Smoke-emitting devices are available in a
lem areas can be repaired. variety of packages and styles.

Code Alert
Duct Testing Requirement
When the air handler and ductwork are contained
within the building envelope, duct testing is not required.

Duct testing is performed by pressurizing the

ducts themselves. Duct airflow is then measured to
determine leakage. A duct blaster is an instrument
that uses a variable-speed fan and gauges to pressure
test the ductwork of a central HVAC system. A fan
connected to the duct system forces air through all the
cracks and openings in the ductwork. Precise leakage
measurements are then made using pressure gauges
connected to the system, Figure 30-7.
After all registers and grilles have been sealed, a
fan with calibrated pressure gauges supplies a gentle
flow of air into the sealed duct system. The ducts are
pressurized to +25 Pa WRT the conditioned space. The
airflow needed to obtain -25 Pa in the conditioned
space is referred to as cfm 25 . The pressure gauges
then indicate how much pressure is escaping from the
system.
The following equation is used to calculate the
allowable cfm:
The Energy Conservatory
cfm = Conditioned space (ft2) x Maximum leakage (cfm) Figure 30-7. A duct blaster pressure testing a central HVAC
25 100 ft2 system's ductwork.

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 Chapter 30 Ventilation System Service 793

grilles, the duct is concealed. In these systems, smoke

Code Alert
detectors should be as far away from the grilles as pos-
Maximum Duct Leakage sible. Detectors should never be put in corners where
The International Energy Conservation Code there is almost no airflow.
(/ECG) specifies a maximum duct leakage of 4 cfm per Air distribution systems should be designed to
100 ft 2 of conditioned space when the ducts are pres- circulate clean air while ensuring that the movement
surized to 25 Pa. If the ductwork is tested before the air of the air does not cause discomfort to the occupants.
handler is installed, the maximum duct leakage is 3 cfm Two common problems that must be prevented are
per 100 ft2 of conditioned space.
objectionable noise and drafts.

Pro Tip 30.2.1 Noise Problems

Duct Pressure Testing Noise problems can be divided into three
Duct pressure testing treats all duct leaks as being components:
equal. However, all duct leaks are not equal with regard • Noise source.
to system efficiency. A duct leak in an unconditioned
space is a much greater concern than a duct leak in a
• Noise carrier.
conditioned space. When installing and inspecting duct • Noise amplification or reflection.
systems, make sure that ducts passing through uncon- The noise source is an audible vibration. This
ditioned spaces are completely sealed. vibration may start in the heating unit, cooling unit,
fan mechanism, duct panels, duct hangers, or grilles.
Noise caused by air traveling through the ducts at high
speed, causing air turbulence, is a common complaint.
30.2 Special Duct Problems and This is often the result of a blower that has been sped
Duct Maintenance up in an attempt to compensate for an undersized
heating or cooling system or duct.
Visible ducts may need to be painted for good A noise source is a vibration that is loud enough
appearance. Paint will not stick very well on galvanized to be heard. This vibration may originate in the heat-
(zinc-coated) steel. Wiping down the duct with vinegar ing system, cooling system, or fan mechanism. Noise
or other weak acid before painting will etch the surface, is produced by movement of an object or air movement g
allowing the paint to stick. If any ducts are outdoors, against an object.
the weather will etch the surface. The duct can then be Sources include the following:
painted. Some contractors store ducts outside until they
are needed, making use of the natural weathering. • Fans and motors.
The outdoor intake end of a fresh air duct should • High-velocity air traveling through ducts and
be fitted with a strong screen and bar combination. The causing turbulence. This type of noise is often
fresh air intake must be guarded and filtered to keep the result of an undersized unit or duct. Noise
out debris, birds, animals, and insects. problems develop when the blower has been sped
Aluminum-to-steel joints are especially prone up to compensate for a lack of capacity.
to corrosion. This is due to electrochemical action • Vibrating duct panel. Alternate waves of low-
between the two different metals. Joints between dif- pressure and high-pressure air are created,
ferent metals should be avoided. However, if one must producing a sound similar to the hum of a
be made, slip a thin strip of zinc or magnesium into mosquito. Duct noise can be very disturbing.
the gap between the two different metals. The zinc or • Sucking and throbbing noises produced by
magnesium will corrode before the aluminum or steel compressors.
duct can be damaged.
• High-velocity refrigerant flow, especially at sharp
City and state codes require smoke detectors in
residential and commercial structures. These detec- bends in piping.
tors must be properly located to be effective. High- Types of noise associated with air distribution sys-
velocity air from ducts can keep smoke detectors from tems include the following:
working. When a long horizontal run of duct ending • A high-pitch sound. This is usually caused by an
in an outlet grille is not concealed, the smoke detector air velocity that is too high. It may be due to air
should be hung on the underside of the duct. It should hitting sharp metal edges.
be located just behind the outlet grille. With other • A low-pitch rumble. This is usually caused by fan
duct designs, such as residential wall, floor, or ceiling and motor sounds traveling along the duct system.

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794 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• A popping sound when the unit starts or stops. and longer unit life. A program of regular maintenance
This may be caused by expansion or contraction and IAQ evaluation together with HVAC cleaning will
of the duct as it warms up or cools. reduce indoor air pollution.
Noise carriers, or vibration carriers, are rigid A cleanliness inspection can reveal a variety of
structures that carry vibrations to places where the conditions that indicate a need for HVAC system clean-
sound may be annoying. Floors, ceilings, ducts, doors, ing. These conditions include a significant accumula-
and pipes can all act as noise carriers. tion of contaminants, debris, or evidence of microbial
Noise amplifiers, or reflectors, are usually hard, growth. A discharge of visible particulates into the
smooth surfaces like walls, ceilings, floors, and fur- occupied space may be noted. Other signs that clean-
nishings. Noise amplifiers can pick up a small vibra- ing is required are restrictions or deposits of contami-
tion and reflect it at a frequency and direction that nants on heat exchange coils, cooling coils, airflow
effectively increases the noise. Soft fabrics, such as control devices, filtration devices, or air-handling
drapes and curtains and fabric-covered furniture, are devices, Figure 30-8.
noise absorbers, which are materials that mute noises. For effective results, all portions of an HVAC sys-
Felt-lined or soft-insulation-lined ducts also absorb tem must be cleaned. HVAC systems are good breed-
noise. ing grounds for contaminants due to enclosed spaces,
constant temperature, humidity, and dirt. Areas that
Solving Noise Problems often contain microbial contamination include the con-
To locate the source of a high-pitched sound, densate drain pan, areas downstream of cooling coils,
remove the grille or diffuser. If the noise stops, it is and areas around humidifiers.
caused by sharp edges in the grille. If it continues, the The air handler should be inspected, including air
air velocity is too high (use an anemometer to measure), filter, air bypass line, heat and cooling coils, condensate
or there is a sharp edge in the duct system. Locate the pans, condensate drain lines, humidification systems,
problem and correct it. acoustic insulation, fan and fan compartment, damp-
Where noise is a factor, the velocity should be kept ers, door gaskets, supply duct and components, and
to a minimum. If the velocity cannot be decreased, return duct and components. The inspection should
noise can be reduced by other means. An acoustical not disrupt any settled dust or debris in order to pre-
discharge chamber may be used. The ducts can be vent them from entering other spaces in the building.
lined or wrapped with sound-absorbing material, such In sensitive environments, or if HVAC system con-
as felt. tamination is suspected, environmental engineering
controls should be implemented. Engineering controls
include source control, isolation barriers, HEPA vacu-
30.2.2 Drafts uming, and filtration.
If a duct system is not balanced, air may enter a
room at an excessive rate. Drafts are the result of air Duct Cleaning
that flows past people at too high a velocity. Air veloc- Air ducts can be a breeding surface for bacteria,
ity greater than 500 fpm at a register may result in a mold, mildew, and fungi. Duct systems should have
draft. Different methods can be tried to alleviate drafts
from registers:
• If a register has adjustable louvers, adjust the louvers
to direct airflow to a generally unoccupied space.
• Replace the register with one that diffuses the air
more broadly.
• Adjust the damper in the duct run to reduce
airflow to the register. However, this may upset
the system balance, result in uneven heating or
cooling from room to room.

30.2.3 HVAC System Cleaning

The benefits of a clean HVAC system include fewer
health and comfort complaints by occupants, more National Air Duct Cleaners Association (NADCA)
effective system performance, reduced energy costs, Figure 30-8. Accumulation of debris in ductwork.

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 Chapter 30 Ventilation System Service 795

no "dead ends" where dust and stagnant air can col- contamination, monitor the cleaning process, and
lect. If a duct must have dead space, a duct door for evaluate the success of the cleaning procedure. Such
cleaning may be needed. Any section of duct, straight tools may include a telescoping handheld mirror, opti-
or not, will collect some dust. Reversing the direction cal borescope, closed circuit television camera system,
of airflow can loosen some of the dust. The dust can and a camera.
then be caught in a filter. Periodic duct cleaning should Handheld cleaning tools include brushes,
be done to maintain proper airflow through the duct scrapers, and agitation and vacuum devices. See
system. Figure 30-12. A variety of brush heads may be required
depending on the surface to be cleaned, Figure 30-13.
Preparation for Duct Cleaning Handheld HEPA vacuums can be used for removal of
The site must be prepared before ducts are cleaned. debris.
Occupant safety should be ensured by determining a
containment strategy plan for removal of debris, par- Caution
ticularly if occupants have respiratory sensitivities or
other health concerns. Flooring, carpet, and tile should Cleaning Fiberglass-Lined Ductwork
be protected. Computers or other office equipment, as Fiberglass-lined metal ductwork, flexduct, and
well as furniture, should be covered, Figure 30-9. ductboard can be damaged by aggressive cleaning
techniques. Always clean carefully to avoid causing
damage.
Safety Note
Duct Cleaning
Use caution and wear protective gear to avoid
inhalation or exposure to debris during the duct clean-
ing process. See Figure 30-10.

Tools for HVAC Cleaning

Tools for HVAC system cleaning include hand
tools and power tools. Hand tools are divided into
three categories: access tools, inspection tools, and
cleaning tools.
Access tools allow the technician to create a point
in the HVAC system from which to inspect and clean.
Any openings made in the ductwork must be closed
again when the inspection and cleaning is complete,
Figure 30-11. National Air Duct Cleaners Association (NADCA)
Inspection tools allow the technician to see Figure 30-10. This technician is wearing protective gear to
inside the system in order to identify debris and avoid exposure to contaminants and debris.

National Air Duct Cleaners Association (NADCA) National Air Duct Cleaners Association (NADCA)
Figure 30-9. Preparation of interior space prior to duct Figure 30-11. This technician is using electric sheet metal
cleaning. shears to access a system prior to cleaning.

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796 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Heavy cleaning equipment includes vacuum col-

lection devices, compressed air sources, handheld
HEPA vacuums, and wet vacuums. Vacuum devices
create a negative pressure in the HVAC system and
trap airborne particles of debris. See Figure 30-14.
Vacuum devices may be mounted on trucks or
trailers or may be portable units. Truck/trailer equip-
ment is more powerful, but lacks the flexibility of
portable equipment. Some tools for cleaning use com-
pressed air to supply pressure. If a gasoline-powered
compressor is used, it must be located outside the facil-
ity. Do not allow fumes to enter the building. Wet vacs
(vacuums) are frequently used to remove microbial
contaminants and sludge. If a wet vac exhausts inside
the facility, it must be HEPA filtered.

[ti Cleaning Ductwork

II A three-step process is used to clean
ductwork:
1. A duct sweeper is rotated through the sides of
the ducts to release dust, mold, and mildew.
2. A high-velocity vacuum removes loose par-
ticles from the ductwork.
National Air Duct Cleaners Association (NADCA) 3. A microbial biocide is sprayed into the
Figure 30-12. An agitation device being installed. cleaned duct system to prevent mold and mil-
dew buildup.

National Air Duct Cleaners Association (NADCA)

Figure 30-13. An agitation tool, such as this brush, is National Air Duct Cleaners Association (NADCA)
effective at removing dust from walls of ductwork. Figure 30-14. A technician placing a vacuum into ductwork.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 30 Ventilation System Service 797

Filters should be checked, cleaned, or replaced if determine the total square footage of the con-
necessary to reduce future contamination. The final ditioned spaces.
product should be a clean, debris-free system. See
Figure 30-15. 8. Determine the portion of total airflow each
room should have:

30.2.4 Balancing the System cfm for room = area of room x total cfm
total floor area
Balancing means sizing the ducts and adjusting
the dampers to be sure that each room receives the 9. Adjust duct dampers and grille dampers to
correct amount of air. Conditioned air must be fed in obtain these values.
the proper amounts to each room. Also, the correct 10. Recheck all outlet grilles.
amount of air must be returned. If the system is not
balanced, rooms will maintain different temperatures,
have incorrect relative humidity, or have stale air. Some In some cases, it may be necessary to overcome
ducts will be noisy. excess duct resistance. To do this, install a duct booster.
In order to achieve balance, the air velocity leav- A duct booster is a fan that increases airflow when a
ing each grille must be measured. Then, the "free" area duct is too small or too long. They may also be used
of the grille or diffuser is determined. The "free" area where a duct has too many elbows. Figure 30-16 shows
is the actual size of the air openings. various air duct boosters.

m
II
Balancing a System-Long Method
To balance a system, perform the following
Balancing a System-Short Method
An effective but simpler technique can be
steps: used to balance airflow to different rooms:
1. Inspect the complete system; locate all ducts, 1. Place thermometers in each room. Locate the
openings, and dampers. thermometers on tables away from sunlight,
2. Open all dampers in the ducts and at the lamps, or any extra heat source. Make sure
grilles. the temperature sensing element is not in
contact with any surfaces or objects.
3. Check the velocities at each outlet.
4. Measure the "free" grille area.
2. Adjust dampers until each room has the tern- g
perature desired. Allow several hours for the
5. Calculate the airflow rate at each outlet. system to adjust to any damper change.
airflow rate (cfm) = velocity (fpm) x area (in 2)
144 in 2 /ft2 Remember, if one room is too warm, one or more
others should be too cool. If the heating system is
6. Add together the airflow rates from all outlets. operating, close the dampers slightly in rooms that
7. Determine the floor areas of each room. Add are too warm and open the dampers slightly in the
the square footage of all rooms together to cool rooms. If the cooling system is running, open the
dampers slightly in rooms that are too warm and close
the dampers in rooms that are too cool.

Thinking Green
Airflow Balance
To operate efficiently, an air conditioning system's
airflow must be balanced. If a room has a supply duct
but no return duct, then conditioned air must pass
through part of a hallway or from one room to another
on its way back to the air handler. In such rooms with no
return air inlet, a small gap at the bottom of the door or
another opening should be present to allow return air-
flow. System balance should be checked with the doors
National Air Duct Cleaners Association (NADCA) open and also with the doors closed.
Figure 30-15. View of a clean duct system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

798 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Tjernlund Products, Inc.

Figure 30-16. A duct booster is selected for a specific duct size and volumetric flow rate.

30.2.5 Dirt on Walls and Drapes Clean rooms are also used for the manufacture, repair,
and service of critical items, such as instruments and
Dirt can collect on walls, ceilings, and drapes in computer components. Four methods of maintaining
a conditioned space. In most cases, this dirt does not climate control are used in a clean room:
come from the ducts, but is already in the room. Room
air movement (convection air current) is responsible • Extremely high-efficiency filters.
for carrying dirt to the room surfaces. • Laminar airflow (introducing supply air into the
The collection of dirt around warm-air grilles is operating room at low uniform airflow, resulting
called thermal precipitation. Warm air exiting the in a stable downward flow of air).
grille picks up dirt from the room air. As this air hits • Anticontamination devices.
cooler surfaces, the dirt settles (precipitates) on the • Higher pressure in the clean room than outside
surfaces. This precipitation takes place on windows the room.
also. The cooler the surface, the more dirt it collects.
Therefore, insulation and storm sashes reduce the
amount of dirt settling out of the air. 30.2.6 Removing Odors
Studies have noted a relationship between the Vapors and odors frequently make up a large per-
incidence of infection and the level of air contamina- centage of atmospheric air contaminants. Since most
tion. Therefore, clean rooms are used for surgery and odors are gases, filters (even electronic ones) will not
research. Clean rooms maintain an environment that remove them. Some odors can be removed by cooling
limits the concentration of airborne particles. The tem- the gases to their condensation or freezing tempera-
perature, humidity, and air quality are tightly controlled. ture. Some are removed by oxidation and by ultraviolet

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 Chapter 30 Ventilation System Service 799

light treatment. Others can be removed by combining Two belt

them with other chemicals. The contaminants may be
diluted with air or absorbed into a liquid. They may
also be adsorbed into a solid. Both vapors and odors
can be removed with activated charcoal or activated
alumina with potassium permanganate.

30.3 Fan Service Set

screws
If possible, belt tension should be on the lower belt
section in order to provide more efficient belt drive.
Adjustment Adjustment
Belt tension is good when the belt can be pushed out
of line a distance equal to belt width, Figure 30-17. Fan
speed can be varied by using adjustable (variable pitch)
pulleys, Figure 30-18. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
All fans collect lint and dirt, which reduces the Figure 30-18. Variable pitch pulley. Note the location of the
efficiency of the fan. Dirt should be removed every six setscrews. A pulley is used on a dual belt system and can
months. Remove the fan and scrape, rub, or vacuum the provide fan variation of about 100 rpm through adjustment.
dirt off the blades. Blades will collect dirt even more
quickly if the fan bearings are oiled too much. The
extra oil coats the fan blades and traps any dust that 30.4 Filter Service
lands on the blades. Each bearing requires only one In order for heating and cooling systems to work effi-
or two drops of oil each year. The bearings on direct- ciently, the correct rate of airflow must be produced by the
drive fans should also be checked and lubricated. See ventilation system. Clogged air filters put excessive strain
Chapter 17, Servicing Electric Motors and Controls, for on the blower motor and can decrease airflow below
more fan motor service information. acceptable levels. The following sections describe how to
inspect and service various types of air filters.
Thinking Green
Clean Fans
30.4.1 Service of Disposable Filters
Most technicians recognize the need to keep heat
transfer coils clean, but fans and fan motors should also The most commonly used filters are disposable filters. 9
be kept clean to maximize efficiency. Dirt buildup on a See Chapter 28, Air Quality, for a description of the vari-
fan can reduce its ability to move air efficiently. Motors ous types of disposable filters. Disposable filters should
with dirt buildup operate at higher temperatures, which be replaced at least every three months or whenever they
can lead to motor failure. become inefficient or clogged. Clogged air filters produce
too much pressure drop across the filter. Visual inspec-
tion is one way to determine if a filter needs replacement.
Measuring pressure on both sides of the filter can also
Slack reveal whether the filter needs to be changed. The follow-
ing are some guidelines for inspecting filters:
• Inspect the air filter for tears, holes, and excessive
dirt. To determine how dirty the filter is, place a
strong light on one side of the filter. Then, look
through the filter from the other side. Replace any
filter that is excessively dirty, punctured, or has
damaged or deteriorating filter material.
Motor pulley • Use a manometer to check the pressure drop.
Measure the pressure on each side of the filter.
Fan pulley Subtract the smaller value from the larger. The
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher difference represents the pressure drop through
Figure 30-17. Motor pulley and fan pulley. Note tension on the filter. If the pressure drop across the filter is
lower part of belt and slack at upper. This is how a tensioned more than 25% of the pressure drop across the fan,
belt should look in operation. the filter should be changed.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

800 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Check the housing for signs of corrosion. If corrosion Washing an Electronic Air Cleaner Filter
is present, clean the housing by sandblasting and
repaint it. Refer to the owner's manual for specific
Many air filters are unidirectional, which means cleaning instructions. The following is a general
they are effective only when air passes through them cleaning procedure.
in the correct direction. Always replace filters so the 1. Turn the electronic air cleaner, furnace, and
arrows printed on the filter frame point in the direc- blower power off.
tion of airflow. If this is not done, the filter will quickly 2. Remove lint screens and ionizing collecting
load with dirt and clog. cells.
3. Clean the screens and cells using hot soapy
30.4.2 Service of Electrostatic Filters water, and rinse thoroughly.
Electrostatic filters are often permanent, wash- 4. Replace lint screens and collecting cells after
able filters. These filters carry an electronic charge that they have dried thoroughly.
attracts dust particles. However, many newer units
combine the use of electronically charged plates as
well as a replaceable media filter. The electronic cells Caution
on these units do not need to be cleaned. Only the Washing and Drying Collecting Cells
media filter needs to be replaced. Review manufac-
Do not run an electronic air cleaner without replac-
turer literature for specific instructions.
ing the screens and cells. Some manufacturers rec-
ommend washing the collecting cells in a dishwasher.
30.4.3 Service of Electronic Air Cleaners Do not allow the unit to run through the drying cycle. If
the cells are not thoroughly dried, electrical arcing may
Electronic air cleaners (EACs) need service in the occur when system is turned on. Also, running the cells
following situations: through the dishwasher drying cycle may bake on any
• Trouble lights remain on. particles not removed during the wash. Air dry the col-
lecting cells after any washing.
• Strong ozone odor is detected.
• Rooms are dusty and dirty.
If the water used to wash collecting cells becomes
• Unit arcs constantly. black, you know the cleaner is removing contaminants
Before beginning service, ask the owner when from the air. A unit that is operating correctly allows
the filter was last cleaned. Be sure the power doors or only fine white dust to leave the ducts. The effective-
panels are closed and the power switch is on. Check ness of an electronic air cleaner can be checked by plac-
the fuses. Check the meter readings or operating ing cheesecloth over a supply grille. If the cheesecloth
indicator. becomes discolored after the cleaner has been in opera-
Refer to the service manual for information about tion for two or three days, the electronic air cleaner is
interpreting the meter readings or trouble light codes. not working properly.
Meters or trouble lights, when correctly interpreted, If a wet filter is indicated, check the electronic air
typically indicate whether the filter is dirty or wet or if cleaner for a "dry" switch. Some units are equipped
an electrical problem is indicated. with a switch that will automatically operate the
If a problem is suspected, but the indicator lights blower to dry the filter. If the cleaner does not have a
or meters indicate that conditions are normal, follow "dry" switch, use the thermostat to run the blower con-
the instructions in the manual to troubleshoot the unit. tinuously or periodically to keep the filter dry. Inspect
If the filter is dirty, the building and air-handling the system to determine why the filter is getting wet,
system should be inspected. New carpeting, for exam- and correct the problem if possible.
ple, may temporarily cause an overload on the filter.
Leaking duct systems and untreated concrete floors all Electrical Service
cause unusual high-load conditions. Dusty construc- Electronic air cleaners have an electrical circuit
tion work in the vicinity may also overload the unit. that converts 120 Vac to about 9000 Vdc. This circuit
Electronic air cleaners should be cleaned on a also has safety devices, such as door interlocks, and
planned schedule. Many companies now offer a free service devices, such as diagnostic circuits. Note the
e-mail reminder system to remind homeowners to two step-up transformers, the door interlock, the rec-
clean filters. Frequent washing of a unit is not harmful. tifiers, and the neon light circuit in this electronic air
However, a neglected unit will not clean air effectively. cleaner's electrical circuit, Figure 30-19.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 30 Ventilation System Service 801

22.6
MEG.

A z
c=o_r
_____,~
~ r ~
in~i~~~or
light

~
Front
Voltage check
~/!\ terminals Rear

~ Off t:u1-to_B__..._+--,11c--------1',.W
L2 Door interlock
---w A 22.6
MEG.

A Z

Honeywell Inc.
Figure 30-19. Wiring schematic for an electronic air cleaner.

Service to electronic air cleaners includes check- Recent developments in air cleaners allow technicians
ing rectifiers and high de voltage. Electrical troubles to check the status of an electronic air cleaner through the g
can occur in the power source circuit or in the high- use of a performance indicator. The performance indicator
voltage circuit. If the trouble is in the high-voltage cir- informs the homeowner and technician of the status of the
cuit, the "power pack" capacitors and collecting cell electronic air cleaner. The indicator should be located near
ionizing wires should be inspected and electrically the thermostat. The On reading confirms the electronic air
tested. cleaner is operating. The Battery reading prompts replace-
ment of the performance indicator's battery, and Service
Safety Note indicates the prefilter and cells need cleaning. A Fault read-
ing confirms there is extreme dirt loading, electronic mal-
Servicing Electronic Air Cleaners function, or other problems.
Electronic air cleaners should be serviced only by The collector section should be inspected visu-
someone with special training on the model being ser- ally for bent plates, plates out of position, dirt bridging
viced. Standard multimeters and leads are not designed the gap between ionizing wires and the plates, broken
to read the high voltages used in these air cleaners. A
insulators, and broken wires. Plates must be straight.
high-voltage probe must be used with a standard multi-
Broken insulators and ionizing wires should be
meter to read the voltage.
removed and replaced. Cleaning the plates is essential.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • A clean duct system increases the efficiency of
the heating and cooling systems and reduces
• Special instruments are needed to precisely IAQ complaints. A variety of equipment is
measure the flow and pressure of air. The rate available for duct cleaning. Any duct vacuum
and pattern of airflow can be estimated by that exhausts indoors must be HEPA filtered.
observing the movement of smoke from smoke • An out-of-balance duct system can cause
generators, aspirators, smoke sticks, smoke differences in temperature, humidity, and
guns, or smoke candles. Special instruments airflow from room to room. A duct system can
include flow hoods and air handler flowmeters. be balanced by adjusting the dampers and
• Blower door testing is used to determine registers so the proper airflow is provided to
the airtightness of a building's envelope and each room. If the problem is caused by excess
to locate air leaks. A blower door assembly friction in the ducts, a booster fan can be used
consists of an adjustable door frame, a variable- to increase airflow.
speed fan, a manometer, airflow sensors, and • Fan belt tension must be properly adjusted and
related accessories. the fan blades must be clean in order for a fan
• An air change occurs when the volume of air to function efficiently. One or two drops of oil
within a building is replaced with an equal should be applied to the fan shaft every year.
volume of air. A blower door test determines • Excessively dirty or clogged air filters decrease
the number of air changes per hour (ACH50) the efficiency of the ventilation system and
when indoor pressure is held at -50 Pa WRT put an excessive strain on the blower motor.
outdoors. This value is calculated based on Disposable air filters can be visually inspected
the measured airflow through a blower door and should be replaced if they are damaged or
fan when indoor pressure is held at -50 Pa dirty. The condition of an air filter can also be
WRT outdoors (cfm50). Building codes limit the determined by measuring the pressure drop
maximum allowable number of ACH. across the air filter.
• Duct testing is performed by pressurizing • Most electronic air cleaners have self
a central HVAC system's ductwork with a diagnostics that inform the technician if the
duct blaster to a pressure of +25 Pa WRT filter is working properly, if the filter is dirty or
the conditioned space. Duct airflow is then wet, or if there is an electrical problem with the
measured to determine leakage and locate system.
the leaks. Building codes limit the maximum
amount of duct leakage.
• Common problems encountered when working Review Questions
with duct systems include corrosion caused
by dissimilar metals at joints, noise problems, Answer the following questions using the information in
drafts, dirty ductwork, and systems out of this chapter.
balance. If steel and aluminum ducts are 1. An instrument used to direct and calculate
joined, corrosion can be reduced by inserting a all of the airflow through a duct at a given
thin strip of zinc or magnesium between duct supply or return is a(n) _ _.
sections made of dissimilar metals. A. air handler flowmeter
• Noise problems are caused by something that B. barometer
is vibrating. The sound can travel a far distance C. duct blaster
from the source through the ductwork. In order D. flowhood
to eliminate the problem, the source of the 2. An instrument used to measure all airflow
noise must be identified and conditions causing through a central HVAC system is a(n) _ _.
the unwanted vibration must be corrected. A. air handler flowmeter
• To alleviate drafts from registers, the louvers B. barometer
can be adjusted to direct airflow to an C. duct blaster
unoccupied space, a register can be replaced D. flowhood
with one that diffuses air more broadly, or
dampers in the duct run can be adjusted.

802 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 30 Ventilation System Service 803

3. Duct blasting involves _ _. 10. A simple method of balancing airflow is

A. pressurizing the ducts to adjust the _ _ until all rooms have the
B. measuring duct airflow desired temperature.
C. sandblasting ductwork A. air filter
D. Both A and B. B. blower fan speed
4. When blower door testing, initials used to C. dampers
indicate the reference to which a pressure D. duct booster
reading is being compared are _ _. 11. Odors can be removed from indoor air by
A. ACH
B. cfm A. combining them with other chemicals
C. IAQ B. using activated charcoal to adsorb them
D. WRT C. oxidation and ultraviolet ray treatment
5. Aluminum-to-steel joints are _ _. D. All of the above.
A. commonly used because they resist 12. Dirt on blower fan blades should be removed
corrosion
B. more enduring with a strip of zinc or A. everyday
magnesium between the metals B. every week
C. the ideal ductwork joints C. every six months
D. not affected by electrochemical action D. once a decade
between the metals 13. The pressure drop across an air filter can be
6. Rigid structures that transmit vibrations to measured with a(n) _ _.
places where the sound may be annoying are A. access tool
called noise B. barometer
A. amplifiers C. borescope
B. carriers D. manometer
C. sources 14. When washing an electronic air cleaner filter,
D. strengtheners you should not _ _.
7. A high-pitched sound in an air distribution A. leave everything energized g
system is usually caused by _ _. B. remove the lint screens and ionizing
A. air velocity that is too high collecting cells
B. air velocity that is too low C. turn the blower power off
C. expansion of the duct as it warms up D. use hot soapy water
D. fan and motor sounds traveling along the 15. Electronic air cleaners need service when
duct system
8. If a high-pitched noise stops when a grille or A. trouble lights remain on
diffuser is removed, the noise is caused by B. rooms are dusty and dirty
C. the unit arcs constantly
A. air velocity that is too low D. All of the above.
B. sharp edges in the grille
C. expansion of the duct as it warms up
D. fan and motor sounds traveling along the
duct system
9. A handheld HEPA vacuum is an example of
a(n) _ _ tool.
A. access
B. inspection
C. cleaning
D. None of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER31 Ductless
Air-Conditioning
Systetns

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Explain the purpose of comfort cooling systems.
• Describe the cooling and dehumidifying process of
an air-conditioning system and show the relationship
of dry-bulb temperature, moisture content, and
relative humidity on a psychrometric chart.
• Summarize the characteristics of window and wall-
Chapter Outline mounted room air conditioners.
31.1 Principles of Cooling and Humidity Control • Install and service window and wall-mounted room
31.2 Room Air Conditioners air conditioners.
31.2.1 Room Air Conditioner Features • Discuss the operation and application of
31.2.2 Installing Room Air Conditioners packaged terminal air conditioners and console air
31.2.3 Servicing Room Air Conditioners conditioners.
31.3 Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners • Identify the characteristics and uses of portable air
31.4 Console Air Conditioners conditioners.
31.4.1 Installing Console Air Conditioners
• Explain the operation, components, and arrangement
31.4.2 Servicing Console Air Conditioners
of ductless split systems.
31.5 Portable Air Conditioners
31.6 Multizone Ductless Split Systems • Identify the features of multizone ductless split
31.6.1 Ductless Split System Installation systems.
31.6.2 Ductless Split System Service • Install and service ductless split systems.
 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 805

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

biocide tablet portable air conditioner Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
comfort cooling system room air conditioner you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
console air conditioner self-contained air- • Relative humidity (rh) is a term used to express the
ductless split system conditioning system amount of moisture in an air sample compared to
multizone ductless split split air-conditioning the total amount of moisture the same sample would
system system hold if it were completely saturated at the same
overflow switch spot cool temperature. (Chapter 27)
packaged terminal air variable refrigerant flow • The amount of moisture that air can hold depends
conditioner (PTAC) (VRF) system on dry-bulb temperature. Warm air can hold more
packaged terminal heat moisture than cold air. (Chapter 27)
pump (PTHP)
• Only certain temperature and humidity ranges are
comfortable to humans. Effective temperature is the
combined effect of dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb
temperature, and air movement that provides an
equal sensation of warmth or cold. (Chapter 27)

Introduction
Comfort cooling systems are systems that reduce
the temperature and humidity in living and work spaces
to a level comfortable for the occupants. Comfort cool-
ing systems often use a mechanical refrigeration system
to maintain the high-temperature refrigeration range
(between 55°F to 90°F). The refrigerant evaporating tem-
perature of most comfort cooling systems is 40°F to 50°F
(4°C to 10°C). The information in this chapter is applica-
ble to the most popular designs of ductless systems using
mechanical refrigeration for cooling and dehumidifying.

I
806 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

31.1 Principles of Cooling and As this cool, saturated air moves away from the
evaporator and mixes with air in the conditioned space, it
Humidity Control warms up and mixes with room air, lowering its relative
As explained in Chapter 27, Air Movement and humidity. With this influx of drier air, relative humidity in
Measurement, only certain combinations of tempera- the space is brought down to a comfortable level.
ture and relative humidity are comfortable to humans. In some cases, controlling relative humidity may
Certain industrial operations also rely on controlled be more important than temperature control. In these
temperature and humidity. For example, large indus-
trial computer installations must operate in cool and .35
dry conditions. Also, very specific conditions must i?
160 .40~
be maintained where medicines and biological prod-
.45~
ucts are being produced. Industrial operations dealing 140 a:
.50 "ffi
with hygroscopic (water-absorbing) materials require 120 :c
.60 .!!
strictly controlled humidity. .0
.70 -~
Figure 31-1 shows the operation of a typical cool- 100
.80 ell
ing system. Return air is mixed with some fresh air. 80 :l, .90

Then, this air mixture is filtered and passed over the ~

60 "i!
evaporator, where it cools. As the air cools, some of the s
moisture in the air condenses on the evaporator coil 40 5
.;
and is drained away. "6
20 :!
Cool air leaving the evaporator is at 100% rela-
tive humidity. However, remember the psychrometric
charts from Chapter 27, Air Movement and Measurement. Dry-Bulb Temperature (' F)
Point A Point B
The lower the temperature of air, the less moisture it
can hold. This explains the 100% relative humidity of Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
the cool air. A set amount of moisture in a set volume Figure 31-2. In this example, a set volume of air has 20
of air can have high relative humidity at a low tem- grains/lb of moisture. At 40°F dry-bulb temperature, it is at
perature and low relative humidity at a higher tem- 60% relative humidity. When dry-bulb temperature rises to
perature, even though the amount of moisture the air 90°F, it is at 10% relative humidity, even though this air still
contains has not changed at all, Figure 31-2. contains the same amount of moisture (20 grains/lb).

--
-- Air return

Evaporator

0
I (
~
0
0
0
- -:
-- I
I ---...
Conditioned air
)
\
Filter Drain
Machine Room Conditioned Space

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 31-1. Basic operation of an air conditioner that cools, recirculates, and removes moisture from outdoor air. The air is
moved with a centrifugal blower.

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 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 807

designs, some of the return air bypasses the evapo- shows an approximate reduction from 143 grains/lb
rator and is fed into the air conditioner outlet. The down to 42 grains/lb of moisture.
bypass warms the cooled air before it leaves the duct Reheating the air (horizontal line from Point D to
system. This allows the system to provide dehumidifi- Point E) decreases the air's relative humidity. However,
cation without overcooling the conditioned space. The in most systems the cooled air leaving at Point D is
amount of return air bypassed around the evapora- mixed with the room air. Since the return air is at
tor is controlled by a damper. This type of system is
shown in Figure 31-3.
In a cooling cycle, the dry-bulb (db) temperature
.35
of the air is lowered. When this happens, like the shift i?
from Point A to B in Figure 31-4, the level of relative 160 .40~

humidity increases. This is due to colder air being able 140

.45i
IC
to contain less moisture than warmer air. The air con- .50 i
120 :c
tains the same amount of moisture, but the amount it .60 .!!!
.0
can hold is reduced. When air's dry-bulb temperature 100 .70 -~
.80 ell
reaches dew point (100% relative humidity), some mois- 80 :l, .90
ture can condense and be removed. In comfort cooling, ~
60 "§
reducing humidity makes the air more comfortable. s
Moisture can be removed by either of two methods: 40
,.5
• Dehydrate the air with chemicals. "6
20 ::!:

• Cooling air until moisture condenses.

When the dry-bulb temperature in Figure 31-4 is 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Dry-Bulb Temperature (' F)
reduced to about 77°F, its relative humidity is at 100%
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
(Point C). Moisture is effectively removed from air by
condensing on a cool surface. This is represented by the Figure 31-4. Cooling cycle on a psychrometric chart.
A-Condition of room air. B-Partly cooled air. C-Air cooled
curve from Point C to Point D. Look along the right side to saturation (100% relative humidity). D-Air cooled to remove
of the chart to see the vertical distance from C to D along some moisture. E-Rise in temperature of cooled air mixed
the Moisture scale. This shows the drop in moisture with room air. F-Rise in relative humidity of cooled air mixed
content in grains per pound. The psychrometric chart with room air.

-- Exhaust
air

I
)

Filter Drain
Machine Room Conditioned Space

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 31-3. Comfort cooling system with a return air bypass for relative humidity control. The air passing through the evaporator
is cooled and dehumidified. However, because the air leaving the evaporator is mixed with relatively warm, dry return air, the
cooling capacity of the system is reduced. This allows the system to continue running to dehumidify the air without overcooling
the conditioned space.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

808 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

45°F (Point D) and the room air is 100°F (Point A), the 31.2 Room Air Conditioners
dry-bulb temperature of this mixture will increase to
about 78°F. Not only will temperature change, but rela- A room air conditioner is an inexpensive and
tive humidity will change. The result of the mixture of simple self-contained air-conditioning system that pro-
return air and room air will result in a relative humid- vides cooling to a portion of a building or residence.
ity of 90%. This is reduction of temperature by l2°F Most room air conditioners are installed in a window
and of moisture content by about 10 grains/lb of mois- opening, and installation is relatively easy. Window
ture. Relative humidity is higher, but moisture content units are available that fit double-hung or casement
and temperature are lower. windows. Other room air conditioners, called through-
Several types of comfort cooling systems can be used the-wall room air conditioners, are designed to be installed
to provide cooling and humidity control. Of ductless sys- in a standard size wall opening. See Figure 31-5.
tems, these systems may be self-contained (packaged) or A basic room air conditioner cools, filters, and recir-
split. A self-contained air-conditioning system is a com- culates air through a replaceable filter. High-pressure
fort cooling system with all parts and controls in a single vapor refrigerant condenses in the condenser. It flows
cabinet. An example is a room air conditioner. Within its from the liquid line, through the metering device, and
cabinet is the metering device, compressor, condenser, into the evaporator. Most room air conditioners use a
evaporator, controls, and necessary accessories. A pack- capillary tube, a bypass AXV, or a TXV as its metering
aged terminal air conditioner (PTAC) is another example device. When the air conditioner is in operation, the
of a self-contained air-conditioning system. evaporator is under low pressure. The liquid refriger-
All self-contained air-conditioning units provide ant rapidly boils and picks up heat from the evaporator
cooling during the hot season. Some models can also surface. A motor-driven evaporator fan draws air from
provide heating during the cold season. Both types inside the room and pulls it through a filter. The fan
have a complete refrigeration system, including com- forces the air over the evaporator. Air flowing over the
pressor, condenser, refrigerant controls, evaporator, evaporator is cooled. The cooled air is blown back into
filters, and related parts. Individual room thermostats the room. The arrows in Figure 31-6 show the airflow
provide temperature control. pattern.
Unlike self-contained air-conditioning systems, a As room air is blown across the evaporator coil,
split air-conditioning system divides its components moisture from the air condenses on the evaporator's sur-
into two or more separate locations. A split system's face. This moisture then drains to a drip pan. In some
condensing unit may be placed outdoors and its evap- units, the drip pan is drained to the outside. In other
orating unit may be placed indoors. In comfort cool- units, moisture from the evaporator flows into a pan in
ing, both central air-conditioning systems and ductless the compressor compartment. As the moisture evapo-
systems may be either packaged or split. rates, it helps to cool the compressor and condenser.

A B
Joseph McCullar/Shutterstock.com; MaxyM/Shutterstock.com
Figure 31-5. Room air conditioners can be mounted in a window or through a wall. A-A window-mounted room air conditioner has
extendable partitions that seal the gaps between the air-conditioner case and the sides of the window casing. B-Through-the-wall
room air conditioners are designed to fit in a standard size opening in the side of a building.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 809

Window
or wall

Thermostat and Evaporator

control panel fan Condenser

..
~
~
~

::::
~ Outside
~ airout

Room
air in

control
• High-pressure liquid
• Low-pressure liquid
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

I
Figure 31-6. This diagram shows airflow, refrigerant flow, and pressure conditions in a basic window or through-the-wall room air
conditioner. Note that the conditioned airflow and the condenser airflow are completely separated from each other.

Low-pressure refrigerant vapor is drawn from the differential of 5°F (3°C) between the evaporator inlet and
evaporator through the suction line back into the com- duct exhaust is normal. If the part of the bulb farthest
pressor. Compressed to high-side pressure, the vapor from the evaporator is insulated, the bulb will respond
is then forced into the condenser. The compressor and better to evaporator temperatures. It will cool sooner
condenser are in the part of the unit outside the build- and stop the unit before it overcools. It will also stop
ing. The compressor compartment fan draws in outdoor the unit if the evaporator ices up. The unit will be pre-
air, circulates it over the condenser, and discharges it vented from starting again until the ice melts.
outside. The refrigerant in the condenser is cooled and
condensed to a liquid, and the cycle begins again. Caution
Restarting a Room Air Conditioner
Pro Tip
As with all capillary tube refrigeration systems, if
Evaporator and Compressor Compartment Fans the unit is shut off and then immediately restarted, it
The evaporator and compressor compartment fans may stall or fail to cycle on. The compressors in sys-
may be driven by the same motor, or each may have its tems that use a capillary tube as a metering device are
own motor. Check manufacturer literature for fan and designed to cycle on under a certain high-side pres-
motor arrangements. sure. Immediately restarting such a system does not
allow high-side pressure enough time to equalize with
Room air condtioners contain a built-in thermostat the low-side pressure. Allow enough time for the sys-
tem to equalize after shut down to prevent compressor
to operate the unit. A thermostat's sensing bulb is usu-
damage.
ally mounted at the inlet of the evaporator. A temperature

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810 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

As noted in the preceding section, a room air con- the fan speed, adjust the temperature setting, and set
ditioner usually consists of a compressor, condenser, start and stop times.
evaporator, refrigerant control, and motor controls. In Some basic room air conditioners are equipped
some models, electric heating elements are included with a fresh air intake to bring in outside air to mix
for cold weather use. During cold weather, the refrig- with the recirculated indoor air. Another variation
eration system is turned off and the electric heating has an auxiliary electrical resistance heating unit to
elements are activated. The evaporator fan is turned furnish heat. Another variation is self-contained heat
on. The same fan is used to circulate warm air in cold pump, which is capable of providing both comfort
weather and cooled air in warm weather. The user can cooling and heating simply by reversing the flow of
select the desired temperature to maintain using the refrigerant through the refrigeration system.
control panel on the front of the unit, Figure 31-7. Some room air conditioners are designed so the
conditioned air stream oscillates side-to-side as the
unit runs. This helps distribute the conditioned air
31.2.1 Room Air Conditioner Features throughout the room. The oscillation is created by rotat-
Some room air conditioners are equipped with ing angled deflector plates inside the conditioned air
handheld, infrared, remote controls. On some remote passage. The plates are mounted on a shaft. The shaft
controls, indicator lights identify the operating mode is turned by a turbine in the air passage, Figure 31-8.
and temperature setting currently selected. The user
can use the handheld remote control to operate the sys-
tem from any place that has a clear line of sight to the
31.2.2 Installing Room Air Conditioners
air conditioner. Most remote controls allow the user to Window air conditioners are installed into a
program the clock, select the operating mode, change window opening using metal plates, rubber gaskets,

Window
or wall

Thermostat and Heating Evaporator

control panel element fan

~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~

~
~
~
~
~
Room
~
air in
~
~

relay and
terminal box
control
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 31-7. Some room air conditioners have electric heating elements that provide heat during cold weather. Notice that the
refrigeration system is shut down and high-side and low-side pressures equalize when the heating elements are energized.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 811

Deflector Exhaust #10 X 3/4"

plates Turbine duct wood screw ~ - Sash seal
_ Y /gasket
#10 x 3/4" wood screw
Window
• seal
gasket

,":----:-------"'=---•~~~~~~~=~~-;;t---
. Top
channel

Side
extension
panel

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Figure 31-9. Drawing showing a window air conditioner and
the parts needed to mount it safely and seal the gaps in the
window opening.

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher conditioner is to install the sleeve provided with the

Figure 31-8. The operation of an oscillating grille deflector air conditioner into the window opening. The air con-
is shown here. A shaft connects a turbine in the exhaust ditioner chassis will slide right into the sleeve after it
passage to a series of angled deflector plates in the is installed. The sleeve is the outer shell of the air con-

I
conditioned air passage. As the turbine spins, the deflector ditioner, and the chassis consists of a frame to which
plates wobble around their centers. The wobbling deflector
all of the functional parts of the air conditioner are
plates cause the conditioned air stream to oscillate left and
right as it exits. One half of a rotation is shown here.
mounted.
The air-conditioner sleeve should be adjusted to
tilt downward about 1/4" on the outside. This will tilt 1
and sealing compounds. The condensing side of the
unit must be tilted down slightly so the condensate
can drain outside the building. A window air condi-
tioner and the parts needed to install it are shown in
Figure 31-9.
The unit must be securely fastened in place to pre-
vent it from falling out of the window. The window
itself must be secured in the proper position. A bracket
on the outside of the building can provide support
for the condensing side of a window air conditioner,
Figure 31-10.
Room air conditioner manufacturers provide dif-
ferent methods of mounting. Figure 31-11 shows a win-
dowsill with a leveling bracket and security bracket
mounted. Another method of bracing and leveling a
window air conditioner is shown in Figure 31-12.
Manufacturers each have slightly different meth- RectorSeal
ods for mounting window units, however, most Figure 31-10. A mounting bracket supporting a window air
are similar. The first step in installing a window air conditioner.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

812 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Leveling
adjuster

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Figure 31-11. Bracing is used to hold a window air conditioner on the windowsill.

the air conditioner enough to provide proper conden- found using foam strips or, where appropriate, caulk.
sate drainage. A sponge rubber or plastic strip is usu- All edges around the window and air conditioner
ally placed between the air conditioner housing and should be sealed to minimize air infiltration.
the windowsill to help make a leakproof joint. The sill A room air conditioner should be equipped with
brackets and housing are screwed into the windowsill. a grounded (three-prong) electrical cord. Plug the air
Then, the rubber seal strips and the filler boards are conditioner into a separate, dedicated electrical circuit.
put in place, Figure 31-13. Check the unit nameplate for appropriate electrical
When the lower sash is raised to make room for information. A suitable electrical circuit is necessary.
the air conditioner, an air gap is created between the Air conditioners that mount through the wall are
two sashes. This opening can be sealed with a sponge popular in apartments. They can be left in place year
rubber or foam strip. The strips can be notched to fit round and do not prevent the windows from being
the space. Sealing the air gap this way prevents heat opened and closed. Typically, an insulated cover is
leakage into the conditioned space, improving the placed over this type of air conditioner during the
efficiency and effectiveness of the air conditioner, heating season. Figure 31-15 shows a typical through-
Figure 31-14. the-wall air conditioner installation.
The air-conditioner chassis is heavy. It should be
moved on a dolly or special carrier. Avoid using the
tubing or coils as hand grips for moving or lifting the 31.2.3 Servicing Room Air Conditioners
chassis. Carry the unit by holding onto the bottom pan. Servicing room air conditioners (window,
Do not force the air-conditioner chassis into the through-the-wall, and packaged terminal) is similar
sleeve. As the chassis slides into the sleeve, make sure to servicing small domestic refrigeration systems, like
the refrigerant lines and wiring are free and clear. refrigerators and freezers. The diagnosis and service
When the chassis is in place inside the housing, install of domestic refrigeration systems were explained in
the front grille, filter, and control knobs. As a final step, Chapter 25, Installation and Troubleshooting of Domestic
check the installation for tightness. Check all seams to Refrigerators and Freezers, and Chapter 26, Service and
see if light is showing through and seal any that are Repair of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers. Some of the

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 813

Alternate position
for sash bracket
Gasket
~window

Sheet Sash seal

metal (wedge between windows)
screws Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 31-14. A sponge rubber seal placed between the
upper edge of the lower sash and the upper sash of a double-
hung window prevents heat leakage. A sash bracket keeps the
lower sash locked in position.

external service operations specifically intended for

room air conditioners are described in the following
paragraphs.
On a semiannual basis, the air filter should be
inspected and either cleaned or replaced. This task is
usually performed by the owner. Figure 31-16 shows a
typical filter design for a room air conditioner.
Every year, thoroughly clean the evaporator, con-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher denser, fan blades, fan motor, compressor, and hous-
Figure 31-12. Window air conditioner with indoor flush mounting. ing. To prepare the unit for service, the chassis should
The sheet metal screws hold the side closure panels. be removed from its housing or sleeve.

Rubber seal
strip
Fill
board
I
Fill board

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Figure 31-13. Window air conditioner housing installed, showing rubber seal strips and filler boards.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

814 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Lintel where required

Stud
Caulk all around sleeve

Shim

--
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Sleeve ---
Sleeve to be level height
-----
or tilted slightly Opening : : : _ Decorative
to outside height -:- outside louver
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
-------~--- Air-conditioner
---
--- sleeve
'<
Stud----

Side View
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 31-15. Typical through-the-wall room air conditioner installation.

Before removing the air-conditioner chassis from

its housing, place a tarp or newspapers on the floor to
Air-inlet grille catch any dust or dirt that falls. Remove the chassis
carefully, and carry it to a designated area for service.
If possible, clean the air conditioner outdoors. This
reduces the chance of creating a mess and increases
the number of cleaning methods that can be used.
Remove or tie back curtains or drapes, and then
use a commercial vacuum cleaner with a brush nozzle
to clean the inside of the air-conditioner housing. After
the housing is clean, move on to the chassis. Finned
evaporators and condensers are difficult to clean. The
fin spacing prevents the vacuum brush from reaching
the lint and dirt. In such cases, use plastic blades and a
powerful vacuum to remove most of the dirt. Any dirt
on the evaporator or condenser reduces their ability
to transfer heat, reducing the effectiveness of the unit.
Studs Never use metal blades for cleaning; they can poke
through the coil tubing, causing leaks. If the air condi-
tioner is being cleaned outdoors, a powerful water and
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher detergent spray can be used to clean the coils. Clean
Figure 31-16. Typical air filter installation for room air the coils as thoroughly as possible and straighten any
conditioner. bent fins on the coils.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 815

While the air-conditioner chassis is out of its housing and tube using a soft wire. Check all bolts, nuts, and
for cleaning, inspect the fan motor or motors and lubricate screws for tightness. Before reinstalling the air-condi-
them (unless they have sealed bearings). Always wipe tioner chassis into the housing, run the air conditioner
away excess oil. Oil residue on the fan blades will collect to check for noise. If an unusual noise is heard, find
lint and reduce the fan's ability to move air. When servic- its source and correct the problem. Always put a cloth
ing fan motors, make certain that fans are tight on the over the air conditioner's conditioned air outlet when
shaft. They should be carefully positioned in the shroud it is first started after cleaning. Any loosened dirt not
for efficient air movement. Avoid bending or twisting the removed by the vacuum cleaner will be blown out of
fan blades. An off-balance fan will be noisy because of the adjustable grille when the air conditioner starts up
vibration and will quickly wear out the motor bearings. for the first time.
Replace damaged fans. The wiring of a window air conditioner is very
Inspect the condensate drain. It must be clean and similar to the wiring of other refrigeration units. See
free of any blockage. Remove lint from the drain hole Figure 31-17. External electrical service procedures are

Switch Contacts
Green position 2 3 4
Off 0 0 0
Normal fan 0 C 0
Super fan 0 0 C
Normal cool C C 0
Super cool C 0 C
C-closed
0-open

"= Unit ground

Orange

,/ White
;:
Thermostat
I
Brown .Q
ai
>-
Run
White Switch
capacitor

White Black

Blue

Fan motor

Starting components Power supply

shown dotted for reference
Fedders North America, Inc.
Figure 31-17. Wiring diagram of 120 V window air conditioner with 7000 Btu/hr capacity. Note two-speed fan motor and fan capacitor.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

816 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

usually the same as those for domestic refrigeration

systems, with the following exceptions:
• Fan motors usually have two or three speeds.
• Some systems have three capacitors: a start capacitor, Run
a run capacitor, and a fan motor capacitor. capacitor
A unit with a start capacitor and a run capacitor
is shown in Figure 31-18. An arrangement with three
capacitors is shown in Figure 31-19. In this example,
the run capacitor and the fan motor capacitor are Start
located together in a single case. capacitor
Figure 31-20 shows a wiring diagram for a win-
dow air conditioner equipped with a three-speed fan Extension
motor. The system operates on a 240 V circuit and has strap
a 21,000 Btu/hr (6.15 kW) capacity.
The procedures for testing electrical components Electrical
Tinnerman
is similar to those for servicing small domestic refrig- control
"U" nut
eration systems. Fan and compressor motor testing is panel
described in Chapter 17, Servicing Electric Motors and
Controls. Before doing internal service work, make
sure the malfunction is not in the external circuit. Test
for power. Check the thermostat, the relay, the capaci-
tors, and the overload protectors (both electrical and
temperature).
Most window air conditioners are equipped with Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
a thermostat. These thermostats are typically adjust- Figure 31-18. Locations of parts (such as the capacitors, the
able to cut out between 56°F (13°C) and 60°F (16°C). control panel, and the relay) in a typical window air conditioner.

Run and fan Compressor

terminal Fan motor
terminal

Mounting
screw

I
Mountin~

capacitor clamp

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Figure 31-19. Arrangement of start, run, and fan motor capacitors. Note that fan motor capacitor and compressor capacitor are in
the same container.

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 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 817

Fan motor Compressor Switch Contacts

position
1 2 3 4
Off 0 0 0 0
Q)
Fan 0 0 0 C
C)
C Low cool 0 C C 0
~
0 Normal cool 0 C 0 C
Super cool C C 0 0
Thermostat
C = closed
0 = open

.--··········Orange······················,
Compressor ' Start
0 range C
~··, capacitor
Internal
overload L.:_!!J~··· J:!l!J.~···®·:
Relay :~ •• -'
White : a: ~'()~~---·
Red
' -·
_.- White

Run capacitor
Thermostat Switch

White Black
Blue
Brown
Fan motor

Power supply

Figure 31-20. Wiring diagram of three·speed fan system.

"'"" "'"' """'"· m,. •

The cut-in adjustment is typically between 77°F (25°C) • Clogged refrigerant circuit.
and 80°F (27°C). Their differentials vary between 3°F • Short circuit, open circuit, or grounded motor
(2°C) and 8°F (4°C). If a thermostat fails, the unit will windings.
not start. To test the operation of a thermostat, cover The motor condition can be checked with a test
the air outlet and air inlet with a cloth. This will cause light or ohmmeter. To check for lack of refrigerant or
the air inside the unit to recirculate, which will quickly clogged refrigerant lines, install a gauge manifold. If
drop the air temperature to the cut-out temperature. the system is not equipped with service valves, it may
Use a thermometer to monitor the air temperature so be necessary to install piercing valves on the suction
it can be compared to the desired cut-out temperature. line and discharge or liquid line before attaching a
Other troubles inside a room air conditioner can gauge manifold, Figure 31-21.
include the following: If the system lacks refrigerant, locate the leak and
• Lack of refrigerant. repair it before recharging the system. If the compres-
• Stuck compressor. sor is bad, it can be replaced on the owner's premises,
• Inefficient compressor. or the unit can be taken to a shop for repair.

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818 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Low-pressure vapor,
superheated 2°F-11 °F
High-pressure,
(42°F-54°F at 69-75 psi)* Compressor high-temperature
vapor(122°F-147°F
Sensing bulb at 270-380 psi)*
Evaporator / Condenser
_ ____j_ ___,1;::::~~------J

~wer

Low-pressure, High-pressure liquid,

low-temperature subcooled 2°F-11 °F
vapor (40°F-44°F (120°F-136°F at 270-380 psi)*
at 69-75 psi)*

*Temperature and pressure conditions are illustrative of an R-22 system.

They will vary due to equipment size, outdoor and indoor temperatures, and load conditions.

• High-pressure liquid • Low-pressure liquid D High-pressure vapor D Low-pressure vapor

Goodman Manufacturing Campany
Figure 31-21. Air conditioning unit cycle diagram showing gauge manifold installed.

Many window air conditioners use PSC (perma-

nent split capacitor) compressor motors. These motors Recommended Ratings for Add-On Start
do not use a relay for starting and will have difficulty Capacitors for PSC Compressor Motors
starting if the supplied voltage is low (10% or more). Run Capacitor Add-On Start Capacitor
Many service technicians install a start capacitor and a (Microfarads) (Microfarads)
relay to overcome this problem. The capacitor and the
20 18
relay must be the correct size for the motor. The best
way to determine the correct size is to follow the man- 25 18 or 25
ufacturer's recommendation. If this is not available, the
30 25
table in Figure 31-22 will help in selecting the correct
start capacitor. 35 25
A start capacitor circuit must include a relay that 40 25 or 45
opens the circuit when the compressor reaches a satis-
factory speed. Special start capacitors are available for 45 45
compressors with PSC motors. See Figure 31-23. 50 45
Replacement capillary tubes for room air condi-
tioners are selected by size. Figure 31-24 gives the cor- *Most manufacturers specify a microfarad rating of a start
rect sizes for replacement capillary tubes in systems capacitor for each of their units. Follow the manufacturer's
charged with R-22 and those systems charged with specifications.
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
R-410A refrigerants. Figure 31-22. Table of start capacitor sizes to be used on
Window air conditioners are often removed dur- PSC (permanent split capacitor) motor compressors to correct
ing the winter season. However, if this is inconvenient, hard starts.

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 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 819

the unit can be winterized. The air inlet and the out-
let grilles can be blocked with cardboard or flexible
plastic sheeting. A storm sash can be custom built to
fit around the air conditioner. Plywood held in place
with caulking or rubber grommets can also be used.
Check the manufacturer's service manual for proper
winterization of the unit.
If the window unit drips water into the room, it
is not correctly installed. Check the slope of the unit
from inside to outside with a level. It must slope to the
outside (condenser edge) about 1/4". Condensate water
will then run to a depression in the housing under the
condenser fan and condenser. Make sure the drain hole
is open, and then level the unit along its other dimen-
sion. Finally, recheck the unit installation for airtight
sealing in the window opening.

31.3 Packaged Terminal Air

Conditioners (PTACs)
A packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC) is
the type of self-contained, ductless air-conditioning
system commonly used in hotels and apartment build-
ings. PTACs are installed in an exterior wall of a build-
ing. When a PTAC is installed, the condensing side of
Sealed Unit Parts Co., Inc.
the unit is positioned outside the building wall, and the
Figure 31-23. Hard start capacitor designed for use with evaporator side of the unit is positioned inside. Often,
permanent split capacitor motors. This type of capacitor
PTACs provide heating and cooling, though some may
increases torque to the compressor during startup.
only be designed for cooling. PTACs are designed to

I
condition air in an individual room or zoned part of
a building. They are frequently used in hotel rooms,
apartments, dormitories, shops, offices, banks, and res-
Capillary Tube Sizes taurants. See Figure 31-25.
R-410A R-22 Many PTACs are designed to fit through a stan- 1
HP
<lard 42" x 16" wall space. While they provide cooling
Inside Inside using standard mechanical refrigeration, they provide
Diameter Length Diameter Length
heat using one of the following methods:
1/8 0.28" 81" 0.28" 58" • Electric resistance heater.
1/6 0.28" 78" 0.28" 86" • Operating as a heat pump.
1/5 0.31" 41" 0.31" 28" • Operating as a heat pump with electric resistance
heater.
1/4 0.31" 101" 0.31" 72"
• Gas-fired heater.
1/3 0.40" 62" 0.40" 43" Electric resistance heat PTACs use electric resistance
heaters mounted in the air distribution section of the
1/2 0.52" 42" 0.52" 109" unit. Usually, these units require 240-volt wiring to effi-
3/4 0.52" 34" 0.64" 87" ciently operate the electric resistance heaters. More infor-
mation about electric resistance heating is presented in
1 0.64" 94" 0.64" 65" Chapter 43, Electric Heating Systems. Figure 31-26 shows
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher an exploded view of a packaged terminal air conditioner
Figure 31-24. Capillary tube sizes for room air conditioners with an electrical resistance heater.
that use R-410A and R-22. Note diameter and length of A packaged terminal heat pump (PTHP) can
capillary tube depend on system size and capacity. reverse its refrigeration cycle in order to produce heat.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

820 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

User from the outdoor refrigerant coil, and it causes the

controls compressor to send high-pressure refrigerant into
Conditioned
! the indoor refrigerant coil. More information about

--+----
air outlet -- heat pump operation is presented in Chapter 40,
Heat Pumps.

Thinking Green
Heat Pump vs. Electric Heat
Heat pumps produce heat up to three times more
efficiently than electric resistance heating. In all but the
coldest of regions, a packaged terminal heat pump will
significantly reduce energy consumption compared to a
packaged terminal air conditioner equipped with electric
resistance heat.

Packaged terminal heat pumps are generally suit-

able for geographical regions where temperatures do
not typically drop below freezing. The control can be
set for the desired temperature, and the unit automati-
cally selects heating or cooling mode based on mea-
McQuay International sured air temperature.
Figure 31-25. Packaged terminal air conditioners (PTACs) In cold climates, a packaged terminal heat pump
usually contain both heating and cooling systems. PTACs are may not be able to provide sufficient heat while run-
frequently used to provide year-round comfort in offices and ning a reverse cycle. The packaged terminal heat pump
apartments.
is then assisted by electric resistance heaters. Packaged
terminal heat pumps with auxiliary resistance heaters
can provide heat in any climate conditions, but they
Electric heat Outside operate more efficiently when the temperature is above
and fan unit louvers 35°F (2°C).
Another type of PTAC is equipped with gas-fired
heater that uses electronic ignition and either LP or
natural gas supplied to the system. The heater section
of the PTAC is completely sealed off from the inside
living space. It draws in outside air for combustion and
exhausts the products of combustion to the outside as
well. The heat of combustion is transferred indoors
through a heat exchanger, which keeps the indoor
air completely separate from the combustion air. One
drawback of a gas-fired heater is that it requires a gas
line to be run to the unit. More information about
gas-fired heating is presented in Chapter 41, Gas-Fired
Control module Heating Systems.
McQuay International
Return air enters a PTAC through a lower grille.
Figure 31-26. This PTAC uses electrical resistance heaters to
Conditioned air is discharged through the upper
provide heat. grilles, Figure 31-27. Some PTACs simply recircu-
late indoor air while others have adjustable fresh air
intakes and evaporator bypass controls. PTACs often
must have drains to remove the condensate flowing
In the heating mode, a four-way reversing valve from the evaporator.
changes the pathways to the suction line and liq- All types of packaged terminal air conditioners
uid line, reversing the flow of refrigerant through use hermetic compressors, which can be rotary, scroll,
the system. While the compressor still operates as or reciprocating. Their refrigerant controls are typi-
it does during the cooling cycle, the reversing valve cally capillary tubes or thermostatic expansion valves.
causes the compressor to draw in low-pressure vapor PTACs are normally charged with R-134a or R-410A.

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 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 821

A PTAC's airflow system includes a blower fan Return Evaporator Supply

for the evaporator and another fan for the condenser.
Typically, the entire PTAC will slide out of its wall
cabinet for easy service. Basic user controls include a
heating and cooling thermostat and rotary switches
for selecting heating or cooling operations and fan
settings.

31.4 Console Air Conditioners

A console air conditioner is an entire air-condi-
tioning system mounted in a stand-up cabinet. These
systems are also commonly referred to as vertical
packaged terminal air conditioners. They vary in capac-
ity from 1/2 ton to 4 ton. Such units are often used in
small commercial establishments such as restaurants,
stores, and banks, Figure 31-28.
Ducts can be connected to deliver conditioned
air to areas with poor air circulation, such as parti-
tioned spaces within a room. The condensing unit is
mounted in one section of the console; the air blower
and evaporator are in another section of the cabinet.
Some console units simply recirculate indoor air, while
others have adjustable fresh air intakes and evaporator
bypass controls, Figure 31-29. Suburban Manufacturing
All console units must have drains to remove the Figure 31-28. Console air conditioner with an air-cooled
condensate flowing from the evaporator. Console units condenser and gas-fired heater. The system can be used to
typically use a hermetic compressor. The refrigerant cool or heat a single space, or ducts can be added to provide
control is usually a thermostatic expansion valve. Most air conditioning to multiple spaces.
have air-cooled condensers.

31.4.1 Installing Console Air Conditioners

Console units are factory-assembled. After
ing and leveling the unit, any necessary plumbing
plac- 1 I
and electrical connections are made. Such connections
must conform to local codes. Unit operation should be
thoroughly checked after installation, including air
temperature (both inlet and outlet), electrical load, and
operating pressures. The data should be recorded for
future reference and saved with the service company
and also with the console owner.

31.4.2 Servicing Console Air

Conditioners
When internal parts of a console air conditioner
must be serviced, panels must be removed from the
cabinet to gain access. Periodic maintenance that must
be performed on console air conditioners includes the
following:
Goodman Manufacturing Company • Replacing or cleaning the air filter.
Figure 31-27. Indoor airflow through a PTAC. • Cleaning the evaporator coil and fins.

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822 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Cool air out

Recirculated
Evaporator Recirculated
untreated air

Cooled
air
.......
Warm room Blower
air in

Evaporator

Condenser
section
Condenser
section

A B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 31-29. Air circulation through two different console air conditioners. A-This console air conditioner can only recirculate
indoor air. B-This console air conditioner has controls and corresponding dampers for mixing outdoor air with recirculated air
and for allowing a portion of filtered, recirculated air to bypass the evaporator.

• Cleaning the fan motors and oiling it (unless it has A regular maintenance schedule is necessary to
sealed bearings). ensure long and satisfactory service from any air-con-
• Cleaning the drain pan and drain tube. ditioning system. Different parts of the system must be
The inner lining of the cabinet sometimes gathers checked more frequently than others. A record should
lint. Any lint or other debris inside the cabinet should be kept of all checks including both the data and the
be vacuumed out regularly. Service of most console air date it was acquired. The following are maintenance
conditioners is similar to service of room air condition- and inspection procedures that should be performed
ers, residential air-conditioning systems, and some on a regular schedule.
light commercial air-conditioning systems. Check the Weekly:
refrigerant charge, return and supply air tempera-
• Check the condition and tension of any V belts.
ture, low-side and high-side pressure, the operation
of the metering device, and the amperage draw of the • Check fans for proper operation and speeds.
compressor. • Check all remote or secondary units.

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 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 823

• Check for water leaks and repair as needed.

• Check controls (pressure, temperature, and
airflow). I
• Lubricate the system as specified. Check the
compressor oil level if sight glass is available.
• Check canvas connectors on ducts for damage and
repair or replace as needed.
Monthly:
• Check the refrigeration system (check for leaks or
oil spots).
• Check the air filters and clean or replace as needed.
• Check the humidifier for proper operation and
scale buildup.
• Check the safety valves.
• Check the duct dampers, registers, and diffusers.
• Check the piping for proper insulation, excessive
vibration, and wear.
Every six months:
Haier America
• Clean fans and cabinet.
Figure 31-30. A portable air conditioner using a window to
• Clean duct registers and diffusers. access air for condenser cooling.
Every year:
• Check the efficiency of the compressors.
a large common air space, or into an adjacent room. See
• Check damper operation. Figure 31-31.
• Clean water circuits (where applicable). In some designs, the cooled evaporator air exits
• Operate all hand valves. through a grille in the top front of the case. In other
Every two years: designs, the cooled air is directed through one or more
• Inspect the condenser's wet surfaces (where
applicable).
Conditioned
air outlet

31.5 Portable Air Conditioners

Portable air conditioners are used to spot cool (cool a
specific, limited area) without the expense of installing a
traditional cooling system. Portable air conditioners are
self-contained. The evaporator, compressor, condenser,
and refrigerant control are packaged together in one case,
which is often equipped with wheels so the unit can be
rolled where it is needed. Portable air conditioners are
designed for continuous operation and can provide non-
stop cooling if needed, Figure 31-30.
Portable air conditioners are used extensively in
commercial environments, such as hospitals, office
buildings, computer and server rooms, and institu- Drain t a n k ~ I
tional environments to cool people and equipment. \ Condenser
Because of their compact design, they can be easily " T air intake
relocated to provide conditioned air wherever needed. Return air
Units use ducts to direct warm condenser air Condensate pump intake
away from the cooled area. Depending on the unit's DENSO Sales California, Inc.
design and the types of adapters used, the warm air Figure 31-31. The accessory ducts and adapters available for
can be vented out of a window, into a drop ceiling with a typical portable air conditioner.

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824 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

ducts or nozzles at the top front of the unit. Return • Supplementary cooling. When a central system is
air for the condenser and evaporator can be drawn not sufficient, portable air conditioning protects
through grilles in the case or can be drawn in from a electronic, computer, and telecommunications
remote location through ducts. equipment against excessive heat buildup,
As a portable air conditioner cools the air, it Figure 31-33.
also lowers the humidity of the air, Figure 31-32. • Emergency cooling. When the central air-conditioning
Condensation is collected in a drain tank built into system fails or is down for maintenance, portable
the unit. The condensation can be gravity drained or air conditioners can provide cooling in critical
a pump can be attached to pump the condensate to a spaces.
higher elevation so it can be drained out of a window Portable air conditioners have wheels and can be
or into a sink. Some advanced designs evaporate the manually moved to the site. Most portable air condi-
condensate using the warm air blown over the con- tioners have less than 5 tons of capacity.
denser. This vaporized condensate then flows with the Mobile air-conditioning units are similar to portable
condenser cooling air into an unconditioned area. In air conditioners but are larger and have greater cooling
these designs, since most of the condensate is removed capacity. Mobile air-conditioning units are mounted to a
from the unit with the hot exhaust air, the tank can be trailer or skid and placed outdoors with heavy equipment.
drained less often. They are generally 5 tons or larger and can be used to cool
Uses for portable air conditioners include the an entire office building in an emergency.
following: Another type of spot cooling uses a ceiling-mounted
• Primary cooling. When people are exposed air-conditioning unit. It is located between a drop ceiling
to hot operations such as welding, brazing, or and a building's roof. These installations are less involved
oven curing, spot cooling improves safety and than a traditional ductless system and more permanent
productivity. Portable air conditioning can speed than portable air conditioners. There are no refriger-
up manufacturing processes by cooling materials ant lines that need to be installed or brazed. A ceiling-
that are too hot to handle or package. mounted system requires only a little wiring and short
runs of ducts. Warm air is drawn into the unit, cooled,
and returned. Heat absorbed from the conditioned air is
Cool air in
Hot air from
to condenser
expelled into the unconditioned air above the drop ceiling
condenser or is directed outside through ducts, Figure 31-34.
Some companies specialize in renting portable
air-conditioning equipment to meet the emergency
cooling needs of their customers. For example, if the

Dry air out

£:::-~~

Humid air in
to evaporator,__· --=-

DENSO Sales California, Inc.

Condensate pan
Figure 31-33. Rooms containing a company's servers and
DENSO Sales California, Inc. other telecommunication devices can produce more heat
Figure 31-32. Humid rooms or those damaged by flooding than a building's HVAC equipment can handle. Portable air
can be cooled and dehumidified with portable air conditioners. conditioners are a convenient solution.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 825

DENSD Sales California, Inc.

Figure 31-34. Between the drop ceiling and roof, this ceiling-mounted air-conditioning unit cools the hot air in the server room
and pumps out any condensate.

central air-conditioning system in a large commercial

or industrial building is shut off for scheduled main-
tenance or because of a malfunction, the building's
manager can call on one of these rental companies. The
rental company will evaluate the customer's cooling
blow cool air back into the room. No ductwork is used,
Figure 31-35.
Since many ductless systems use multiple indoor
cooling units through a building, they can be set up as
a zoned system, if proper controls and components are
I
1

needs and install portable air-conditioning equipment available. Multizone ductless split systems are com-
to meet those needs. fort cooling systems consisting of one or more outdoor
units, multiple independent indoor units, and indi-
vidual temperature controls for each indoor unit. This
31.6 Multizone Ductless Split type of system is similar in design to standard split
air-conditioning systems. To provide cooling, the out-
Systems door units function as condensers and the indoor coils
A ductless split system is a split air-conditioning function as evaporators. However, multizone ductless
system that does not use forced-air ductwork as a means split systems deliver conditioned air directly from the
of distributing cooled air. Like traditional split systems, a indoor unit into the room. There is no ductwork to dis-
ductless split system has a condensing unit (compressor tribute the air. See Figure 31-36.
and condenser) outside a building that is connected by Multizone ductless split systems are popular for
tubing to a cooling unit (evaporator) inside the building. adding air conditioning to both new construction
Ductless split systems often use multiple cooling units and to older buildings that are not equipped with air
throughout a building. These cool the air in individual duct systems. Ductless systems are frequently used
rooms. The cooling units use fans to pull in warm air, in offices, motels, multifamily dwellings, and houses
absorb heat into the refrigerant in the evaporator, and that use hydronic heating, electric baseboard heat, or

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

826 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Indoor
cooling --------------- .
unit ---------._

Mitsubishi Electric, HVAC Advanced Products Division

Figure 31-35. A ductless split system. A refrigerant line set connects the indoor and outdoor units. This room is being cooled by
its cooling unit.

space heaters. Multizone ductless split systems offer a In a multizone ductless split system, an outdoor
convenient solution for providing heating and cooling unit is located outside. These can be installed a num-
to room additions and small apartments, where extend- ber of different ways, depending on the building and
ing or installing distribution ductwork for a central air the space available. Common installations are on a
conditioner or heating system may not be an option. concrete slab, pads, a wall-mounted bracket, a riser, or
metal stand, Figure 31-37.
One or more indoor units are installed in separate
Code Alert
rooms in the building and are connected to the outdoor
Code Applicability unit by a line set. Each indoor unit has its own refrig-
Many factors affect a building code's applicability erant coil, blower, metering device, and sometimes a
to a job. For example, adding air conditioning to a previ- heating unit. The line set contains the refrigerant lines.
ously unconditioned building may fall under the purview of This may also be packaged with electrical wiring and
local building codes. If the building is part commercial and a condensate drain, Figure 31-38.
part residential, two different building codes may apply. The hookup between the outdoor and indoor
If the building is a historic landmark, the building may be
units usually requires only a 3" (8 cm) hole through
exempt from local building codes. Always check the appli-
a wall for the line set. Many manufacturers of multi-
cability of local building codes before beginning a job.
zone ductless split systems offer connecting line sets

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 827

Mitsubishi Electric, HVAC Advanced Products Division

Figure 31-36. This multizone ductless split system consists of four outdoor units and six indoor units. Refrigerant line sets
connect the outdoor units to the indoor units.

A B

C D
Fujitsu General America, Inc.; RectorSeal
Figure 31-37. Multizone ductless split system outdoor units. A-Two outdoor units mounted on pads. B-Wall-mounted bracket.
C-Riser mounting. D-Metal stand mounting.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

828 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Line set Indoor 3" hole in The independent temperature controls on each
cover unit Line set exterior wall indoor unit determine the temperatures maintained in
their corresponding spaces. Some multizone ductless
split systems provide only cooling while others are heat
pumps, capable of providing both heating and cooling.
In a cooling-only system, the outdoor units are condens-
ing units and the indoor units are evaporator units. In
heat pump systems, the outdoor and indoor units can
act as either a condenser or evaporator, depending on
whether the heating or cooling mode is selected.
Some of the primary advantages of multizone
ductless split systems are as follows:
• Each indoor unit temperature is set individually,
enabling the system to maintain different temper-
atures in different spaces.
• Most units are equipped with a wireless remote
Shcherbakav 1/ya/Shutterstack.cam
control for convenient temperature control. See
Figure 31-38. A line set from the outdoor unit passes through
the building's exterior wall and connects to the indoor unit.
Figure 31-40.
• Because the indoor units can be mounted in
a variety of ways (suspension from a ceiling,
in a variety of lengths. This allows the technician to flush mounted into a drop ceiling, or hung on a
locate the outdoor unit as far away as 50' (16 m) from wall), multizone ductless split systems provide
the indoor unit. greater flexibility for interior decorating than
An important job of a central air handler in a room or packaged terminal air conditioners. See
forced-air system is the filtering of air. Ductless split Figure 31-41. Most indoor units are designed to
systems perform this job in each of their indoor units. have a thin profile.
Air filters are shaped to fit into the indoor units and
provide filtration in individual areas, Figure 31-39.

'.......... ..........I

Mitsubishi Electric, HVAC Advanced Products Division Fujitsu General America, Inc.
Figure 31-39. This indoor unit is shown with its cover and air Figure 31-40. Multizone ductless split systems are easily
filters removed. programmed using a remote control.

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 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 829

31.6.1 Ductless Split System Installation

Ductless air conditioners are installed much as
standard split systems are installed. The outdoor unit
is mounted outside. This can be done in a variety of
manners depending on the building and the space
available. Larger outdoor units are often mounted on
a concrete slab or mounting pad, Figure 31-42. Refer
A back to Figure 31-37 for other mounting options.
Many indoor units are mounted on walls, near
the ceiling. It can be difficult to hold the unit in place
while necessary wiring and other connections are
made. Once the wall plate is secured into place, a
bracket can be attached to hold the indoor unit in place,
Figure 31-43.
Programming temperature set points and system
controls depends on whether a building uses a single
B
multizone system or more than one condensing unit to
operate multiple indoor units. This will vary by each
installation. It may be more convenient for a building
to have one outdoor unit that works with all the indoor
units on ground floor and have a second outdoor unit
that works with all the indoor units upstairs.

31.6.2 Ductless Split System Service

Ductless split systems require many of the same
services and maintenance procedures as other split

C
Fujitsu General America, Inc.
Figure 31-41. Indoor units are available in a number of
designs to meet different architectural and interior design
demands. A-Wall-mounted unit. B-Slim duct unit can be
concealed in a wall or soffit. C-Compact cassette-type can
be flush mounted in the ceiling.

Many traditional multizone ductless split systems

operate much as a standard heat pump. They use a fixed
speed compressor, fixed speed indoor and outdoor
fans, and a TXV as the metering device. This requires
that they be correctly sized for the heating and cooling
load of each zone. Newer multizone ductless units use
a variable speed compressor, variable speed fans, and
electronic expansion valves (EEVs) to regulate the vol-
ume of refrigerant flowing in the system. This allows
the system to circulate only the amount of refrigerant
needed for a specific load. These units are known as
variable refrigerant flow (VRF) system or variable
refrigerant volume (VRV) system. VRF systems are cov-
ered in more detail in Chapter 32, Residential Central Fujitsu General America, Inc.
Air-Conditioning Systems, and Chapter 33, Commercial Figure 31-42. Two technicians positioning an outdoor unit on
Air-Conditioning Systems. a mounting pad.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

830 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

bib to catch and contain the cleaning fluid. This can be

directed into a bucket for later draining, Figure 31-45.

Thinking Green
Dirty Coils Decrease Efficiency
Dirt on evaporator and condenser coils decreases
the coil's ability to transfer heat and, in extreme cases,
increases resistance to airflow across the coil. To keep
the system operating at maximum efficiency, the coils
should be cleaned regularly.

As an indoor unit operates, moisture is condensed

out of the air and caught in a condensate pan. Some
units are designed to drain by grav ity, and other units
use a condensate pump. This moisture usually drains
out. However, some things can go wrong. The drain
line could get blocked. The condensate pump may fail
to operate. To prevent the spilling of moisture out of
RectorSeal
an indoor unit, install an overflow switch in the drain
Figure 31-43. This wall bracket allows an indoor unit to be
securely held in place while connections are made.
pan. When an overflow switch senses moisture, it will
open a switch to shut off operation and prevent the
continued accumulation of moisture, Figure 31-46.
air-conditioning systems. Standard split systems with
a central air handler have only one air filter. A duct-
less split system has at least one air filter in each of its
indoor units. A common task is cleaning or replacing
the air filters in the indoor units, Figure 31-44.
Evaporator coils in indoor units also need to be
cleaned on occasion. To do this, remove outer panels,
air filters, and any other accessories that could block
the flow of cleaning fluid. Set up a large plastic bag or

Fujitsu General America, Inc. SpeedClean

Figure 31-44. This technician is examining an air filter from Figure 31-45. Use a pressurized washer with a plastic bib
an indoor unit. and bucket while cleaning an indoor unit's evaporator.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 831

The cool temperatures and humidity of the con- moisture may still remain. To prevent microorganisms
densate pan in indoor units of ductless systems can from forming in an indoor unit, regularly add biocide
unintentionally provide a breeding ground for cer- tablets to the condensate pan. These are designed to
tain microscopic organisms. Even though conden- prevent the formation of slime, algae, mold, and other
sate is drained or pumped away, a small amount of common contaminants, Figure 31-47.

RectarSeal RectarSeal
Figure 31-46. This overflow switch mounts to the condensate Figure 31-47. Adding biocide tablets to an indoor unit's
pan and turns off the indoor unit when an accumulation of condensate pan is often included as part of the unit's
condensate is sensed. maintenance.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
• Portable air conditioners are self-contained
Summary wheeled cooling units. They are generally ~sed
• Air-conditioning systems regulate temperature in commercial applications where traditional air
and humidity to provide the conditions needed conditioning cannot be installed or used. Ducts
for comfort or manufacturing operations. and adapters are available that can be attached
to the evaporator air inlet and outlet and also to
• Comfort cooling systems are used to reduce the condenser air inlet and outlet. These ducts
temperature and relative humidity. Reduction can carry hot air away from the conditioned
of temperature is done by evaporators space, deliver cold air to a desired space, or draw
absorbing heat from a conditioned space. Once air from a different space to blow over condenser
evaporators reduce air temperature down to or evaporator. Portable systems can be set up to
dew point, moisture begins to condense out of control temperature, humidity, or both.
the air. Removing moisture and mixing cooled
air with conditioned space air reduces relative • A ductless split system is a split air-
humidity levels. The relationship of relative conditioning system that does not use forced-
humidity levels, moisture in the air, and air ductwork as a means of distributing cooled
temperature can be seen on a psychrometric air. These systems have an outdoor unit
chart. and one or more indoor units connected by
refrigerant lines. Air is circulated in a given
• Comfort cooling systems can be classified space by an indoor unit's fan and cooled by the
as self-contained (packaged) or split. A self- evaporator. No air ducts are used.
contained air-conditioning system is a comfort
cooling system with everything necessary for • A multizone ductless split system consists of
operation in a single cabinet. Examples include one or more outdoor units (compressor and
room air conditioners and packaged terminal condenser) connected to multiple independent
air conditioners (PTACs). cooling units throughout a building that
operate by individual temperature controls.
• A split air-conditioning system has its These system components allow great
components split into two or more separate flexibility in the placement of the indoor
locations. A split system's condensing unit may and outdoor units, resulting in multiple
be placed outdoors and its evaporating unit temperature zones throughout a building.
may be placed indoors. Split systems can be
ductless or use a central air handler.
• A packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC)
is a combined heating and cooling system in
Review Questions
a single case. These are typically larger than Answer the following questions using the information in
room air conditioners. The heating system in this chapter.
a PTAC can be an electrical resistance heater
gas-fired furnace, heat pump, or a combination 1. Cool air leaving the evaporator of an air
of a heat pump and electrical resistance conditioner has a relative humidity of 100%.
heater. These are typically used in commercial This is because relative humidity level
applications, such as hotels, offices, and increases as
apartments. A. dry-bulb temperature decreases
B. dry-bulb temperature increases
• A console air conditioner is a complete air-
C. moisture in grains per pound decreases
conditioning system in a stand-up cabinet.
D. All of the above.
These provide cooling and often can also
provide heating. Like room air conditioners and 2. A comfort cooling system that has its
PTACs, console air conditioners are installed condensing unit outdoors and its evaporating
along an outside wall of a building. Ducts can unit in the center of a building is a _ _ air-
be attached to supply and return grilles to conditioning system.
increase airflow and promote more uniform A. console
cooling. Console air conditioners are generally B. packaged terminal
used in commercial applications. C. room
D. split

832 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 31 Ductless Air-Conditioning Systems 833

3. Which of the following is a type of self- 10. When installing a ductless split system
contained air-conditioning unit? indoor unit, a _ _ is typically necessary.
A. A packaged terminal air conditioner. A. 3" (8 cm) hole wall opening
B. A through-the-wall room air conditioner. B. 42" x 16" wall opening
C. A console air conditioner. C. gas supply drip leg
D. All of the above. D. typical window opening
4. Which of the following window air conditioner 11. Which of the following statements is true of
installation steps is explained correctly? multizone ductless split systems?
A. Fill the air gap between the upper and A. The system can have multiple indoor units
lower window sashes with a generous attached to a single outdoor unit.
application of expanding foam insulation. B. The system can have multiple outdoor
B. Install the air conditioner so it slopes units.
down toward the inside of the building. C. They are a popular choice for adding air
C. Install the sleeve first and then the chassis. conditioning to buildings that are not
D. Lift the chassis while gripping onto the equipped with ducts.
evaporator tubing. D. All of the above.
5. Which of the following statements regarding 12. Which of the following statements regarding
room air conditioner service is not true? multizone ductless split systems is not true?
A. It is best to remove the air-conditioner A. A single, central thermostat controls the
chassis from the sleeve for service. temperature in all conditioned spaces.
B. A loose fan can cause worn fan motor B. A line set connects an indoor unit and
bearings. outdoor unit.
C. Use a metal putty knife to scrape dirt out C. A variety of different indoor unit styles is
from between the evaporator cooling fins. available.
D. All of the above. D. All of the above.
6. To fix hard starts in a room air conditioner 13. _ _ refrigerant flow circulates only the
with a PSC compressor motor, a technician amount of refrigerant needed for a specific
should load.
A. install a larger compressor A. Portable

I
B. install a start capacitor and relay B. Self-contained
C. remove 1/4 of the refrigerant charge to C. Spot cooling
reduce compressor load D. Variable
D. use a step-up transformer to double the 14. What should be added to a ductless split
voltage to the motor system's indoor unit to prevent the growth of I
7. Which of the following methods is not used microorganisms?
to provide heat within a packaged terminal A. Biocide tablets.
air conditioner? B. A condensate pump.
A. Electric resistance heater. C. High-temperature cutoff switch.
B. Gas-fired heater. D. An overflow switch.
C. Heat pump. 15. Which device is used to prevent spilling of
D. Wood burning stove. condensate from a ductless split system's
8. Cooling only a specific, limited area is indoor unit?
referred to as _ _ cooling. A. Air filter.
A. patch B. Biocide tablets.
B. split C. Mounting bracket.
C. spot D. Overflow switch.
D. zoned
9. Wheels are most often found on
A. console air conditioners
B. ductless split systems
C. portable air conditioners
D. PTACs

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER32 Residential Central
Air-Conditioning
Systetns

Learning Objectives
;::;

Chapter Outline
§ •Information in this chapter will enable you to:
Identify the characteristics of a central air-

32.1 Central Air Conditioning

32.1.1 Unitary Systems
~ii • conditioning system.
Explain the differences between unitary and field-
erected air-conditioning systems.
32.1.2 Field-Erected Systems
32.2 Split Systems • Identify the characteristics of a split air-conditioning
32.2.1 Unitary Split Systems system.
32.2.2 Field-Erected Split Systems • Identify the types of controls commonly used in
32.3 Comfort Cooling Controls central air-conditioning systems.
32.4 Installing Central Air Conditioning • Summarize the steps required to install central air-
32.4.1 Installing a Condensing Unit conditioning.
32.4.2 Installing an Evaporator
• Identify the areas of a central air-conditioning system
32.4.3 Installing Refrigerant Lines
that must be periodically inspected.
32.4.4 Installing Electrical Wiring
32.5 Inspecting Central Air-Conditioning Systems • Explain the tasks that must be completed as part of
32.6 Servicing Central Air-Conditioning Systems central air-conditioning system service.
32.7 Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) Systems • Understand the operation of variable refrigerant flow
32.7.1 Inverter-Driven Compressors (VRF) as it is used in residential heating and cooling
32.7.2 Residential VRF Systems systems.
 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 835

Technical Terms • Two methods for determining a refrigeration system's

charge are checking the system's subcooling and
access valve lock quick-connect coupling superheat. Active recovery processes use a recovery
blank-off plate unitary central air- machine to remove refrigerant from a system in
central air-conditioning conditioning system either vapor or liquid form. (Chapter 11)
system Y tube • One method of leak detection involves pressurizing
field-erected air- a system with an inert gas, such as nitrogen or
conditioning system carbon dioxide. Another method of leak detection
uses the pressurized refrigerant already charged in
the system. Another method requires the technician
Review of Key Concepts to add inert gas and a trace amount of refrigerant to
an evacuated system to create a positive pressure.
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
(Chapter 11)
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
• The three major components in a control system • After any internal component is replaced, a
are sensors, controllers, and controlled devices. refrigeration system must be evacuated and
(Chapter 16) recharged. A digital scale is used to charge a system
with a specific amount of refrigerant. (Chapter 11)
• There are five basic types of compressors used in
refrigeration systems: reciprocating, rotary, scroll, • A split air-conditioning system divides its
screw, and centrifugal. (Chapter 18) components into two or more separate locations.
A split system's condensing unit may be placed
• Air-conditioning systems simultaneously control
outdoors and its evaporating unit may be placed
temperature, provide filtered airflow, and adjust
indoors. (Chapter 31)
humidity to maintain desired conditions inside a
space. (Chapter 27)
• Humidity is the moisture contained in air. The
quantity of humidity in the air affects evaporation
Introduction
rates. Drier air results in more rapid evaporation, The ability to comfortably and cost effectively con-
which in turn provides more cooling effect. dition the air within multiple rooms in homes has led to
(Chapter 27) an increased demand for central air conditioning. What
• Air at a given temperature can hold only a certain was once considered a luxury for homeowners is now a
amount of moisture. The warmer the air is, the more standard feature. Therefore, it is important for the techni-
moisture it can hold. The colder the air is, the less cian to be familiar with these systems.
moisture it can hold. (Chapter 27)
•

•
To improve air quality, air can be cleaned with
filters, ultraviolet lights, or a combination of these
measures. (Chapter 28)
Most refrigerant-carrying tubing used in HVACR is
made of copper and is known as air conditioning
and refrigeration (ACR) tubing. Steel pipe is used in
I
refrigeration systems containing ammonia. Copper
water tubing and plastic pipe are used for water
lines, drains, and other nonrefrigerant applications.
(Chapter 8)
836 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

32.1 Central Air Conditioning In the system shown, an A-coil evaporator is located
in the furnace plenum chamber. The condensing unit
A standard split air-conditioning system has its (compressor, condenser, and condenser fan) is located
components in two or more separate locations. A split outside the building.
system's condensing unit is often located outdoors, and Generally, an air-conditioning system uses a
its evaporating unit is placed indoors. Often, the evap- metering device to control refrigerant flow into its evap-
orator is installed in a central air handler cabinet that orator. The type of metering device used depends on
is connected to a network of ducts. Some of the ducts system size and application. See Chapter 20, Metering
are used to deliver conditioned air, and other ducts are Devices, for more information.
used to return air to the air handler. Cooled and dehu- A single combination heating and cooling thermo-
midified air is distributed to the conditioned spaces stat is often used in central air-conditioning systems.
through a series of supply ducts and returned to the Conditioned air is forced throughout a building by a
evaporator through return ducts. This arrangement of blower. The blower is typically positioned just after an
using forced air to cool a conditioned space describes a air filter and the return air plenum. With this arrange-
central air-conditioning system. ment, the air filter in the return air plenum cleans
An air handler distributes conditioned air the air before it reaches the blower. An arrangement
throughout a building. Such a system usually provides is sometimes provided to bring in fresh outside air as
heating, cooling, humidity control, ventilation, and air needed. The fresh air inlet may be controlled thermo-
cleaning to multiple spaces. A complete residential cen- statically, manually, or by air pressure.
tral air-conditioning system is shown in Figure 32-1. Some systems use a humidistat to control rela-
Typically, the conditioned air is routed to the tive humidity in the conditioned space. Such systems
desired spaces through a network of fixed ducts. A usually have a humidifier in the plenum chamber that
central air-conditioning system shown in Figure 32-2 adds moisture to the air when the furnace is operat-
uses a gas-fired furnace to provide heat. A compression ing. During hot weather, the thermostat may call for
refrigeration system provides the cooling, Figure 32-3. cooling. The same air handler and ductwork is used

Germicidal light Supply air duct Humidifier Return air duct

Fresh air
intake

Thermostat -

Furnace and Filtration device Indoor coil

air handler
Rheem Manufacturing Company
Figure 32-1. A complete residential central air-conditioning system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 837

HEATING MODE

Thermostat
(in conditioned space)

--
-- Return air

---
Heated air

t1
,--- ,---

0101
-I Flue

'
Gas valve
'
Burner
.J
Air filter

Blower
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 32-2. A complete central air-conditioning system that provides both heating and cooling. The heating cycle is shown here,
using a gas-fired furnace. A humidifier in the plenum chamber adds moisture to the warmed air. The same blower and air filter are
used for both summer and winter operation.

for heating and for cooling. However, when the cool-

ing mode is activated, the furnace's burner is off and
the evaporator is cold. The evaporator lowers the tem-
perature of the air blown through it. At the same time,
in one package. In a single package unit, all internal
wiring and piping has been done. Unitary split sys-
tems consist of an indoor unit (fan and evaporator) and
a matching outdoor unit (condenser and compressor),
I
any excessive humidity in the air is condensed on the bundled together by the manufacturer.
evaporator's cold surface and drained away.
32.1.2 Field-Erected Systems
32.1.1 Unitary Systems In field-erected air-conditioning systems, all
There are two basic types of central air-condition- major system components are purchased individu-
ing systems: unitary and field-erected. Unitary central ally and assembled at the spot where the system is to
air-conditioning systems are complete, with all the be used. The installer is responsible for selecting the
components needed to heat, cool, dehumidify, filter, and proper components to perform the required functions
move air included. These units are a complete package, and to carry the estimated loads. All components must
ready for assembly. Unitary systems are used mainly in be compatible with each other. This includes the air
new or retrofit home installations and small commercial handler, compressor, condenser, evaporator, tubing,
installations. The main advantages of unitary systems and controls. Field-erected systems are primarily used
are their low cost and the ease of installation. in commercial or industrial applications. They may
Unitary equipment may be single package or a split also be used to heat and cool various sections of a large
system. Single package units consist of all components building.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

838 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

COOLING MODE
Condenser fan

Thermostat
Condenser (in conditioned space)

Return air

Evaporator

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 32-3. A central air-conditioning system in cooling mode. An A-coil evaporator coil in the plenum cools air forced through
it by the blower. The outside condensing unit rejects the heat absorbed in the evaporator. Humidity is removed by condensing
excess moisture on the evaporator surface. A drain tube carries away the condensed moisture.

32.2 Split Systems and outdoor temperature. It also shows whether the
unit is in a heating or cooling mode.
In a split system, the condensing unit is located
away from the evaporator. Many systems use evapora-
tors with aluminum fins mechanically bonded to cop-
32.2.1 Unitary Split Systems
per tubing. Other condensers and evaporators are built Sometimes a split system is ordered completely
with aluminum spines fastened to aluminum tubing assembled and charged. It will include the condensing
to reduce corrosion. Plastic grilles are often used on unit, evaporator, controls, and tubing. The complete assem-
the condensing unit to avoid corrosion problems. bly is shipped as a single package. The tubing needed is
Figure 32-4 shows the internal construction of a usually carefully wrapped around the evaporator.
heat pump's outdoor coil unit. The microprocessor con- Work required at the point of installation includes
trol board controls the compressor, outdoor fan speed, the following steps:
and other electronic parts. It also provides information 1. Uncrating and carefully unwinding the tubing
on the performance of the system. The unit also has from the evaporator.
an electronic demand defrost. This prevents ice from 2. Installing the condensing unit and evaporator in
building up on the outdoor coil. their proper places.
In heat pump-based central air conditioning, an 3. Making the necessary electrical and control
electronic thermostat like the one shown in Figure 32-5 connections.
monitors both indoor and outdoor temperatures. The This type of a preassembled refrigeration sys-
LCD on the thermostat face shows the indoor temperature tem requires careful handling, since it is charged

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 839

Compressor
Control board

Reversing valve

Tempstar
Figure 32-4. Note the location of the reversing and the service valves in this cutaway view of a microprocessor-controlled heat
pump. A technician can attach a manufacturer-supplied control reader to the control unit to obtain system performance data.

fittings for connecting the condensing unit. Other

manufacturers provide quick-connect couplings for
connecting the parts. These couplers may be con-
nected without losing refrigerant or getting air into the
system.

I
Quick-Connect Couplings
Quick-connect couplings enable manufacturers to
produce precharged refrigeration and air-conditioning
units. Necessary tubing is also provided in separate
Rheem Manufacturing Company
packages. These separate units can be assembled at
Figure 32-5. A typical electronic wall thermostat with an LCD
the installation site. They are ready to operate without I
screen that displays indoor temperature, outdoor temperature, evacuating, charging, or cleaning.
and heating or cooling mode. The thermostat can be used to Quick-connect couplings are brazed directly to
raise the temperature, lower the temperature, take indoor and the tubing. Flared joints are not needed. There are two
outdoor temperature readings, select heating or cooling mode, types of quick-connect fittings:
and select continuous or automatic fan operation.
• Those that can be connected and disconnected
many times with very little loss of refrigerant.
with refrigerant. The technician must be careful while When this type of coupling separates, independent
uncrating the tubing to avoid creating kinks. The springs force valves in both halves of the coupling
kinked areas might later crack and leak. to close. This prevents the escape of refrigerant.
Another type of unitary system consists of an This type of coupling is very seldom used.
evaporator, condensing unit, and line set that come as • Those that can only be quick-connected once.
an unassembled but matched set, sized for the applica- The ends of these couplings are sealed off with
tion. One or more of the components come precharged. diaphragms. When the two halves of the coupling
The precharged components contain enough refriger- are connected, the diaphragms are punctured.
ant for the entire system. The technician then connects This allows refrigerant to pass through the
the various components on-site. coupling. See Figure 32-6. If these couplings ever
Some manufacturers provide flare fittings for con- need to be disconnected, the refrigerant must first
necting the evaporator coil and compression or braze be removed from the system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

840 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Access
service Rubber
valve seal

A B

C
Aeroquip Carp.
Figure 32-6. Quick-connect coupling equipped with a service valve. A-A knife edge aligns with and begins piercing the
diaphragm. B-As the fitting is tightened, the diaphragm is punctured. C-When the diaphragm is punctured, refrigerant can flow
through the coupling. The flow of refrigerant folds the remnants of the diaphragm out of the way.

To assemble either type of quick-connect fitting,

align the couplings and tighten the coupling nut. This
draws the coupling together. Quick-connect fittings Connect end
are used mostly on precharged residential air-condi- of line with
tioning systems. They are also used on precharged
transportation units. Units are usually charged at the
factory. The condensing unit, refrigerant lines, and
evaporator are charged separately. Figure 32-7 shows a ! . _ _ - ---11~- Service
port
liquid line that has an access (service) port.
The gasket that joins the quick-connect fittings
should be covered with clean, dry refrigerant lubri-
cant just before assembly. When tightening quick-
connect fittings, avoid applying excessive pressure to
the wrench. Excessive pressure may distort the fitting
and cause it to leak. Two wrenches should be used to
tighten the fitting to prevent the tubing from twist-
ing, Figure 32-8. Some quick-connect fittings can be
resealed several times with the use of a special tool.

On suction line,
32.2.2 Field-Erected Split Systems connect coupling on
For a field-erected split system, the condensing end with elbow to
evaporator coil
unit, evaporator, controls, air handler/furnace, and
York International Corporation, Unitary Products Group
tubing are purchased individually. The air-condition-
ing system is then assembled on the customer's prem- Figure 32-7. Liquid line equipped with quick-connect fittings.
The service port is used for making gauge manifold high -side
ises. Most of these components are combined into a
pressure connections.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 841

Conditioned air

Tighten
Back up
ttt
Furnace
exhaust

Gas valve

Gas burners

Wrench
B
~------'------ Blower

Aeroquip Corporation Electronic

9-:'---...;.--- controls
Figure 32-8. Correct way to tighten a quick-connect coupling.
Wrench A is held firmly while wrench Bis turned. Note that
the sleeve closest to the wall turns, but the sleeve on tubing C
does not.

forced-air heating and cooling system. Figure 32-9

shows an air handler with gas furnace used to distrib-
ute conditioned air throughout a building. To add cool- Tempstar
ing to this furnace, an evaporator would be installed Figure 32-9. This air handler contains a gas furnace and heat
in the plenum above the heat exchanger, Figure 32-10. exchanger for warming air circulated by the blower.
Each evaporator requires a condensing unit to
pressurize and circulate refrigerant through the sys-

I
tem. The refrigerant coil of many outdoor, air-cooled
condensers line the inner walls of the unit. A fan draws
air into the condensing unit around the condenser coil
and discharges air upward and outward, Figure 32-11.
A field-erected split system's evaporator coil and
condensing unit must be large enough to provide
adequate cooling, but they must also be sized to run Suction line
long enough during each On cycle to provide adequate manifold
dehumidification.

32.3 Comfort Cooling Controls

The term central air conditioning implies a system
~ ~P--____,.:-f-1--_Txv
that uses a distribution system (such as a network of ~ d==~~ ~;;;;;~~t~~Jt-- Sensing bulb
ducts) to provide heating, cooling, humidification, and
dehumidification. In many systems, electrostatic air Suction line Liquid line
cleaning is also provided. The components of these connection connection
systems often use electrical controls. (capped) (capped)
Controls for comfort cooling include operating Rheem Manufacturing Company
controls and safety controls. Operating controls regu- Figure 32-10. This evaporator is already fitted into a plenum
late the normal operation of the system. Safety controls and ready to be added onto a forced-air furnace installation.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

842 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Heated air

tttt
Fan

Control panel

Ambient air

Suction line
connection

..,..,.___ Liquid line

connection

Lennox Industries Inc.

Figure 32-11. To condense and subcool the circulating high-pressure refrigerant, a central air-conditioning condenser draws in
ambient air through the sides of the unit and discharges it out of the top of the unit.

regulate safe operation by turning components on or

off in order to protect system components and build-
ing occupants.
Room
thermostat
lo]
4---±-1
Operating controls can include thermostats, pres-
sure switches, humidistats, motor starters, and relays.
Safety controls can include electrical fuses, circuit
breakers, thermal overloads, internal motor over-
loads, refrigerant pressure limit controls, and oil pres-
sure controls. Many of these controls are described in Relay_+-_ _ _.,
Chapter 16, Electrical Control Systems. For more infor- coil
mation on thermostats, see Chapter 36, Thermostats. Low-voltage
The heating controls govern the operation of Relay - - - + - - - ~ -----transformer
contact
the heating system. A room thermostat calls for heat
until the desired room temperature is reached. Then,
the electrical circuit is opened and the heating device Overload
deactivated. Details concerning the arrangement, heater
installation, and operation of heating system controls
are provided in later chapters.
A room thermostat usually controls comfort cool- Line
ing as well. This thermostat may be a separate instru-
ment, or may be built in with the heating thermostat.
The room thermostat turns on the comfort cooling sys- Compressor
tem when the temperature of the room rises above a motor
certain set point. It shuts off the cooling system when 1 hp or less
the temperature has been lowered to the desired level. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
A typical schematic diagram for a compressor with Figure 32-12. Wiring diagram of thermostat relay combination
1 hp or less is shown in Figure 32-12. for small cooling systems.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 843

Many residential comfort cooling systems use Thinking Green

a low-voltage thermostat. The thermostat controls a Replacing an HVAC System
contactor that closes the compressor's motor circuit.
When replacing an HVAC system, always calcu-
Pressure safety devices are also installed in the cir- late the heating and cooling loads to properly size the
cuit. A high-pressure safety switch is wired in series replacement system. Do not assume that the replace-
with the starter coil. It will open the circuit if pressures ment system should have the same capacity as the sys-
become too high, Figure 32-13. tem it is replacing. Changes made to the building since
Automatic controls make it possible for a central the previous system was installed, such as the addition
system to change from heating to cooling. If the out- or removal of windows, doors, and insulation may make
side air is at a certain temperature above the heating a larger or smaller system more efficient. Even changes
thermostat setting or a certain temperature below the in shading due to maturing trees or new construction
cooling thermostat setting, some systems will draw around the building can have a significant effect on the
in outside air to maintain a comfortable temperature heating and cooling loads.
inside the building. In such cases, the air-conditioning
system is performing only as an air distribution and
air-cleaning system. This permits the greatest econ- Thinking Green
omy of operation, as comfort is maintained and the Life Cycle Cost Analysis
minimum amount of fuel is consumed. Often, the initial cost (purchase and installation) of
a system is less than 10% of the lifetime cost of the sys-
tem. When comparing systems, it is often beneficial to
32.4 Installing Central Air Conditioning compare the total life cycle costs of the systems rather
than the initial costs. This type of evaluation takes into
Before installing an evaporator and condensing consideration such factors as energy efficiency and
unit to an existing furnace or air handler, examine maintenance costs.
the existing system. If a furnace is old and worn or its
efficiency rating is low, consider replacing the furnace
with a higher efficiency model. After deciding, sys- 32.4.1 Installing a Condensing Unit
tems are assembled on-site in four steps:
1. Install the condensing unit. Most condensing units blow outdoor air over the
2. Install the evaporator. condenser coil in order to cool the coil. However, some
3. Install the suction and liquid lines. systems have water-cooled condensers. Condensing

I
4. Install the electrical wiring. units can be installed in a number of different loca-
tions. Some condensing units are mounted inside the
building. In this arrangement, ducts bring outdoor air
Thermostat OL High Low Contactor to the condenser and discharge warm air outside. Some
pressure pressure coil condensing units are mounted on an outside wall. 1
A popular practice is to mount a condensing
unit on a permanent concrete slab or manufactured
24Vac pad outside the building. This slab is located 12" to
24" (31 cm to 61 cm) away from the building. A con-
crete slab at least 4" (10 cm) thick and reinforced with
steel mesh is recommended. Manufactured pads are
available in different size and thickness. Be mindful
of local building codes to install a slab or pad having
the proper thickness and the proper distance from any
Contactor building or obstruction. Adequate work space is nec-
Contactor
contacts essary. A condensing unit should be installed so that
contacts outlet air moves in the same direction as the prevailing
summer winds. Figure 32-14 shows various condens-
ing unit arrangements.
The location of the condensing unit is important.
Compressor The suction and liquid lines and electrical power lines
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher should be as short as possible. The condensing unit
Figure 32-13. Wiring diagram for a comfort cooling unit that should be carefully located:
uses pressure safety cutouts and a contactor.

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844 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Away from bedrooms, patios, and neighbors (to

Pro Tip
minimize noise pollution).
• At least 24" (61 cm) away from walls (for air
Preventing Refrigerant Theft
circulation and adequate work space). A condensing unit that is in plain sight or moni-
tored by security cameras can discourage refrigerant
• Away from inside corners (for air circulation). theft. Another method of prevention is the installation of
• Not under eaves (to not obstruct airflow). access valve locks. These devices are installed on the
Figure 32-15 shows acceptable and unacceptable access valves of service valves. Keys and tools used
locations for a condensing unit. If possible, a condens- to unlock these devices should only be made available
ing unit should be placed along the north side of a to homeowners and HVACR service technicians. Many
building, where it will enjoy shade throughout the day locks are color coded to indicate the type of refrigerant
charge, Figure 32-17.
and not endure the heat load of the sun.
A condensing unit should be mounted level,
and with the proper clearances around the unit.
Figure 32-16 shows a typical condensing unit and the 32.4.2 Installing an Evaporator
required clearances around the unit. Always follow An evaporator must be mounted level and solidly
the manufacturer's recommendations for locating the in the furnace bonnet or plenum chamber. The design
condensing unit. of the evaporator and its condensate drain depend on
the type of furnace (upflow, downflow, or horizontal
flow). Removable panels are installed in the plenum or

Top View

--
--
-
--- -- •••••••• ---- --
i~~ -- •••••• ~== -- • •-
--
__.__._______, _J
_- _/ -- •••••• ---- -• •J
'.• --
Side View
A B C
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 32-14. Three types of air-cooled condensing units for residential air-conditioning installations. A-Condensing unit inside
building. B-Unit hung on outer wall (usually through window). C-Unit mounted on concrete slab outside building.

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 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 845

[] Q
D
Bedroom

3 2

Bedroom
Kitchen

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 32-15. Choose a location for an outdoor air-cooled condensing unit for best airflow and least noise. Locations 1 and 2 are
good locations. Location 3 is not recommended because it is in a pocket where there would be restricted airflow and is also too
near a bedroom. Locations 4 and 5 are also too near bedrooms.

chamber so the evaporator can be accessed for periodic Code Alert

cleaning and servicing as required.
Condensate Drainage

I
A cutout is made in the plenum and covered with
a cover plate. The cover plate is slightly larger than the Check the local building code for condensate
cutout and is secured with sheet metal screws. The drainage requirements. In some installations, a drain
bottom of the coil assembly is secured and supported pump must be installed to remove the condensate to
the outdoors.
by blank-off plates and rails. Blank-off plates are
sheet metal plates that support the evaporator coil and
block off areas of the plenum so that all the air passing
through the plenum is directed through the evapora-
32.4.3 Installing Refrigerant Lines
tor coil. Figure 32-18 shows a typical slant evaporator The suction and liquid lines between the condens-
installation. ing unit and the evaporator coil may be connected
In some cases, the metering device is supplied with with flared connections, brazed connections, or quick-
the evaporator coil. If the metering device is not sup- connect couplings. The flared and brazed connections
plied with the coil, the proper size metering device must were discussed in Chapter 8, Working with Tubing and
be selected and installed at the evaporator coil inlet. Piping. Quick-connect couplings were discussed earlier
The condensate drain should be piped to an open in this chapter.
drain. There should be an air break at the drain. Plastic Refrigerant lines should be kept as short as pos-
drainpipe should be kept away from the warmer parts sible. The proper diameters for the refrigerant lines
of the furnace. Some technicians install a 4" U-trap in are determined by the size of the condensing unit and
the drain line to stop airflow through the line. A con- the length of the lines to connect the condensing unit
densate drain pan is built into the evaporator, as is the to the evaporator. If the system is being installed in a
drain connection. hot, humid climate, the manufacturer may recommend

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846 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

I Fan outlet needs

5' minimum clearance

, , , , , , ..................... I

,, .......
I',
f."'
:
:,
............ ......

18" minimum
... / .....................
... ....,, Refrigerant line
clearance

clearance connections
York International Corporation, Unitary Products Group
Figure 32-16. A typical condensing unit installation showing the minimum acceptable clearances around such units.

a larger-diameter than would be recommended for a

more temperate climate. Always follow the manufac-
turer's sizing recommendations.

Caution
Brazing Refrigerant Lines
If the refrigerant lines are to be connected by braz-
ing, remove the Schrader valve cores from the service
valves before brazing the lines to the stubs. If the valve
cores are not removed, heat from the brazing process
will damage the rubber and plastic parts in the valve
core. Also, wrap the service valves with a wet cloth
before brazing the joints. This will protect the valves
from overheating.

Many condensing units are installed at a higher ele-

vation than the evaporator. Therefore, a U-bend should
be put in the suction line to assist in oil return. The
RectorSeal suction line should slope downward slightly toward
Figure 32-17. These access valve locks on an outdoor the condensing unit. It should also be insulated. If the
condensing unit restrict access to its suction and liquid lines. The suction line is not insulated, moisture from the air will
color pink corresponds to the cylinder color used for R-410A. condense on the outside of the suction line and drip.

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 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 847

An uninsulated suction line would also absorb addi- Once refrigerant lines are installed, check the
tional heat from unconditioned space, which will need refrigerant lines and evaporator for leaks. Repair any
to be rejected at the condenser. As a result, system effi- leaks. Evacuate the refrigerant lines and evaporator.
ciency will decrease, and the compressor will not be Next, charge the system with refrigerant. If the con-
cooled as effectively. densing unit is precharged, the isolation valves are
A filter-drier and a sight glass should be put in the opened and the charge is allowed to fill the system.
liquid line. The refrigerant lines should be supported If the condensing unit did not come precharged, the
and free of kinks and sharp bends. Any openings for proper charge must be weighed in. General leak testing,
the liquid and suction lines in the plenum and the evacuation, and charging procedures were described
building's wall should be sealed with weatherproof, in Chapter 11, Working with Refrigerants. Always follow
nonhardening sealing compound and tape. the manufacturer's recommendations.

Caution 32.4.4 Installing Electrical Wiring

Liquid Line/Capillary Tube Installation The wiring requirements for central air-condi-
Some systems use the liquid line as the capillary tioning systems vary from system to system. The elec-
tube. Larger-bore (ID) tubing reduces the chance of trical installation must be completed as shown in the
clogging from dirt or moisture. To ensure proper opera-
wiring diagram furnished with the system. The wir-
tion, do not shorten or lengthen a combination liquid
line/capillary tube during installation.
ing requirements usually consist of providing a 240 V
connection to power the condensing unit and a 24 V

Coil cover plate

0 0 0

Plenum cutout ~--------------------------,

1

o:
-----110---: ,
1
0

I
0
Z-formed
blank-off plate

0
Blank-off plate

6"(a)

Blank-off
plate
(a) Where bonnet is appreciably wider than 12", Furnace body
provide at least 6" between bottom of coil
assembly and top of furnace.
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 32-18. A slant evaporator installed in a furnace plenum. The blank-off plates support the coil and direct all air through the
evaporator coil.

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848 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

connection from the thermostat to control the condens-

ing unit. The 240 V circuit is equipped with an electrical
disconnect so the system can be quickly disconnected
for service, Figure 32-19.

Code Alert
Disconnecting Means
According to the National Electrical Code, a con-
densing unit's electrical disconnecting means must be
within sight from the condensing unit's location and also
readily accessible. Within sight means that the discon-
nect can be no more than 50' away. Readily accessible
means that personnel will not need to climb, use tools,
or remove obstacles to reach the disconnect.

When installing wiring that is to be exposed to

outdoors, check that its insulation is properly rated for
such use. Outdoor use means that the wiring will be
exposed to moisture from precipitation and also to the
powerful rays of the sun. Not all wiring is intended to Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

withstand such exposure. Figure 32-19. Electrical disconnect box. Note that the pullout
contact can be pulled out or flipped upside down to disconnect
Code Alert the condensing unit so it can be serviced.

Electrical Wiring
Electrical circuits must be installed in accordance 32.5 Inspecting Central Air-
with local building codes, which often specify that work
be done in accordance with the National Electrical Conditioning Systems
Code. Consult your local electrical utility concerning the The first step in inspecting and evaluating a
primary service capacity.
central air-conditioning system is to write down the

Service Call Scenario

32A: Residential Central Air Conditioning-No power to the unit. He then checks the condenser fan
Cooling motor for resistance and records an infinite ohm reading.
This indicates that the windings of the fan motor are
Customer Complaint: No Cooling open and that the fan must be replaced. Tim informs
Possible Causes: Defective condenser fan motor, Mr. Andrews of the issues and offers solutions and costs.
defective run capacitor, dirty condenser coil. He agrees to have Tim perform the services.
Description of Problem: The owner of a 2300 ft 2 Solution: With the electrical disconnect turned off, Tim
residence, Mr. Andrews, has reported that his air disconnects the fan motor wiring from the contactor and
conditioning is not providing cooling. Prior to arriving at the run capacitor. Next, he removes the fan blades from
the jobsite, the technician, Tim, reviews the work order. the condenser fan motor shaft. He then removes the
Upon arriving at the residence, he identifies himself to motor. The new condenser fan is installed and motor
Mr. Andrews and listens carefully to his comments. rotation is checked. Tim initiates a start-up of the system
Testing: Tim places the wall thermostat to call for and notes all operations are now restored to normal. The
cooling. He then proceeds to install the gauge manifold unit is now cooling. Tim provides Mr. Andrews with the
to determine system pressures. While outdoors, he bill and informs him that a follow-up call will occur.
observes that the compressor is operating; however, the Safety: Remember, when testing resistance, all checks
condenser fan is not. He then notes that the high-side must be performed with the power source off. When
pressure is extremely high and that the compressor is restoring the electrical source, keep a safe distance from all
shutting off. With this in mind, Tim shuts off all electrical revolving equipment such as fan motors and fan blades.

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 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 849

system settings. There are basically ten steps that a

technician will follow after writing down the system
settings:
1. Check the ground surrounding the condensing unit
for signs of erosion. Clear away any plants, shrubs,
and branches from the outdoor part of the unit so
there will be good airflow across the condenser coil.
2. Visually check both the front and back of the
evaporator and condensing coils. Spray the
coils with self-rinsing coil cleaner. An outdoor
condensing coil can be cleaned and rinsed with
clear water rather than the self-rinsing coil cleaner.
3. Disconnect the drain line near the evaporator.
Use a wet-dry vacuum to remove any water or
particles of dirt from the drain outlet. If the drain
line is clogged or dirty, replace it with new clear Algaecide
plastic tubing. Reinstall the drain line. tablets
4. Vacuum the drain pan. Place algaecide tablets in DiversiTech Corporation

the pan. See Figure 32-20. Figure 32-20. Placing algaecide tablets in the condensate
5. Visually check the condensing unit contact points drain pan.
for excessive burn. Any contactors that have been
used will have a noticeable marking. 7. Disconnect and reconnect any time delays that
6. If the unit has auxiliary resistance heat, take a have been installed. Check the starting time
current draw measurement on each element with and verify that the unit is meeting the customer
the heat turned on. Make sure the current draw is requirements for run time.
within the manufacturer's specification.

Service Call Scenario

32B: Residential Central Air Conditioning-No this malfunction, Sean inspects the evaporator coil
Cooling and notices that the coil has a thin layer of ice on it. He
then inspects the air filter and notes that the air filter is

I
Customer Complaint: No Cooling completely covered with dirt and debris. He informs Mrs.
Possible Causes: Dirty air filter, defective indoor fan Parker of the issues and offers solutions and the costs
motor, incorrect ductwork sizing. for such. She agrees to have Sean perform the services.
Description of Problem: Mrs. Parker, the owner of Solution: A new air filter is installed, and the evaporator
an 1800 ft 2 residential home, has reported that her air- is thawed. To prevent the possibility of further
conditioning system is not cooling. Prior to arriving at airflow problems, Sean cleans the evaporator with a
the jobsite, the technician, Sean, reviews the work order. biodegradable coil cleaning solution. He next inspects
Upon arriving at the residence, he identifies himself to the condition of the indoor blower motor for cleanliness
Mrs. Parker and listens carefully to her comments. He and ensures good operation. He again checks the
notes that the air conditioning unit is running. However, temperature split. All pressures and temperatures have
the thermostat indicates that it is set for 72°F, yet the returned to normal. The unit is now cooling. He cleans
temperature in the home is 81 °F. the work area prior to leaving, as the cleaning solutions
Testing: Sean sets the wall thermostat to a call for can leave residue and slippery conditions. Sean
cooling. He visually observes the system's operation. educates the owner as to how to install air filters correctly
Using his gauge manifold, he reads the system's with the arrow facing the furnace in the direction of the
pressures. Performing a temperature split, he takes the return airflow. He provides Mrs. Parker with the bill and
air supply and the return air temperatures and notes informs her that a follow-up call will occur.
that the temperature split is higher than would normally Safety: Always follow manufacturer's procedures when
be expected. The systems low-side pressure is lower using any chemical solutions. Remember to wear protective
than normal. Attempting to determine the cause for devices such as safety glasses and protective gloves.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

850 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

8. Measure and record the air temperature differential Begin a service call by checking the general condi-
between the evaporator inlet and outlet. It should tion of the system. Check for leaks, proper refrigerant
be between 16°F (9°C) and 20°F (11°C). charge, and malfunctioning refrigerant controls and
9. Visually check the ducts for leaks. Check for open motor controls. Check also for moisture in the system.
joints and broken diverters. Repair all leaks with Moisture in the refrigerant can form ice in the meter-
mastic. ing device, resulting in a gradual decrease in perfor-
10. Return the system and its devices to the original mance as the system operates.
settings noted before the inspection. Often the same blower, filter, and duct system are
used during both the cooling and heating seasons. It
is essential that the blower be cleaned at least once a
32.6 Servicing Central Air- year. The motor should be lubricated (a few drops of
SAE 30 oil) once or twice a year, if applicable. Air filters
Conditioning Systems should be inspected monthly and cleaned or replaced
as needed. The blower's motor speed is often faster
Economical operation and system dependabil- (high) for summer comfort cooling and slower (low)
ity are based on proper servicing. The basic ser- for winter heating. Belts on belt-driven blowers should
vicing and troubleshooting procedures for central be inspected and replaced if glazed or cracked.
air-conditioning systems are similar in many ways A condensing unit should be cleaned once a year.
to those for servicing and troubleshooting small The condenser, especially, should be blown clean of
domestic appliances. debris. Any bent fins should be straightened. A car-
There are several possible causes of comfort cool- bon dioxide blower or vacuum cleaner can be used to
ing-related service calls: clean the unit. Pressurized washing wands are useful
• No cooling or insufficient cooling. to clean the coils from the inside out, Figure 32-21.
• Indoor air too humid. Evaporator coils should also be cleaned of any lint
• Air in building is stuffy (stale). and have any bent fins straightened. Check condensate
drainage. Condensate that escapes the drain pan may drip
• Excessive (indoor or outdoor) noise.
on the furnace heat exchanger, corroding (rusting) it. If
• High cost of operation. the condensate drain is clogged, it may be possible to blow
• System will not start. out the blockage using compressed gas, Figure 32-22.

Service Call Scenario

32C: Residential Central Air Conditioning-No coil. His voltmeter registers 24 volts at the coil.
Cooling Next, he isolates the contactor coil and measures
the resistance. The reading is infinite ohms. This
Customer Complaint: No Cooling indicates the coil is opened and needs to be replaced.
Possible Causes: Open fuses, defective circuit Brad informs Ms. Sellers of the need to replace the
breakers, thermostat, defective contactor coil. contactor and the cost. She agrees to have him
Description of Problem: A homeowner, Ms. Sellers, perform the service.
has reported that her air conditioner is not cooling. Prior Solution: Brad shuts off the electrical power to the unit.
to arriving at the jobsite, the technician, Brad, reviews Next, he disconnects the wiring to the contactor. He
the work order. Upon arriving at the residence, he removes the bad contactor. A new contactor is installed
identifies himself to Ms. Sellers and listens carefully to and the system is started. The system starts and
her comments. operates satisfactorily. The unit is now cooling. Brad then
Testing: Brad places the thermostat on a call for provides Ms. Sellers with the bill and informs her that a
cooling. He walks to the outdoor unit and installs follow-up call will occur.
his gauge manifold to read the system's pressures. Safety: Air-conditioning units operate under high
He notices that the outdoor unit is not turning on. voltages. Always use care when connecting and
Brad performs a voltage check at the contactor disconnecting electrical wiring.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 851

Service Call Scenario

32D: Residential Central Air Conditioning-No unit. The unit is not in operation. While removing the
Cooling unit's electrical cover, he notices that the two-strand
thermostat cable has been severed and the connection
Customer Complaint: No Cooling to the contactor coil is broken. Kyle notifies Mr. Richards
Possible Causes: Severed thermostat cable, defective of the situation and recommends that a new two-strand
transformer, open high-side pressure switch, defective cable be installed.
thermostat. Solution: Kyle installs new cable and makes all of the
Description of Problem: A homeowner, Mr. Richards, electrical connections to the contactor. He checks the
has reported that his air-conditioning system is not contactor for proper operation. The contactor coil is
cooling. Prior to arriving at the home, the technician, energized and the unit starts. All pressures are checked
Kyle, reviews the work order. Upon arriving at the and all are in the correct range. The system is now
residence, he identifies himself to Mr. Richards and cooling . Kyle provides Mr. Richards with the bill and
listens carefully to his comments. informs him that a follow-up call will occur.
Testing: Kyle initiates cooling using the wall thermostat. Safety: Remember, high and low voltages are needed
He notes that the furnace indoor blower motor has to operate most heating and air-conditioning equipment.
started. The starting of the indoor blower motor assures Under the right conditions, low voltage can become fatal.
him that source voltage and low voltage are present at Always follow safety precautions when working with live
the furnace. He walks outside to observe the outdoor circuits.

SpeedC/ean DiversiTech Corporation

Figure 32-21. This technician is using a pressurized mix of Figure 32-22. This drain cleaning gun blows away drain
chemicals and water flowing outward through the condenser coils. blockages using dry, compressed carbon dioxide.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

852 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

The best and most thorough way to clean an evapo-

Thinking Green
rator coil with clogged cooling fins is to remove it from
the system for cleaning. This requires the refrigerant Flushing a System
charge to be recovered or pumped down into the high An HVAC system's refrigerant circuit must be flushed
side. All refrigerant should be removed from the evapo- in the case of a hermetic compressor motor burnout or if
rator before removing the coil. Plug all system refriger- the system is being retrofitted for another refrigerant and
ant connections once opened. Then, either steam-clean the existing line set is going to be reused. In the past, an
R-11 flush was commonly used to clean such a system.
or use hot water and detergent to scrub the fins and
Today, alternative flushing agents are available.
tubes. Steam is the best cleaner, although high-pressure
warm water and detergent also work well.

Pro Tip
32.7 Variable Refrigerant Flow
Preventing Evaporator Icing (VRF) Systems
Instruct occupants not to adjust their thermostat Split system, forced-air heat pumps use one out-
too low for summer cooling. The evaporator may freeze door condensing unit connected to an indoor coil
the condensate. This will restrict airflow through the mounted in an air handler. Conditioned air is then
evaporator, resulting in even more ice buildup. blown to each room via ductwork. Multizone ductless
split systems utilize an outdoor condensing unit with
Inspect all ductwork for leaks and broken damp- refrigerant tubing to each indoor coil. The amount of
ers. Make sure that all supply ducts and returns are refrigerant tubing used in a multi-split system can
not obstructed and that sufficient airflow is observed. be extensive. Variable refrigerant flow systems use
If ducts have dirt and dust buildup, semiannual duct one outdoor unit and a single set of refrigerant tubes
cleaning may be needed. Duct cleaning should include that connect each indoor coil in parallel. This greatly
sanitizing of all lines and a thorough inspection of all reduces the amount of tubing required. Figure 32-23
trunk lines, supply, and return ducts. illustrates a multizone ductless split system and a vari-
Always record and mark the date on the furnace able refrigerant flow (VRF) ductless split system.
or condensing unit when service has been performed. During a normal heating or cooling season, the
Record refrigerant charge, suction, and head pressure average ambient temperature is approximately 70% of
if the refrigerant system has been accessed. the load for which a system is designed. Traditional

Service Call Scenario

32E: Residential Central Air Conditioning-No sensing bulb of the TXV metering device has lost its
Cooling charge. This is causing the TXV to close, resulting in the
stoppage of refrigerant flow to the evaporator.
Customer Complaint: No Cooling
Solution: Sharon first recovers the refrigerant. She removes
Possible Causes: Low charge, leaks in system. the defective TXV and installs a new valve. Since she has
Description of Problem: Mr. Temrowski, the owner of opened the unit, she must install a new liquid line filter-drier
a 2500 ft 2 home, has reported that the air conditioner is to protect the system from contaminants and moisture.
not cooling. Prior to arriving at the jobsite, the technician, Sharon starts the system and confirms all pressures and
Sharon, reviews the work order. Upon arriving at the temperatures have returned to normal. The system is now
home, Sharon identifies herself to Mr. Temrowski and cooling. Sharon provides Mr. Temrowski with the bill and
listens carefully to his comments. informs him that a follow-up call will occur.
Testing: Sharon installs her gauge manifold to read Safety: Remember, when you are opening a system to
the system's pressures. The low-side gauge is reading replace components, be sure to check the conditions of
lower than normal pressures. She performs a superheat the system's oil for signs of contaminants. Wear eye and
reading and it indicates a high superheat. It appears the hand protection-some system lubricants may be toxic
evaporator is being starved of refrigerant. Therefore, and acidic. Wear the same protective equipment when
Sharon inspects the evaporator. She notes that the charging refrigerants.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 853

Indoor Indoor One disadvantage of VRF systems is that they

units do not regulate humidity or outside air changes.
Ventilation and humidity control can be added to VRF
systems by adding ductwork, humidifiers, and an air
handler.

32.7.1 Inverter-Driven Compressors

Most compressors are fixed speed. They operate
Outdoor
using single-phase or three-phase alternating cur-
unit with rent (ac) as their power source. Rather than using line
variable-speed voltage, a variable-speed compressor has an inverter
compressor supply its electrical signal. An inverter varies the fre-
Standard Multizone VRF Ductless
Ductless Split System Split System
quency of the voltage supplied to a compressor's motor.
Remember that ac motor speed is based on two factors:
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 32-23. Comparison of a standard ductless split system
• Number of poles in the motor.
and a VRF system. A standard multizone split system has • Frequency of the voltage signal.
separate refrigerant lines between each indoor coil and the Many inverters provide compressors with a volt-
outdoor unit. A variable refrigerant flow (VRF) system uses a age signal that can have a range of frequency values.
main line set that includes a suction line trunk and a liquid line
By reducing or increasing the frequency, the speed at
trunk. Parallel refrigerant lines for each indoor coil branch off
from the main line set.
which the motor rotates is reduced or increased. The
slower a compressor's motor turns, the less refrigerant
it pumps. The faster a compressor's motor turns, the
air-conditioning systems use a fixed-speed compres- more refrigerant it pumps. By varying the frequency,
sor, fixed-speed blower motor, and a TXV or orifice an inverter varies the refrigerant flow through the
metering device. Components with a fixed speed or system.
capacity always operate at the maximum design rate.
Conditioned space temperature is maintained by
cycling the system on and off with fixed components Baseboard unit Ceiling
operating at maximum. The efficiency of a system can I cassette

be greatly improved if compressor speed is reduced to

modulate the refrigerant flow to match the heating or
cooling load. This type of operation is known as vari- Wall
able refrigerant flow (VRF). It is also referred to as vari- unit
able refrigerant volume (VRV). Many VRF systems are
charged with R-410A. Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) \ ~
systems use the following components to regulate
refrigerant flow and airflow:
• Inverter-driven variable-speed compressor.
• Variable-speed indoor and outdoor fan motors.
• Electronic expansion valve (EEV). In-line
Outdoor duct
The benefits of VRF systems is that they are able unit~ unit
to maintain each room set point more efficiently than

-
a standard HVAC system by distributing the exact
amount of refrigerant necessary and only to the zones
that are calling for heating or cooling. Each zone has its
own temperature control and variable-speed fan that
precisely control the climate of their conditioned space.
Indoor units may be floor-mounted, wall-mounted,
ceiling-mounted, or placed in ductwork where appli- Fujitsu General America, Inc.
cable. Figure 32-24 shows a typical residential VRF Figure 32-24. Residential VRF system with various indoor
outdoor coil and several types of indoor coils. units above and outdoor unit below.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

854 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Single-phase line voltage passes through a bridge

rectifier to create a modified direct current signal. This
voltage is then passed through capacitors resulting in a
smooth, straight de signal. This de voltage can be used G)
C)
to power de components, such as an electronic expan-
sion valve (EEV), certain fan motors, and control cir- ;gs Qf------+----- -----+-----
cuitry, Figure 32-25.
An inverter passes the de signal through six
switches that are operating multiple times per second.
This produces a three-phase signal. This three-phase Time
ac signal then passes through a frequency drive that
controls the frequency of the signal. Remember that
single-speed compressors operate at one speed because
the frequency of their power is a constant 60 cycles per
second. An inverter can change a signal's frequency
down to 30 cycles per second and up through 310 cycles
per second to slow or speed the compressor. Frequency
determines motor speed, Figure 32-26.
A traditional single-speed compressor is either
on or off (operating at 0% or 100%), but a variable-
speed compressor can operate as low as 10% of rated Time
speed and up through 100%. Variable-speed compres- Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
sors have a minimum speed below which they do not Figure 32-26. Single-speed and variable frequency signals
operate. Keeping operation above the minimum speed graphed. Top-Standard sine wave for single-speed
ensures that refrigerant and oil are circulated back to operation. Bottom-A variable frequency that gradually
the compressor to maintain cooling and lubrication. increases for faster compressor operation.

Daikin Applied
Figure 32-25. An inverter's circuitry is often on a printed circuit board (PCB).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 855

An inverter can be used to produce a low-frequency or slows to supply the capacity needed in each zone.
signal to a compressor for slow start-up or a soft start. The amount of refrigerant and its flow rate is regulated
This low frequency produces less initial starting torque to each zone by each unit's EEV.
compared to the frequency and voltage applied to a The refrigerant tubing for each zone may be
single-speed compressor. Beginning start up at a low branched off from the main line set using a Y tube or
frequency saves energy. Inverter control can be applied branch tube. Each indoor coil is branched off in paral-
to different builds of compressors, such as rotary, scroll, lel from the main trunk line.
reciprocating, and centrifugal. Each zone in a VRF system has its own tempera-
ture and blower control. The control can either be wall
mounted or a wireless remote control. VRF systems
32.7.2 Residential VRF Systems
are able to tightly control temperature within a zone
Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) systems may be by using a controller inside each indoor unit.
used in residential applications to provide precise Each indoor unit controller monitors room set
temperature control of various rooms throughout point, fan speed, and also air direction through the
a home. The outdoor coil and compressor assembly use of oscillating louvers. The use of a variable-speed
supply refrigerant to indoor coils in each room of the compressor in the outdoor unit and variable-speed fan
house. Most VRF systems are heat pump units with motors in the indoor units allows for a wide range of
the reversing valve mounted in the outdoor coil. Each capacity control. By lowering capacity, a compressor
indoor unit contains a refrigerant coil, an electronic can run longer and avoid continuously cycling on and
expansion valve (EEV), a coil thermistor, and a room off. Fans can be operated at their minimum speed to
thermistor. maintain a constant level of comfort. On these lower
Each indoor unit operates a separate zone under a settings, VRF systems are known to operate very
different load. The inverter-driven compressor speeds quietly relative to other types of systems.

Service Call Scenario

32F: Residential Air Conditioning-Lack of off. When the unit was operating, the temperature split
Cooling across the condenser was quite high. Juan informs
Mr. Rodriguez of the situation. Juan recommends that
Customer Complaint: Lack of cooling the condenser coil be cleaned and indicates the cost for
Possible Causes: Dirty condenser coil resulting in such. He also suggests that Mr. Rodriguez trim back the

I
restricted airflow, overcharged unit, faulty compressor, trees in this area and ensure grass clippings are blown
faulty fan motor, bent fan blade. away from the area. Mr. Rodriguez agrees to have Juan
Description of Problem: Mr. Rodriguez, the owner of a perform the needed service.
2000 ft 2 residence, has reported that the air conditioner Solution: Juan thoroughly cleans the condenser coil with
is not cooling. The unit runs for a short period and then a coil-cleaning solution. He starts the unit and checks
shuts down. Prior to arriving at the jobsite, the technician, the system's pressures. The high-side pressure is now in
Juan, reviews the work order. Upon arriving at the the normal operating range and the unit is now running
home, he identifies himself to Mr. Rodriguez and listens without shutting down on overload. Juan reviews with
carefully to his comments. Mr. Rodriguez the importance of maintenance and the
Testing: Juan places the wall thermostat on a call importance of keeping debris away from the compressor.
for cooling. He goes outdoors to observe the unit. He provides Mr. Rodriguez with the bill and informs him
Juan installs his gauge manifold to read the system's that a follow-up call will occur.
pressures. A very high high-side pressure is indicated. Safety: Be cautious when working with a compressor
While observing the unit, Juan notes that the condenser operating with extreme high-side pressures. The
coil is extremely dirty-covered with leaves and grass compressor temperature and the discharge line will
clippings. He knows that a dirty condenser results in become extremely hot and can cause serious burns.
restricted airflow, which increases high-side pressure, Use caution as a fracture may release highly pressurized
resulting in the unit shutting off on internal overload. refrigerant and oil. Always wear proper eye and hand
Juan waits momentarily and soon the compressor shuts protection!

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • A VRF system matches system operation to the
heat load capacity using electronic expansion
• Central air conditioning refers to a centrally valves in each indoor unit, variable-speed
located system that is capable of providing motors in outdoor and indoor units, and an
heating, cooling, and humidity control to multiple inverter-driven, variable-speed compressor.
spaces. The conditioned air is typically routed to These features respond to the temperature
the desired spaces through a network of air ducts. controls in each indoor unit so they control a
different zone in a building.
• A single combination heating and cooling
thermostat is often used in central air- • An inverter takes line voltage and modifies
conditioning systems. In some systems, a the electrical signal to vary its frequency. By
humidistat controls the relative humidity in the reducing or increasing an electrical signal's
conditioned space. frequency, an inverter can reduce or increase
motor speed. This determines how much
• Unitary central air-conditioning systems refrigerant is pumped by the compressor.
are manufactured complete and ready for
assembly. In field-erected air-conditioning
systems, all components are purchased
separately and assembled on-site.
Review Questions
• A split system has its condensing unit outdoors Answer the following questions using the information in
and its evaporator indoors. this chapter.
• Comfort cooling systems are equipped with 1. A standard split system that provides central
operating controls and safety controls. Operating air-conditioning includes which one of the
controls, such as thermostats, pressure switches, following system components?
humidistats, motor starters, and relays, regulate A. An air handler.
the normal operation of the system. Safety B. A chiller water pump.
controls monitor conditions and shut off the C. An inverter.
system or specific components to protect system D. A Ytube.
components and building occupants.
2. Which of the following best describes a field-
• Installing central cooling onto an existing erected air-conditioning system?
furnace is done in four steps: installing the A. All parts of the system are bundled
condensing unit, mounting the evaporator, together by the manufacturer, but
installing the refrigerant lines, and making the assembled on-site.
electrical connections. B. The parts of the system are purchased
• Servicing a central air-conditioning system separately and then assembled on-site.
begins with a check of the system's general C. The system is preassembled by the
condition. During this inspection, check for manufacturer, and installation requires
leaks, malfunctioning controls, and moisture- only electrical connections.
related problems. Fans and motors should be D. The system is constructed in the middle of
cleaned and lubricated, worn belts should be a field.
replaced, and the condenser and evaporator 3. Which of the following statements regarding
coils should be cleaned. Record any service split systems is not true?
work in company records and system records A. The air handler, furnace, and evaporator
for the home owner. coil are installed indoors and the
• Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) technology condensing unit is installed outdoors.
has been incorporated into some residential B. An evaporator coil can be installed in the
air-conditioning systems. This is primarily supply plenum of a forced-air heating
in multizone ductless split systems. A single system in order to add cooling capability.
outdoor unit controls the amount of refrigerant C. In a split system, the supply and return
that flows to multiple indoor units throughout a ductwork must pass through the
building. Indoor units are connected in parallel building's exterior wall.
using Y tubes to branch off the main line set. D. All of the above.

856 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 32 Residential Central Air-Conditioning Systems 857

4. An air-cooled condensing unit should be 9. An inverter controls a variable-speed

installed compressor by changing the electrical signal's
A. beside a building along an inside corner
with two outer walls no more than 3" away A. amps
B. beyond a building's roof overhang and B. frequency
eaves C. poles
C. inside a well-insulated and unventilated D. voltage
room within a building 10. Refrigerant flow through indoor units of VRF
D. tightly surrounded on all sides by tall, systems is typically controlled by a(n) _ _.
thick bushes A. automatic expansion valve
5. The purpose of blank-off plates is to _ _. B. capillary tube
A. block the evaporator so air does not pass C. electronic expansion valve
through when the furnace is operating D. low-side float valve
B. block off areas of the plenum so all the air
passes through the evaporator
C. prevent airflow-related noises in the
ductwork
D. provide access to the evaporator for
service
6. Which of the following statements regarding
refrigerant lines is not true?
A. A liquid line should be insulated to
prevent condensation.
B. Refrigerant lines may be connected with
flare connections.
C. Refrigerant lines should be kept as short
as possible.
D. All of the above.
7. The electrical connections to a central air-
conditioning condensing unit typically
include a 240 V connection for powering
the compressor and a _ _ connection for

I
control.
A. 24 V
B. 36V
C. 100V
D. 480V
8. The best and most thorough way to clean an
evaporator coil with clogged cooling fins is to

A. leave the coil in the plenum chamber

and spray it with a mild acid solution to
dissolve the dirt
B. leave the coil in the plenum chamber
and rap on it with a ball peen hammer to
dislodge blockages
C. remove the coil from the plenum chamber
and soak it in vinegar
D. remove the coil from the plenum chamber
and steam clean it

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER33 Cotntnercial
Air-Conditioning
Systetns

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
Chapter Outline Summarize the features of rooftop units and
33.1 Rooftop and Outdoor Units packaged outdoor air-conditioning units.
33.1.1 RTU Heating System • Identify the types of controls commonly used in
33.1.2 RTU Air Circulation commercial air-conditioning systems.
33.1 .3 Comfort Cooling Controls • Explain how variable refrigerant flow is incorporated
33.1.4 Installing Rooftop Units into commercial air-conditioning applications.
33.1.5 Servicing Rooftop Units Safely
• Explain the basic operation of a chiller system.
33.1.6 Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) Systems
33.2 Chillers • Compare the different types of compressors that can
33.2.1 High-Pressure Compression Chillers be used in chiller systems.
33.2.2 Low-Pressure Compression Chillers • Explain the basic function and operation of a cooling
33.2.3 Chiller Compressors tower.
33.3 Cooling Towers • Understand the operation and purpose of the
33.3.1 Cooling Tower Construction different types of water valves used with water-
33.3.2 Cooling Tower Operational Considerations cooled condensers and cooling towers in
33.3.3 Water Valves commercial air-conditioning systems.
 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 859

Technical Terms • Active recovery processes use a recovery machine to

remove refrigerant from a system in either vapor or
air-side economizer low-pressure chiller liquid form. (Chapter 11)
basin heater makeup water • After any internal component is replaced, a
blowdown motor water valve refrigeration system must be evacuated and
chiller natural-draft cooling tower recharged. (Chapter 11)
closed-loop cooling tower open-loop cooling tower
compression chiller packaged outdoor air-
economizer conditioning unit Introduction
cooling tower pneumatic motor
counterflow cooling tower pneumatics Commercial air conditioning differs from residential
crossflow cooling tower pressure water valve air conditioning in several ways. A commercial condi-
cylinder unloading pressured water system tioned space is generally larger than a residential con-
direct-expansion evaporator primary refrigerant ditioned space. This does not just mean more square
drift purge unit footage. It may also mean having a higher ceiling.
enthalpy control rooftop unit (RTU) Compare the height of a home's kitchen ceiling to that of
fi II secondary refrigerant a department store ceiling. This increase of square foot-
forced-draft cooling tower solenoid water valve age and having a higher ceiling can equate to a very large
gravity flow basin thermostatic water valve volume of conditioned space.
high-pressure chiller water valve Another major difference is how a building is used
induced-draft cooling wet decks and accessed. A busy store or supermarket may have peo-
tower ple going in and out frequently. This opening and closing
of doors can mean much more heat and humidity enter-
ing a building than a residence that is accessed many
Review of Key Concepts fewer times throughout a day. This results in an increase
of sensible and latent heat that must be removed.
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help The amount of heat in Btu that must be moved is gen-
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter: erally more in commercial than in residential. Because of
• A split air-conditioning system divides up its these two differences, commercial air conditioning may
components into two or more separate locations. A split employ different methods of transferring heat, such as
system's condensing unit may be placed outdoors, and using chillers.
its evaporating unit may be placed indoors. (Chapter 31) Much of commercial air conditioning uses forced-air
• Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) units may be used to systems. The benefit of using forced-air is that ventilation
operate multiple temperature zones throughout a needs can also be addressed within the same system . •
building. (Chapter 31) Chillers often have greater potential for heat absorption,
1
• Many compressors use unloaders to reduce their butthey do not always have ventilation capabilities. These
load during start-up or to modulate compressor's may need to be incorporated using other components.
capacity. (Chapter 18)
• Two methods for determining a refrigeration system's
charge are checking the system's subcooling or
superheat. Systems using a TXV should be checked
using subcooling. Systems using a fixed orifice metering
device should be checked using superheat. (Chapter 11)
860 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

33.1 Rooftop and Outdoor Units Installation of commercial rooftop units often
requires a rigging company to hoist the unit to the roof-
Rooftop units (RTUs) are packaged air-condi- top. Heavy lift helicopters are sometimes used in cases
tioning systems designed specifically to be installed on where access to the rooftop is restricted. However,
the roof of a building. Rooftop units are often designed large cranes are more frequently used, depending on
to provide both cooling and heating. However, some access and the height of the building, Figure 33-3.
may be built to provide only one of these features. They Although RTUs are relatively easy to install and
also often feature fresh air inlet options to help main- do not take up valuable interior space in a building,
tain indoor air quality. Distribution of conditioned air they do have certain requirements and specifications
is done through a blower within the RTU. Figure 33-1 that should be thoroughly considered.
shows how a rooftop system is connected to a duct dis- • The roof must be strong enough to uphold the
tribution system. weight of the unit.
Packaged outdoor air-conditioning units are
• Openings in the roof, on which the units are
similar to rooftop units in construction and operation.
mounted, could develop leaks over time.
However, instead of being installed on the roof of a
building, they are installed on a concrete pad or sup- • Units must be designed for ease of service even in
porting structure adjacent to the building. Supply and severe weather.
return ductwork and wiring run through the exterior • Weather, including strong winds, can affect their
wall of the building, Figure 33-2. operation.
The RTU design was first developed for flat-roofed • RTUs require technicians to carry tools and
commercial structures, such as supermarkets and supplies up to the roof.
office buildings. RTUs are convenient because they • The equipment used to service these systems must
are factory-assembled and tested. They are also easily function properly in all kinds of weather (for RTUs
installed once hoisted to the site. that provide both cooling and heating).

Lennox Industries Inc.

Figure 33-1. Rooftop unit (RTU) connected to duct system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 861

Exterior wall
Outdoors
Compressor Condenser
Conditioned space
Evaporator

Humidifier

Supply air duct

...,__

___,. ___,.
Return air duct
___,.

D Low-pressure vapor • Low-pressure liquid Air filter Blower Burner Concrete pad
D High-pressure vapor • High-pressure liquid
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 33-2. Airflow through an outdoor unit.

Many RTUs come completely equipped with fac- Condenser

tory-installed heating units. Heat can be produced by an
integrated gas-fired furnace, oil-fired furnace, or electric
resistance heating elements. Figure 33-4 shows a typical
rooftop unit used for both heating and cooling.

Compressors Gas pressure Gas burners

regulator
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Figure 33-4. This rooftop unit provides both heating and
Figure 33-3. These RTUs are being lifted from a flatbed truck cooling. It has a gas-fired furnace. The side access panel has
and set on the roof of an office building using a crane. been removed for service.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

862 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Rooftop units are designed to be weatherproof

since they are exposed to all kinds of weather.
Access doors for inspection are designed to open
and then stay open safely under high wind condi-
tions. Figure 33-5 shows a rooftop unit with all the
access doors open to reveal the various components
in the system.

33.1.1 RTU Heating System

Many rooftop units are equipped with gas-fired
furnaces. Like a standard gas-fired furnace, RTUs are
equipped with an electric ignition system. The heat
Heat exchanger
exchanger of an RTU with a gas-fired furnace typi- Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
cally can be reached through an access door or panel, Figure 33-6. An access panel has been removed from this
Figure 33-6. rooftop unit to reveal the gas-fired furnace's heat exchanger.

Combustion air intake

Combustion Gas valve Gas manifold

blower and burners
A
Fresh air
damper

Compressors
B
AAON
Figure 33-5. Access doors can be opened to access various parts of a rooftop unit for service. A-The burners, gas valve,
and combustion blower of the gas-fired furnace are accessible through a door in the front of the unit. B-The compressors,
evaporator, air filters, and fresh air damper can be accessed through doors in the side of the unit.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 863

The furnaces in some rooftop units are oil-fired. Air-Side Economizers

Fuel is stored in an underground tank. A lift pump In some cases, activity within a building raises
draws oil to a second, smaller tank. This tank may be at the temperature to a level that would activate the air-
the same level as or slightly lower than the oil burner. conditioning system, even though the outdoor air tem-
Under no circumstances should the tank be more than perature is below the system set point. If an air-side
10' (3 m) below the burner. economizer is part of an HVAC system, it will prevent
Electric resistance heating elements can also be the compressor from starting. Instead, the system will
used in rooftop units. These heating elements are draw in outdoor air to cool the building. This can save
available in various capacities, including 20 kW, 40 kW, considerable energy, Figure 33-9.
and 60 kW. Heating elements are protected by ceramic An air-side economizer is a subsystem of an HVAC
insulators. The circuit has fuses, fusible links, and system that is used to introduce cool outdoor air into
thermal cutouts, Figure 33-7. a building filled with warm, stuffy air. It is composed
of several different controls, a movable louver system,
33.1.2 RTU Air Circulation and an actuator to move the louvers, Figure 33-10.
An economizer's controls sense and respond to
Airflow through an RTU is controlled by the different variables. When certain levels are sensed, the
blower and different dampers. Sensing elements in the economizer operates. These measured variables may
mixed-air duct control actuator motors that operate include the following:
these dampers: • Indoor air temperature.
• The return damper. • Indoor humidity.
• The conditioned air damper. • Outdoor air temperature.
• The exhaust air damper. • Outdoor humidity.
• The fresh air damper. Note that not all economizers sense all of these
All air circulated by an RTU is filtered as in other variables. They will at least sense indoor air tempera-
air distribution systems. This is not just the air within ture and outdoor air temperature. When these levels
the building but also the fresh air introduced into the are at or below control settings, an economizer begins
building. Figure 33-8 shows an RTU's air control system. operation. This involves several different actions:

Condenser fan
Evaporator

Condenser
I
Return air
damper

Compressor

Supply air duct

Blower Electric resistance

heating elements
Rheem Manufacturing Company
Figure 33-7. Rooftop unit equipped with electric resistance heating elements.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

864 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Motor control Air filter Mixed air

module sleeve sensing element

Return air to
evaporator

Return damper

Supply air
from blower

Return air from Conditioned air

conditioned space supplied to space
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 33-8. Air-control system for a rooftop unit. The dampers are automatically controlled so that they always provide the
desired air mixture.

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 33-9. This RTU outdoor air intake has an angled cover
to prevent infiltration of precipitation and an inlet screen to
keep animals and bugs out of the air ducts.

• The compressor is turned off or prevented from

operating.
• The condenser fan is turned off or prevented from
operating, as it will not be rejecting any heat.
• Fresh air inlet louvers open on the return air side
of the indoor blower. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
• The indoor blower turns on to draw in cool, fresh Figure 33-10. This actuator opens and closes fresh air inlet
air from outside. louvers for economizer operation.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 865

Economizers provide free building cooling by tak- 15 Btu per pound of heat content. However, if outdoor
ing advantage of cool outdoor temperature. This often air was at 100% humidity (Point B), it would have a heat
occurs at night, early morning, or during the change of content around 26.5 Btu per pound. If this humid air
seasons. Anytime outdoor air is cool enough and dry were drawn into a building by an economizer, it might
enough, a cooling system can use the economizer to cool the building, but the humidity level would be too
cool a building's conditioned space without running high for comfort. Occupants would need to run the air-
the compressor. This type of operation uses much less conditioning compressor to remove the moisture from
electrical power than when a compressor is running. the air.
However, it can only be activated during certain times To further show the importance of enthalpy con-
of proper outdoor conditions. trol, look at Point C. It shows indoor air temperature
at go P around 15% relative humidity. Following this
0

Enthalpy Control point to the enthalpy scale shows that this indoor air
Economizers begin operation based on several has a heat content around 23.5 Btu per pound. If out-
different measured variables: indoor air temperature, door air is at 60°P at 100% humidity, it has a heat con-
indoor humidity, outdoor air temperature, and out- tent of 26.5 Btu per pound. This 60°P air actually has
door humidity. If indoor air temperature is already a higher heat content than the go P air at 15% relative
0

cool enough, an economizer will not cycle on. If out- humidity. Drawing in this outdoor air would result
door air temperature is too warm, an economizer will in a loss of efficiency, because the air-conditioning
not cycle on. Some economizers have a feature called compressor would still need to run to remove all the
enthalpy control. This means the economizer senses moisture brought in from outside. This shows the
and responds to outdoor air humidity, in addition to importance of using enthalpy control with an econo-
outdoor air temperature. If outdoor air humidity is too mizer. Humidity matters to human comfort.
high, an economizer will not cycle on. Remember that
Air Sample Heat Content
enthalpy is a term referring to a substance's total heat
60°P at 5% rh 15 Btu/lb
content. Humid air, which is saturated with moisture,
60°P at 100% rh 26.5 Btu/lb
has a higher heat content than dry air (low humidity).
go P at 15% rh
0
23.5 Btu/lb
In the following example, refer to Figure 33-11. If
indoor air temperature is go P and outdoor air is 60°P,
0 Enthalpy control is important because part of com-
economizer operation could cool a building. It would fort is regulating humidity levels. If outdoor air tem-
cool a building well if outdoor air had low relative perature is low but humidity is high, an economizer

I
humidity (Point A). Air at this point would have only could fill a building with moderately cool but humid
air. Occupants would want to run the air conditioning
to remove the humidity. In such cases, it is usually bet-
ter to just run the air conditioning to cool indoor air,
.35 rather than have to remove so much humidity.
~
I
160 40 ~
.45 ~ Pro Tip
140 a:
50
1:c Stuck Economizer Louvers
120
.60 0)
:;; If an RTU customer complains about uncomfort-
100 .70 -~ able indoor conditions, consider whether their econo-
.80 c7!
.90
mizer has been properly maintained. Sometimes an
80 '.a
economizer's outdoor air intake louvers can become
~
60 ·E stuck open. Such improper operation of economizers
.!!!
can disrupt indoor climate or at least decrease system
efficiency. Economizers should be checked for proper
operation at every service call.

Point A Dry-BulbTemperature(' F) Point B

33.1.3 Comfort Cooling Controls
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Many of the controls used in residential air condi-
Figure 33-11. A psychrometric chart examining the heat
content of outdoor air for use by an economizer. Note how air tioning are also used in commercial air conditioning.
at 60°F can have different enthalpy (heat content level) based Thermostats monitor indoor air temperature. Various
on its relative humidity. Moisture in the air greatly affects heat motor controls turn on and off compressors and blower
content and human comfort. motors. Many similarities exist.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

866 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Some systems cycle off based on low-side pressure. • Thermostat (24 V or 120 V) to control temperature
While the thermostat monitors conditioned space temper- within the conditioned space.
ature, its switch controls a solenoid valve mounted in the • Evaporator ice monitoring control (freezestat),
liquid line. When room temperature reaches the thermo- two-wire 24 V or 120 V, to control dampers, valves,
stat's cut-off temperature, the thermostat opens a circuit or compressors when the evaporator temperature
controlling the solenoid valve. De-energizing this circuit approaches 32°F (0°C).
causes the solenoid valve to close and block the liquid line,
• Multiple compressor sequence starting controls.
preventing refrigerant from entering the evaporator.
The compressor continues to run momentarily, • Multicylinder compressor unloading sequencing
pumping down the low-side of the system. This controls.
reduces low-side pressure until the low-side pressure • Zoning damper controls.
switch opens the compressor's motor circuit, stopping
the compressor. The low-side pressure control moni- Limit Controls
tors suction pressure and is connected in series with Comfort cooling systems use several types of limit
the motor starter's coil. See Figure 33-12. HVACR controls:
systems with different capacities and different refrig-
• Motor limit controls.
erants will shut off the compressor at different pres-
sures. A high-side pressure switch is also provided in • Pressure limit controls.
this control. The control will stop the compressor if the • Temperature limit controls.
high-side pressure exceeds a preset limit. Commercial systems are usually equipped with
Controls commonly found in comfort cooling sys- pressure controls. The low-side and high-side pressure
tems include the following: controls are usually designed to lock the compressor

Liquid line
solenoid valve
Relay
coil

Pressure
control
Low High
side side
Low-voltage
------+-transformer

Motor starter Relay

coil Motor
contact
starter

Compressor
motor

Line

Motor starter
contacts
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 33-12. Comfort cooling system wiring diagram. Note that the thermostat operates the solenoid valve. The system cycles
as low-side pressures vary. The compressor low-pressure cut-out is reached once the refrigerant solenoid valve closes. Cut-out
pressures are determined by the cooling capacity and type of refrigerant used in the system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 867

circuit open if any unusual pressures occur. These con-

trols are safety devices. They operate only if a potential
problem develops. They prevent devices, such as the
compressor, from being damaged. If a control deacti-
vates a system, the operator should carefully check the
system for faults before turning it back on. A combina-
tion low-pressure and high-pressure control is shown
in Figure 33-13.

Caution
Manual Reset Controls
Do not replace manual reset controls with auto-
matic reset controls. A manual reset demands the atten- High-pressure
tion of the operator and signals something is wrong and connection
High-pressure
Low-pressure
should be corrected. range indicator
connection
Emerson Climate Technologies
Motor limit controls will stop a motor if cur-
rent draw becomes too high. They will also stop the Figure 33-13. Combination low-pressure and high-pressure
control will shut off the compressor motor if system pressure
motor if the motor temperature rises to a dangerous reaches the low or high limits.
level. Motor limit controls, also called motor protection
devices, are described in detail in Chapter 16, Electrical
Control Systems.
Anti-icing control is another type of temperature
limit control. Anti-icing control is often called a freeze-
stat. It monitors the temperature of the evaporator. If
ice accumulates on the evaporator, this control stops
the cooling system, allowing the ice to melt.

Sequential Controls
Sequencing adjusts equipment operation to meet
demand so the system performs at peak efficiency.
Large cooling systems use sequencing to operate
multiple compressors or condenser fans. These sys-
tems are controlled by microprocessors, which deter-
mine the amount of cooling required. If the cooling
load is low, only one compressor and condenser fan
are energized. When the cooling load is high, the
second compressor and condenser are energized.
Compressor contactors Circuit board
Figure 33-14 shows the electrical controls of a con-
York International Corp., Unitary Products Group
densing unit that contains two compressors and two
condensers. Figure 33-14. Electrical control panel for condensing unit with
multiple compressors.
Pneumatic Control Systems
Many HVACR systems use electrical and electronic
The 12 psig system uses an operating pressure of
control systems. However, this is not the only way to
3 psig to 15 psig (20 kPa to 100 kPa). The 24 psig system
control a system. Some commercial air-conditioning
uses an operating pressure of 3 psig to 27 psig (20 kPa
systems use pneumatic control systems. Pneumatics is
to 185 kPa). Pressure regulators reduce the supply air
the use of pressurized air to perform certain mechani-
pressure. The supply air pressure for these systems is
cal actions.
as follows:
A pneumatic system's three main parts are pres-
sure-sensing devices, pneumatic controllers, and • 12 psig system = 18 psig to 20 psig (125 kPa to
pneumatic actuators. The main line supply pressures 140 kPa)
typically used are either 12 psig or 24 psig (83 kPa or • 24 psig system = 30 psig to 35 psig (205 kPa to
166 kPa). However, some systems operate at a vacuum. 240 kPa)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

868 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Pneumatic thermostats are controlled by a pres- A diagram of the control system of a typical rooftop
surized air line. Air in pneumatic lines can be used to unit is shown in Figure 33-18.
operate pneumatic motors. These consist of a piston in If the rooftop system has a gas furnace, the gas piping
a cylinder or pressing against a diaphragm. Pneumatic must be installed according to the appropriate code. Pipes
motors can be used to operate dampers, valves, and must be supported and protected. Figure 33-19 shows
switches. Pneumatic signals can also be conditioned a typical installation for a 1 1/4" gas line. Note that two
to provide a signal to system controls. Pneumatic con-
trols are often used in large commercial and industrial
systems. These control systems should be thoroughly
checked each month.

33.1.4 Installing Rooftop Units

Rooftop units are heavy. They often contain all the
heating and cooling equipment for part of a building in
a single package. Heavy equipment is needed to move
RTUs up to a rooftop. Riggers usually handle their initial
installation, removal, and replacement, Figure 33-15.
Rooftop units must be installed using meth-
ods that will provide a leakproof roof connection.
Installation is usually made as shown in Figure 33-16.
Acoustical material is often used for deadening
sound. A resilient (flexible) gasket is installed between
the rooftop base rail and the top edge of the roof
curb. This gasket is very important. If it is not tightly
installed, there may be leaks. One method used to
make the roof leakproof is shown in Figure 33-17.
The electrical connections to a rooftop unit must Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
comply with local codes. The control system is usually the Figure 33-15. Riggers securing straps to a rooftop unit before
responsibility of a refrigeration installation technician. it is moved using a crane.

Service Call Scenario

33A: Commercial Rooftop Unit-No Cooling cartridge fuses have been blown. To confirm his diagnosis,
he removes the fuses and tests them for continuity. The
Customer Complaint: No Cooling readings read infinity, indicating an open fuse element.
Possible Causes: Blown fuses, power outage, defective After consulting with Mr. Turner, Keith is informed that the
circuit breakers in electrical panel. unit had been operating during an electrical storm, and
Description of Problem: Mr. Turner, owner of a 4000 ft 2 stopped working thereafter. He then informs Mr. Turner of
commercial building, has reported that the rooftop air the issues and offers solutions and the costs. Mr. Turner
conditioner is not cooling. Prior to arriving at the jobsite, agrees to have Keith perform the needed service.
the technician, Keith, reviews the work order. Upon Solution: Keith replaces the fuses and starts up
arriving at the building, he identifies himself to Mr. Turner the system. He checks all operations upon starting
and listens carefully to his comments. and restarting and notes no complication. The unit's
Testing: Keith places the wall thermostat to call for temperatures and pressures are within normal ranges.
cooling. Next, he sets his ladder correctly to reach the The unit is now cooling. Keith provides Mr. Turner with
roof. He observes the system's operation. He notes very the bill and informs him that a follow-up call will occur.
quickly that both the compressor and the condenser fan Safety: Remember to always practice good electrical
motor are not in operation. This triggers Keith to perform safety procedures when accessing electrical panels.
a voltage check at the unit's electrical disconnect. He When using a ladder, be certain to follow approved
finds that the supply source voltage is present, but that the safety procedures.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 869

2" acoustic fiberglass,

3# density within
curb on top of Center discharge
metal roof deck between trusses

6" x 2" channels both

sides over metal
roof deck

I
Acoustic duct Acoustic
liner inside connection duct liner Suspended Acoustically lined
outside ceiling tee with minimum
Balancing
5' legs
damper
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 33-16. Installation details of a complete rooftop unit.

1 1 Rooftop unit
: : / base rail
II
II 11
II 11
11
II 11
11
II
II 11 Resilient gasket
II l1
11 r---1 I
I I _____ ,.I
I.,

I
I
12"
Counter flashing - standard
curb

Roofing felts

Insulation and 2" acoustic fiberglass

roof deck Roof
reinforcement
channels
(both sides of curb)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 33-17. A gasket between the roof curb and the base rail of the rooftop unit prevents water from leaking into the building.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

870 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Refrigeration section
Remote monitoring panel
RMA & RMF (gas and electric)-13 wires }
:o: :o:
8 8
:o:
-,;_ ;o:
D-+---- Zone thermostat
control panel RMA & RMF (glycol) and RMC-12 wires :o: ;,,:
RMH (gas and electric)-? wires 120 volts • _______________ _
Refrigeration ,.............._...,___ __, RMH (glycol)-6 wires • _______________________________ _
lockout

Evaporator
coil
t

Cold deck limit

Conditioned
air

Main
blower fan

Reheat refrigerant coil

Hot deck thermistor

Exhaust fan contactor

NOTE: Remote monitoring panel and zone thermostats

to be field wired to terminal blocks in multizone
--
Mixed and exhaust air damper
operator with minimum position switch

000000099999
3 low voltage

J
wires per
zone

unit forward control compartment.

Zonethermostat : : : :-~----~Toother
terminal block : : '- - - - - zone
'- _-_-_-_- -_-_ thermostats

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 33-18. Electronic control system for rooftop unit. Red arrows indicate direction of airflow.

1 1/2"
diameter hole
Unit base
frame

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 33-19. Fuel gas line installation on rooftop system. A hand shutoff valve (A) is mounted outside of the rooftop unit for easy access.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 871

hand shutoff valves are used. One is located outside the 33.1.5 Servicing Rooftop Units Safely
rooftop unit's case. It will permit emergency shutdown of
the furnace in case of accident or fire. Rooftop units include the same basic components as
traditional refrigeration systems: evaporator, compressor,
Code Alert condenser, and metering device. Some rooftop units oper-
ate as heat pumps. Other units include components for gas
Gas Piping to a Rooftop Unit or electric heating. The service procedures performed on a
According to the International Fuel Gas Code, gas rooftop unit are essentially the same as those performed
piping installed outdoors (including on rooftops) must be on ground level heating and cooling systems. However,
elevated at least 3 1/2" above the roof surface. It should
since the system is located on the top of a building, addi-
also be securely supported and installed in a way that
tional care must be taken to perform the work safely.
it is protected from physical damage. Where gas pipe
passes through an outside wall, it should be protected
Use all possible safety precautions when climb-
from corrosion by coating or wrapping it with an inert ing to the roof. If a portable ladder is used, it must be
material. When piping is in a protective sleeve, the securely and firmly based on the ground. It must lean
space between the piping and sleeve must be sealed. against the building at a moderate angle with its base 1'
away from the vertical wall for every 4' of vertical rise.
Some RTUs use piped-in hot water or steam to This will keep it from falling away from the building.
provide heating. Piping for these systems must be It also must extend 3' above the roof edge.
carefully installed to avoid air traps and freezing. Use both hands on the ladder when climbing or
Hot water systems usually use a nonfreezing solution descending a ladder. A portable ladder should not be
composed of water and ethylene glycol. Figure 33-20 used in high or gusty wind conditions. Be especially
shows the piping for a steam system. careful if it is raining or snowing. Do not attempt to
carry equipment or supplies up or down a ladder. Lift
tool boxes, refrigerant cylinders, and other objects with
a rope. The rope should be guided from below.
Return
from rooftop I t
Supply to rooftop unit Extreme caution must be used while working on or
near electrical circuits. Hinged panels must be secured
unit t in the open position. Otherwise, the wind may swing
Strainer
them violently and injure someone. Loose panels must
Gate valve
be held down securely to prevent wind blowing them
Combination float and
thermostatic trap off the roof. If a system is equipped with gas or oil burn-
ers, avoid breathing fumes coming out of the flue.
When working on rooftop units in cold weather, use
1/2" check valve gloves and hand warmers. Some technicians prefer por- .
for vacuum - - + - ~
table heaters. In windy weather, set up a windbreak to
breaking
Strainer
provide wind shelter. If the wind is strong, use a safety I
belt. The belt should be attached to a solid part of the unit.
When working on rooftop units in hot, sunny
weather, shield the tools from the sun. Metal can
become so hot it will burn your hands. When work-
6" di rt pocket ---. ing under sunny conditions, be sure to wear sunblock
and drink enough water. Wear gloves when handling
Combination float sun-heated access panels. Wear a hard hat and goggles
and thermostatic t r ~ under all conditions and rubber gloves when working
Gate valve To on electrical circuits.
boiler
JI 33.1.6 Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Systems
Figure 33-20. Steam pipe installation for steam heating As discussed in previous chapters, variable refrig-
system used on rooftop unit. More than one steam path is erant flow (VRF) systems are very efficient and quiet.
provided. This helps prevent restricted flow if one section is
They continuously vary compressor and fan operation
partially closed. Balance is improved.
to match the refrigerant flow needed for cooling capac-
ity. VRF systems can be used to meet the needs of many

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

872 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

occupants in a large commercial building. Examples VRF outdoor units

include buildings that have offices with workers on
different hours or groups that may work on a weekend
while the majority of the building is vacant.
Typical outdoor VRF units can connect to multiple
indoor coils. These systems are especially well-suited
for building environments in which individual floors
or rooms require zoning. Multiple outdoor units may
be roof mounted to provide heating and cooling to
large office complexes, Figure 33-21.
VRF systems are also efficient at regulating the
heating or cooling in one set of offices that may have
a greater solar load than another set of offices on the
other side of the building. Figure 33-22 illustrates the
zoning that is possible in an office building that uses
a VRF system.
The length of piping is an important design con- Tubing raceways
sideration in VRF systems. Pumping of refrigerant RectorSeal

above 150' in height results in too great of a pressure Figure 33-21. Multiple VRF outdoor units mounted on the roof
drop in the lines. Large office towers that exceed this of a bank. Notice the different tubing raceways protecting the
may split the arrangement of outdoor units. Rooftop refrigerant line sets.
units are used to supply the upper floors. Ground units
feed the lower floors.
Heating and cooling multiple zones in a VRF sys-
tem is accomplished a number of different ways. Some
VRF units use electric heaters or energy recovery mod- Touch
Panel
ules. Other systems use heat recovery. This method Controller
uses a third tube between indoor and outdoor units
that allows refrigerant flow to be directed for the trans-
fer of refrigerant between the indoor coils. As some Central
Remote
indoor coils are operating as evaporators, other indoor Controller
coils are operating as condensers, Figure 33-23.
Ventilation in commercial buildings is a critical
component in maintaining a healthy indoor environ- Fujitsu General America, Inc.
ment. ASHRAE standards require a certain amount of Figure 33-22. A VRF system with multiple outdoor units and
outside air to be brought into a room per hour and indoor units used in an office building to precisely control
also specify the number of air changes based on occu- temperatures to different zones.
pancy of a building. VRF systems in large buildings
can achieve air filtration, ventilation, and humidity
Heat exchanger
control through the use of air handlers. Ductwork - High-pressure liquid
Low.pressure gas
is significantly smaller in new construction VRF High-pressure gas
applications as it serves only for air circulation and
humidification.

33.2 Chillers RB unit

. _ ,._,.,,- Heat
Chillers are cooling systems that use a loop of exchanger
chilled water (instead of forced air) to provide cool- IIndoor unit
ing to a conditioned area. In a chiller system, a refrig- EEV
eration system is used to cool water. This refrigeration
system can be either a mechanical system (using a Fujitsu General America, Inc.
compressor) or an absorption system. The cold water Figure 33-23. Heat recovery operation in a VRF system.
is circulated through a building to provide cooling Some indoor coils provide heating, while other indoor coils
to the occupied spaces. Chillers are primarily used provide cooling.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 873

in larger industrial and commercial air-conditioning through a building, the water absorbs and removes
and refrigeration applications. Chillers can range from heat from the conditioned spaces.
20-ton to 2000-ton capacity. The popularity of chill- Other secondary refrigerants commonly used in
ers is due in large part to their cost-effectiveness as chillers include salt-based brines (calcium-chloride and
a result of low energy consumption during part-load sodium-chloride), glycol-based fluids (ethylene and
and full-load operation. propylene glycols), and solutions for low-temperature
heat transfer (methylene chloride, trichloroethylene,
Pro Tip and acetone). Brines are often used as secondary refrig-
Hybrid Chiller Systems erants for low-temperature refrigeration systems.
The primary refrigerant in a chiller system
In some regions, it may be cost-effective to install
a hybrid gas and electric chiller system. This type of absorbs heat from the secondary refrigerant and
system allows the owners to switch between gas and rejects the heat from the system. A number of com-
electric chillers, depending on which energy source is mon refrigerants are used as primary refrigerants in
the least expensive at a given time. chillers, such as R-22 and R-123, R-134a, and ammonia.
The phaseout of R-22 has resulted in the introduction
There are two main types of chillers: compression of chillers designed for use with R-134a, R-410A, and
chillers and absorption chillers. Compression chillers R-407C. The efficiency of an R-410A system is actually
are discussed in this chapter. Absorption chillers are higher than the efficiency of the R-22 system that it
discussed in Chapter 34, Absorption and Evaporative replaces. R-134a can be used as a retrofit refrigerant
Cooling Systems. for systems that used R-22.
Compression chillers use two different refriger-
ants: a primary refrigerant and a secondary refrigerant. Caution
The secondary refrigerant is a fluid that is circulated to
Refrigerant System Pressures
absorb heat from a conditioned space. Water is commonly
Refrigeration systems using R-407C and R-410A
used as the secondary refrigerant in chillers designed for
operate at higher pressures than R-22 systems. R-407C
comfort cooling applications. Water is fluid, inexpensive,
and R-410A should only be used in systems designed
nontoxic, and mostly noncorrosive, making it an excellent specifically for their use.
secondary refrigerant. As a chiller circulates cool water

Service Call Scenario

33B: Commercial Packaged Unit-Insufficient be caused by a plugged filter-drier that may be restricting
Cooling refrigerant flow. He notifies Mr. Atek of the issue and
recommends that the filter-drier be replaced and the
Customer Complaint: Insufficient Cooling system be recharged. Mr. Atek agrees to have him
Possible Causes: Low refrigerant charge, defective perform these services.
metering device, defective filter drier. Solution: Matt recovers the refrigerant, removes the
Description of Problem: Mr. Atek, owner of a plugged filter-drier, and brazes in a new filter-drier. He
commercial building, reports that the air-conditioning then evacuates the system and recharges it to system
unit does not appear to be cooling. Prior to arrival at the specifications. System pressures and temperatures are
location, the technician, Matt, reviews the work order. checked and all operations are within normal readings.
Upon arriving at the business, he identifies himself to The system is now cooling satisfactorily. Matt then
Mr. Atek and listens carefully to his comments. provides Mr. Atek with a bill and informs him that a
Testing: With the thermostat calling for cooling, Matt follow-up call will occur.
installs his gauge manifold and observes the system Safety: When working with high-pressure systems,
pressures. He visually inspects the entire unit. He notes remember protection is needed for eyes and hands.
frosting at the outlet of the liquid line filter-drier. A check When using torches, follow all safety precautions, and
of the system's pressures reveals that both the low- make sure all refrigerant has been recovered. When
and high-side pressures are dropping along with the refrigerant and open flame are combined, toxic and fatal
compressor amperage. Matt determines that this could gases are produced. Good ventilation is required.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

874 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

A compression chiller has many of the same basic evaporator, refrigerant is fed into the evaporator at
components as a standard mechanical air conditioner: the same rate that it evaporates. This prevents large
compressor, condenser, refrigerant metering device, amounts of liquid refrigerant from pooling in the
and evaporator. These components are larger in a com- evaporator. Water flowing around the evaporator coil
pression chiller in order to accommodate the increased is cooled as the refrigerant evaporates inside the coil.
amount of refrigerant in the system. In a chiller system, The chilled water is then distributed to cooling loops
the evaporator, compressor suction line, and chilled throughout the building, Figure 33-25.
liquid lines are always insulated. The evaporator cools Heat from inside a building transfers to the cool
the water. This cold water is then pumped to the condi- water inside the cooling loops, lowering the room tem-
tioned spaces of a building, where it absorbs heat. perature and raising the temperature of the cooling
The compressors used in chiller systems can be her- water. The warm water returns to the chiller, where it
metic, semi-hermetic, external direct drive, or open drive. is once again cooled and recirculated.
Condensers can be evaporative, air-cooled, or water- Many chillers use a water-cooled condenser in
cooled. Air-cooled and water-cooled are the most com- combination with a cooling tower. The water circuit for
mon. Thermostatic expansion valves (TXVs) are the most the condenser is completely separate from the evapo-
popular type of refrigerant metering device used in chill- rator's water circuit. These two groups never meet or
ers. Other components used in chiller systems can include mix. See Figure 33-26.
liquid receivers, water-side economizers, and subcoolers. Cooling tower water enters a water-cooled con-
Optional accessories include an oil cooler, oil separator, denser where it absorbs heat from the condensing
purge unit, oil pump, and refrigerant transfer unit. refrigerant. The water is then sent to a cooling tower
Chillers can be used for large industrial process in which the water is drained or sprayed from the top.
cooling or to cool large commercial buildings. Several As the water falls toward the bottom, it is cooled by
chiller units can be connected in parallel to provide evaporation. Occasionally, forced-air fans are used in
adequate capacity for large cooling loads. A single a cooling tower to aid evaporation. The cooled water
chiller might use multiple compressors connected returns through water pumps back to the condenser.
in parallel and one refrigerant circuit. Such systems Figure 33-27 shows the flow of the water through a
require sophisticated control for optimum efficiency. water-cooled condenser and cooling tower.
Figure 33-24 shows a chiller with multiple compres- Chiller efficiency is determined by the tempera-
sors and an air-cooled condenser used for an ice arena. ture of chilled water leaving the chiller and the tem-
The evaporators used in chiller systems are usually perature of return water entering the chiller. The
the direct-expansion (dry) type. In a direct-expansion AHRI standard recommends that chiller evaporators

Service Call Scenario

33C: Commercial Rooftop Unit-Lack of Cooling and is drawing a high amperage. The low-side pressure is
also higher than normal. Aroon concludes that the unit is
Customer Complaint: Lack of Cooling extremely overcharged. He informs Mr. Sharma of the issue
Possible Causes: Overcharged system, malfunctioning and offers a solution and the cost for such. Mr. Sharma
compressor, defective condenser fan motor. agrees to have Aroon perform the needed service.
Description of Problem: Mr. Sharma, owner of a small Solution: Aroon begins by recovering the refrigerant.
machinery shop, has reported that the rooftop unit is not He then evacuates the system and recharges using the
cooling. Prior to arriving at the jobsite, the technician, subcooling method. The remaining system operations are
Aroon, reviews the work order. Upon arriving at the examined and all appear to be operational. The pressures
building, Aroon identifies himself to Mr. Sharma and have returned to normal and the system is now producing
listens carefully to his comments. Mr. Sharma shares that a cooling effect. Aroon provides Mr. Sharma with the bill
the unit has been experiencing difficulty lately and that and informs him that a follow-up call will occur.
he had, in fact, had another company out for repairs. He Safety: Always wear eye protection and gloves when
indicates that the other company was unable to repair the charging refrigerant. Most refrigerants need to be liquid
unit and expresses his dissatisfaction with that company. charged, and if not careful when charging, they could
Testing: Aroon installs his gauge manifold to determine cause instant frostbite to skin or eyes. Eye and hand
the system pressures. The high-side pressure is very high protection can prevent serious injuries.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 875

Compressors Water-circulating
pumps
A

Air-cooled
~ ---condenser

I
Water-circulating
pump

B
Zero Zone, Inc.
Figure 33-24. Chiller unit using multiple reciprocating compressors. A-Front view. B-Close-up rear view of the same system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

876 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Suction
line

Metering
device
Liquid
line

• Cool water D Low-pressure refrigerant vapor • High-pressure liquid refrigerant

• Warm water D High-pressure refrigerant vapor
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 33-25. In this chiller system, the water leaves the chiller's evaporator at 45°F (7°C). It circulates throughout the building,
picking up heat, and returns to the evaporator at 55°F (13°C). This chiller system uses a water-cooled condenser and cooling
tower to reject heat to the outside of the building.

operate at a 44°F (7°C) chilled water temperature with High-pressure chillers are compression chillers that
a water inlet temperature at 54°F (l2°C). The efficiency operate under high pressures. They are used primar-
of a chiller's matching water-cooled condenser is also ily for commercial and industrial process cooling. The
monitored. It should have a condenser inlet water tem- high operational pressure will determine the size of
perature of 85°F (29°C) and an outlet water tempera- the unit needed to accomplish the cooling task. For
ture of 94°F (34°C). These temperatures can be used example, a 400-ton unit may be required in order to
in order to determine if the chiller is operating within maintain the desired temperatures in a 20-story com-
design parameters. mercial office building.

33.2.1 High-Pressure Compression Chillers 33.2.2 Low-Pressure Compression Chillers

Chillers can be categorized by their operating pres- Low-pressure chillers are typically centrifugal
sures. They are either high-pressure or low-pressure. chillers charged with R-123. A portion of these systems

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 877

Warm water ~ t Chilled water

from building in to building out

TXV

- - - Sight glass Chiller

(evaporator)

Heat exchanger

Compressor

valve

Condenser

Cooling tower water lines

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 33-26_ In a chiller system, the condenser water circuit and the evaporator water circuit are completely separate.

Cooling tower
Baffles

TXV
Blower

Ambient
.,,, ,,,,,
.,,,,, ,,,,,
::::
I
I
I
I
-----------,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
air in .,,,,, ,,,- I I
Pressure
_,,,,,,, IL Evaporator I motor control
---------- _.J

• Hot water
• Coldwater
D High-pressure vapor
D Low-pressure vapor Compressor
• High-pressure liquid Water pump
• Low-pressure liquid
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 33-27. Chiller using a water-cooled condenser and cooling tower for heat rejection.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

878 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

operate under low atmospheric pressures (200 kPa) Secondary Emission-Collection Devices
while operating at typical conditions for cooling. This As previously mentioned, when purge units
enables them to produce very low evaporator tem- remove air from a system, a certain amount of refrig-
peratures. Most of the components in a low-pressure erant is removed with it. If the air is purged to the
chiller are similar to those of the high-pressure system. atmosphere, so is the refrigerant. If a secondary emis-
Therefore, the operation is very similar. High-pressure sion-collection device like a charcoal canister or molec-
and low-pressure centrifugal chillers are almost iden- ular sieve canister is installed between the purge unit
tical. However, due to lower operating pressures, low- and vent, it can capture most of the refrigerant that
pressure chillers are not as heavily constructed as escapes during the purging operation, preventing it
high-pressure systems. from being released to the atmosphere. If a charcoal
canister is used, the refrigerant it captures is nonre-
Purge Units coverable. The canister has a specific capacity and is
The evaporators in some low-pressure chillers replaced once it has reached that limit.
operate in a vacuum. Since it is difficult to have a per-
fectly sealed system, some air and moisture are likely Thinking Green
to leak in over time. Noncondensables, such as air
and moisture, that enter a system reduce the system's
Secondary Emission-Collection Devices
cooling capacity. The compressor must still perform By using a secondary emission-collection device,
like a charcoal canister, in combination with a high-effi-
work to move the noncondensables through the sys-
ciency purge unit, it is possible to reduce purging-related
tem, but they do not contribute to the cooling effect.
refrigerant emissions to less than 0.0005 lb of refriger-
Noncondensables in the system tubing also reduce the ant for every pound of air purged from the system.
heat exchanging capability of the system. Any mois-
ture in the system can form acids, which increase cor-
rosion and can lead to compressor failure. 33.2.3 Chiller Compressors
A purge unit is an auxiliary component designed Various types of compressors are used in chillers.
to remove noncondensables in order to preserve sys- Some of the more common types (reciprocating, scroll,
tem efficiency and prevent damage. The drawbacks of screw, and centrifugal) are discussed in the following
purge units are that they are another component that sections. Additional information on compressors can
requires service, and they also release small amounts be found in Chapter 18, Compressors. As stated, the
of refrigerant to the atmosphere as they remove the major difference between compressors used in chill-
noncondensables. Due to the increasing price of ers and those used in other applications is their size.
refrigerants and the ever-increasing emphasis on the Chiller compressors are generally much larger. The
environment, high-efficiency purge units have been basic operation of the compressors is the same, how-
developed. ever. The type of compressor used in an installation
Most high-efficiency purge units come with micro- depends on the number of tons of air conditioning
processor-based data logging and diagnostic capabili- needed.
ties. The function of a purge unit is to maintain a system The motors that are used to drive chiller compres-
free of air and moisture. Moisture can cause the forma- sors can be either open-drive or closed-drive types.
tion of acids that will attack the system's internal com- Open-drive motors are exposed and are cooled by
ponents. Removing noncondensables from a system air in the room. Open-drive motors produce a large
restores peak efficiency and prevents the damage asso- amount of heat, which must be exhausted from the
ciated with acid formation. A purge unit runs only when equipment room.
needed, and should pump out noncondensables within Closed-drive motors are hermetically sealed inside
2 to 3 minutes. Cycle times that exceed this may indicate a case and are cooled by refrigerant. This reduces the
that the system has developed a significant leak. amount of motor heat that radiates into the equipment
room. Closed-drive motors are frequently used in
Thinking Green 80-ton to 2000-ton systems.
Upgrading to High-Efficiency Purge Units Natural gas engines can also be used to drive
Purge unit efficiency is determined in accordance chiller compressors. Scroll compressors and recipro-
with AHRI Standard 580. Older, inefficient purge units cating compressors are used with natural gas engines
could release as much as 10 lb of refrigerant for every in low-capacity systems of 30 tons or less. An engine-
1 lb of air removed. Some of today's high-efficiency driven chiller system operates the same as any other
purge units release less than 0.1 lb of refrigerant for chiller system. The only difference is the type of drive,
every 1 lb of air purged. Figure 33-28.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 879

Condenser

Hot refrigerant Warm refrigerant

vapor liquid

Gas Expansion
engine Compressor
valve

Cold refrigerant Cold refrigerant

vapor liquid

Evaporator

Warm water Cool water

Cooling coils
in building
compressors
Tecagen, Inc.
Figure 33-28. This flowchart shows the operation of a Zera Zane, Inc.
chiller system that uses a natural gas engine to rotate the Figure 33-29. Chiller system using multiple reciprocating
compressor. compressors.

Reciprocating Compressor Chillers system is included on all reciprocating compressors

Large reciprocating compressors operate like 5 hp and over. The majority of wear on a compres-
other reciprocating compressors. They are used in sor occurs during start-up because the oil pressure
chiller systems with capacities ranging from 10 to has not yet been established. The compressor must
150 tons. These compressors can be either hermetic or be running in order for lubricants to reach many of
semi-hermetic. The main benefits of reciprocating com- the high-friction areas of the compressor. It is neces-

I
pressors are simple controls, low cost, and efficiency sary to reduce pumping capacity on start-up in order
in low-capacity applications. However, the drawbacks to reduce the load on poorly lubricated surfaces and
to reciprocating compressors are greater maintenance to alleviate temperature fluctuations and unnecessary
requirements due to numerous moving parts and high cycling of the unit.
levels of noise and vibration. Cylinder Unloading I
As many as twelve cylinders may be needed on a Cylinder unloading is the disabling or reducing
large reciprocating compressor in order to produce the of a reciprocating compressor's cylinder pumping abil-
needed pumping capacity. This makes large reciprocat- ity. Unloading one or more of the compressor cylinders
ing compressors more costly and less energy efficient reduces the overall capacity of a reciprocating chiller.
than other types of compressors with equivalent capac- For example, if a compressor has eight cylinders and
ity. Therefore, most manufacturers no longer use one the cylinders are unloaded in pairs, the capacity would
large reciprocating compressor in a system. Instead, decrease by 25% per unloading step:
multiple smaller compressors are used. This arrange-
ment provides a backup if one compressor should fail. • 8 cylinders operating = 100% capacity
Multiple compressors also allow for increased capac- • 6 operating, 2 unloaded = 75% capacity
ity control and give operators the ability to maintain • 4 operating, 4 unloaded = 50% capacity
or service one compressor while the others remain in • 2 operating, 6 unloaded = 25% capacity
operation, Figure 33-29. Compressors are designed so that it is not possible
The refrigerants most frequently used with recipro- to unload all of the cylinders at the same time. If all of
cating systems are R-500, R-502, and R-134a. The elimina- the cylinders were unloaded, the compressor could not
tion of R-12 and phaseout of R-22 has resulted in newer, move any refrigerant through the system. As a result,
more-efficient systems that operate on R-410A and R-407C. no oil would circulate back to the compressor. Since it
Reciprocating compressors have many moving would be without proper lubrication, the compressor
parts that create a lot of friction. A pressure lubrication would be damaged quickly.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

880 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Compressors will usually unload down to 25% and down, oil pressure builds, and the lubrication system
to 50% of their full-load pumping capacity. Cylinder begins working even though the cylinder is not pumping.
unloading reduces power consumption, since power When the oil pressure reaches normal levels, the cylin-
consumption is directly related to amperage draw der unloader can be deactivated so that the cylinder will
of the compressor motor. Pumping less refrigerant begin pumping normally again. In addition to reducing
requires less compressor motor amperage, which load during start-up, cylinder unloaders can also be used
reduces electrical power consumption. to decrease system capacity in order to reduce refrigera-
There are different methods of cylinder unloading. tion effect when it is not needed. Unloaders can also be
Two common methods are to block a cylinder's intake used to reduce electrical power consumption.
passage or to hold open a cylinder's suction intake valve.
A cylinder can be unloaded by using a solenoid valve Scroll Compressor Chillers
to block the suction passage to a cylinder. This prevents Scroll compressors are positive-displacement com-
vapor from reaching the cylinder, Figure 33-30. pressors. They are welded-hermetic units and have capac-
Suction valve lifting refers to holding the suction ities in the 10- to 25-ton range. In multiple-compressor
valve open while the compressor is pumping. When chiller systems, capacity control is maintained by cycling
the suction valve is held open, refrigerant is drawn into the compressors on and off in increments of 10 and
the cylinder normally on the intake stroke, but is forced 15 tons. For example, a 25-ton chiller would be equipped
back through the suction valve during the compres- with a 10-ton and a 15-ton compressor. Capacity would
sion stroke. Since pressure is lower on the suction side be controlled by running both compressors, running just
where the intake valve is held open, refrigerant flows the 10-ton compressor, or running just the 15-ton com-
back, rather than pushing through into the discharge pressor. See Figure 33-31.
line. This action causes that cylinder to quit pumping. A scroll compressor contains two matching spi-
With either unloading method, the pressure on the ral scrolls. One is attached to a flat base and faces one
cylinder walls and bearings in the compressor is reduced, direction. The other scroll faces the other direction
decreasing friction. This helps reduce wear on the com- and is connected to the motor by a turning assembly,
pressor during start-up. Because the piston still moves up Figure 33-32.

Solenoid-operated
unloading valve

In from
- evaporator

Out to
--condenser

Suction
Suction valve
valve Piston Discharge
Discharge valve
valve
Piston

Crankshaft
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 33-30. In this cylinder unloader, a solenoid-operated valve closes the intake passage.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 881

The two scrolls are sandwiched together, which pocket (volume). When the refrigerant vapor arrives at
creates pockets of space along the scroll walls. One the center of the scrolls, it is compressed to the maxi-
scroll orbits around the stationary scroll. As gas enters mum capabilities of the compressor. It is then dis-
the scroll, it is progressively compressed into a smaller charged out of compressor, Figure 33-33.
Scroll compressors are becoming increasingly
popular in comfort cooling. This is due in large part
to their small size, light weight, smooth operation, and
Discharge line relatively high efficiency. They are also quiet, have few
connection moving parts, and can pump small amounts of liq-
uid refrigerant without compressor damage. The pri-
mary drawbacks of scroll compressors are that they
cannot be repaired and that they may lose oil at low
temperature.
Lubrication for a scroll compressor is provided by
an oil pump located at the bottom of the crankshaft. A
scroll compressor has a check valve to prevent back-
ward flow of refrigerant when the system is shut down.
This check valve is necessary to prevent an equaliza-
tion of the high side to the low side of the system dur-
ing the Off cycle.

Suction line
connection
Bitzer
Figure 33-31. Tandem scroll compressor setup. Capacity can
be adjusted by cycling compressors on and off as needed.
Fixed
scroll

Refrigerant Orbiting
outlet scroll

Motor
I

Dantass
Figure 33-32. One of the scrolls used in a scroll compressor. Dantass
Refrigerant vapor enters at the outside edge of a pair of scrolls Figure 33-33. Hermetic scroll compressors often use the low-
and is gradually compressed as it travels toward the center of pressure suction vapor to cool the motor windings before the
the scrolls. vapor is compressed to the high side of the system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

882 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Screw Compressor Chillers Centrifugal Compressor Chillers

Screw compressors are most often used for larger- Many large comfort cooling installations use cen-
capacity chiller applications. These compressors are trifugal compressors due to their cost effectiveness for
available in capacities up to 750 tons and require the large loads (150 tons and up). An additional benefit of
use of high-pressure refrigerants. There are a number these compressors is their simple design and small
of benefits associated with screw compressors. These number of moving parts. Centrifugal compressor chill-
include a high output capacity, few moving parts, and ers can provide up to 2000 tons of cooling capacity with
the ability to pump some liquid refrigerant without a single compressor assembly; however, assemblies can
being damaged. Since few compressors are needed to have more than one compressor, Figure 33-35.
achieve high output, they offer greater piping flexibil- Centrifugal compressor chillers use low-pressure
ity. In addition, such systems require less interconnect- refrigerants, such as R-123. The evaporator in a sys-
ing piping, thereby lowering assembly time and costs, tem with a centrifugal compressor operates at below-
Figure 33-34. atmospheric pressure. These chillers have the capability
The capacity of most screw compressors is con- of handling large volumes of refrigerant. They use cen-
trolled with a slide valve. The slide valve blocks suc- trifugal force to compress the refrigerant and move it
tion gas prior to its entering the screws. The slide valve from the low side to the high side of the system. An
can adjust capacity from 10% to 100% of the load. impeller similar to a large fan creates a pressure dif-
Screw compressors pump a large amount of oil ferential from one side of the compressor (inlet pipe) to
while compressing refrigerant. Excessive oil in the the other (outlet pipe), Figure 33-36.
system will result in poor heat exchange and a loss of A high rotational speed is needed to generate suf-
capacity. An oil separator is used to return oil to the ficient centrifugal force to adequately compress the
compressor reservoir. Pressure differential moves the refrigerant vapor. In order to achieve that speed, a gear-
oil through the rotating parts of the compressor. box is installed between the motor and compressor.
The gearbox has two gears: a drive gear and a driven
gear. The drive gear is the larger gear, and the driven
gear is the smaller gear. Being smaller, the driven gear
turns the faster of the two. The shaft of the motor is
connected to the drive gear, and the compressor's
Controls and impeller shaft is connected to the driven gear. Because
wiring box Suction of the gearbox, the motor is able to turn the compressor
impeller at approximately 20,000-25,000 rpm. This is
much faster than the motor itself spins.

Building
water out Water-cooled Shell-and-tube
condenser condenser
McQuay International McQuay International
Figure 33-34. Chiller using two screw compressors Figure 33-35. Chiller using two centrifugal compressors
connected in parallel and a water-cooled condenser that connected in parallel and a water-cooled condenser that
connects to a cooling tower. connects to a cooling tower.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 883

Drive Driven and enters the evaporator. Since the refrigerant has been
Impeller gear gear Motor subcooled in the economizer, it is able to absorb more heat
before vaporizing in the evaporator.
Lubrication System
A separate motor drives an oil pump that pro-
vides lubrication to a centrifugal compressor. This is
usually accomplished by a 1/4 hp, three-phase motor
inside the oil sump. Because the oil pump is driven
by a separate motor, the lubrication system can deliver
oil to the critical parts of the compressor and gearbox
even before the compressor motor begins spinning
and while the compressor is coasting down at the end
of the compression cycle.
The lubrication system is a sealed system. Oil is
not mixed with the refrigerant. A heater is located in
the oil sump to help reduce refrigerant migration when
the system is off. However, some liquid refrigerant will
migrate to the sump, causing foaming for a few min-
utes after start-up. The compressor should be run at a
Intake Guide Discharge Volute reduced load until the foaming in the oil is reduced.
vane stator During operation, the oil is heated as it passes
McQuay International through the system lubrication components. The oil
Figure 33-36. This cutaway shows the inner parts of a also absorbs heat from the bearings. The oil in the
centrifugal compressor. The motor turns the impeller, which sump will reach 140°F to 160°F (60°C to 71°C). An oil
draws in and compresses refrigerant. Because the drive gear cooler prevents the oil from overheating during opera-
is much larger than the driven gear, the impeller spins much tion. In the oil cooler, the oil is cooled to approximately
faster than the motor turns. 120°F (49°C).

Pro Tip

I
Figure 33-37 shows a typical centrifugal compres- Centrifugal Compressor with Magnetic Bearings
sor chiller system. Both the condenser and the evapora- Some centrifugal compressors ride on friction-
tor have a shell-and-tube type build. The compressor is less magnetic bearings. These compressors require
a two-stage (dual compressor) centrifugal unit, driven no lubricant. They are driven by a direct-drive variable
by a hermetically sealed motor. Two-stage chillers take speed de motor. Capacities of this type of compressor
up less floor space and are less expensive to install than range from 60 to 300 tons. Such units are designed for
a setup of multiple single-stage compressors with the indoor nonfreezing installation only.
same capacity. This is due to elimination of piping to a
second chiller and pumps, fewer valves and controls, Capacity Control
and less rigging costs. Since multiple stages are used, The capacity of a centrifugal compressor is con-
each stage has less work to do. The lower compression trolled by adjusting guide vanes at the center of the
ratios in each stage result in lower operating tempera- impeller eye. The guide vanes are often referred to as
tures and greater efficiency. inlet guide vanes, and they serve two purposes. They
A compression chiller economizer improves sys- control the amount of refrigerant allowed to enter the
tem efficiency by subcooling high-side refrigerant before compressor, and they create a rotational flow in the
it enters the evaporator. Refrigerant from the compres- refrigerant that matches the rotation of the impeller.
sor passes through a metering device before it enters This reduces the drag on the compressor as the refrig-
the economizer. This reduces the pressure of the liquid erant enters.
refrigerant. Some of the refrigerant flashes off, which sub- A controller notes the operating conditions and
cools the remaining refrigerant. The flash gas is diverted sets the position of the inlet guide vanes accordingly.
to the space between the first stage and second stage of The guide vanes are operated by a pneumatic or elec-
the compressor, where it mixes with the refrigerant vapor tric motor. As vanes close, the entry angle of the gas to
leaving the first compressor stage. The cooled liquid from the impeller changes. This reduces gas flow as well as
the economizer passes through a second metering device compressor capacity. When the guide vanes are closed,

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

884 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Water-cooled
condenser

First-stage 1'('r Second-stage

impeller impeller
Inlet guide vanes r----:f,I V~rr=:::=.:v Motor

Compression
chiller economizer
Compressor

Chilled
water
.,_ Metering

~ ••••• ~m

D Low-pressure vapor
Chilled water • High-pressure liquid • Low-pressure liquid

Carrier Corporation, Subsidiary of United Technologies Corporation

Figure 33-37. This drawing shows the arrangement of the centrifugal compressor, condenser, and evaporator in a chiller system.
A compression chiller economizer is often used to allow removal of flash gas in the evaporator, increasing the effect of each
pound of refrigerant and reducing the compressor power requirement.

the compressor pumps at 15%-20% of its rated capac- 33.3 Cooling Towers
ity. When the guide vanes are open, the compressor
pumps at 100% of its capacity. Inlet guide vanes are Some water-cooled condensers use tap water for
automatically closed during start-up to reduce the cooling. This water is circulated through the condens-
starting load. er's water circuit and then discharged into the sewer.
Such an arrangement uses large amounts of water,
Operation which is wasteful and may be expensive. Moreover,
Most centrifugal compressor chillers use a control- many places do not allow the use of tap water for cool-
ler to adjust the refrigerant cycle as needed. Fluid flow ing condensers. Rather than consuming a constant
controls stop the system if chilled water flow ceases in demand for fresh water, engineers have devised meth-
a chiller. Pressure sensors and thermistors are placed ods of using a set amount of water for cooling a con-
throughout the system to monitor conditions. Controls denser over and over again. This device is a cooling
may be interfaced with a personal computer to operate tower.
and maintain a chiller system. A cooling tower is a structure that removes heat
from the cooling water of an HVACR system using the
Caution evaporation of water. Cooling water used in water-
cooled condensers is circulated through a cooling
Centrifugal Compressor Motor Rotation
tower to be cooled and recirculated for reuse. Water
The direction of motor rotation is critical in a cen-
exposed to flowing air promotes evaporation. As water
trifugal compressor chiller. If a motor starts in the wrong
evaporates, it absorbs heat, which produces the cooling
direction, it could damage the compressor. These
motors produce a large amount of heat, which must be
effect passed on to the remaining water, Figure 33-38.
exhausted from the equipment room. A cooling tower is a housing or shed into which
air is drawn. It has a series of spray nozzles or drain

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 885

Hot water in (95°F) Hot water in (95°F)

' '
Warm air out

Air inlet
louvers

Cooled water out (85°F)

Baltimore Aircoil Company
Figure 33-38. Diagram showing the operation of a typical cooling tower.

holes and baffled material fill. Water from the con- temperature. An equal amount of water can transfer
denser is routed through the cooling tower, where it more Btus heat than an equal amount of air. For these
is drops through the tower. As the water is exposed to reasons, water makes an excellent cooling medium in
the stream of air, some of it evaporates, and the rest of HVACR applications.
the water cools. For many cooling tower systems, hot vapor

I
The cooled water collects in a reservoir at the bot- refrigerant condenses in the condenser around ms°F
tom of the cooling tower. A float in the reservoir con- (40.5°C). Cooling tower water enters the condenser at
trols a shutoff valve in a water supply line. If the water 85°F (29.4°C). It absorbs about m°F (6°C) of sensible
level in the reservoir drops below a minimum level, heat in the condenser before circulating back to the
the float opens the water supply shutoff valve, allow- cooling tower at 95°F (35°C). Through evaporation, the
ing water to fill the reservoir. As the reservoir fills, the remaining water cools m°F (6°C) back to 85°F (29.4°C), I
float rises, gradually closing the shutoff valve. A water before flowing through the cycle again. When outdoor
pump draws cooled water from the reservoir and cir- air temperature is cooler, water temperature can drop
culates it through the condenser, Figure 33-39. even more. In general, the cooler the cooling water to
Cooling towers are available in a great range of the condenser, the more heat it can absorb. The more
sizes. Small ones may be used to cool the water-cooled heat that can be absorbed by the cooling water, the
condensers for a medium-sized commercial air condi- greater the subcooling and the more efficient system
tioner. Very large ones are required for cooling the con- operation becomes.
denser water in large steam power plants. Figure 33-40 As a cooling tower operates, water is lost in a vari-
shows a complete air-conditioning system equipped ety of ways. Some water evaporates while cooling the
with a cooling tower. rest of the water. Some water is broken into droplets
Cooling towers use evaporation to reduce the small enough to be caught in a draft and carried out
temperature of the water circulating through a con- through the louvers. Water loss in this manner is called
denser. The effectiveness of a cooling tower is partly drift. Some water is intentionally drained for the pur-
dependent on the humidity of the air flowing through pose of reducing certain mineral concentrations in the
it. The less humid the air is, the greater the cooling water. This is called blowdown. Water vapor, drift,
potential provided through evaporation. Because of and blowdown eventually lower the water level in the
the cooling effect of evaporation, a cooling tower can cooling tower sump enough that a float switch opens a
cool water to a level below that of the surrounding air valve to allow makeup water to replace what was lost.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

886 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Saturated air duct

Baffles

Blower

Ambient .,.,
air in .,,,;r
Makeup
water inlet

• Warm water
Cool water
D High-pressure vapor refrigerant Refrigerant
• High-pressure liquid refrigerant ___,.. out

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 33-39. The operation of a typical cooling tower is shown here. The cooling tower cools the condenser water, which is then
circulated through a condenser to condense and subcool the refrigerant.

Thinking Green 33.3.1 Cooling Tower Construction

Old and New Water Cooling Systems For cooling and evaporation to occur, moving
Older cooling systems only cycled water through air must contact cooling tower water. The larger the
their systems once before exhausting or draining the amount of water surface area that flowing air contacts,
water. Compared to older systems, modern cooling tow- the more evaporation will occur. To increase contact
ers use significantly less water by cooling and recircu- between air and water, structures called wet decks are
lating the same water over and over. Reusing cooled
placed within cooling towers, Figure 33-41.
water is more environmentally conscious and cost-
efficient than older water-cooled systems.
Wet decks are designed to maximize water and
air contact. They are made of components called fill.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 887

Saturated air out

Spray
nozzles Blower

' Ambient air in

Ma~eup ~
water inlet

TXV
------,
I
I
I
I
I
Overflow I
I Pressure
I
drain I motor control
I
I
I and starter
I
I
L __________ _
I
I

Filter-drier

t
Water pump

• Warm water
Cool water
D High-pressure vapor refrigerant
•
D
•
High-pressure liquid refrigerant
Low-pressure vapor refrigerant
Low-pressure liquid refrigerant
Compressor

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
I
Figure 33-40. An air-conditioning installation using cooling tower.

Fill is a specially designed sheet or structure with dif- more open to prevent clogging and allow easy access
ferent ridges, corrugations, or designs used to increase for cleaning by maintenance personnel.
air-water contact with the lowest possible air-pressure Water in a cooling tower can be distributed over
drop. Fill can be wood slats, thin plastic sheets, or other the fill by one of two methods: pressured water system
materials. The more water surface in contact with the or gravity flow basin. A pressured water system is a
air flowing through a cooling tower, the more efficient collection of components used in a cooling tower that
the cooling. pumps water through pipes and out of spray heads
Some installations use the surface of the unit for a along the top of wet decks, Figure 33-42.
water trough. These applications may use wave-formed A gravity flow basin is a water-filled container
sheets of galvanized or stainless steel or slats of plastic on top of a cooling tower that has precision holes
or wood. Fill made of these materials is designed to be through which accumulated water flows onto wet

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

888 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Wet decks

Fan belt
Precision drain holes
pulley
SPX Corporation SPX Corporation
Figure 33-41. Upward view from the inside of a cooling tower Figure 33-43. Overhead view of a fiberglass cooling tower
shows the motor-driven fan and belt assembly in the center showing the gravity flow basin filled with water passing
and wet decks along each side. through precision holes and onto the fill (unseen) below.

Cooling towers are made of corrosion-resistant mate-

rials. Combinations of materials are increasingly popular,
such as welded type 304 stainless steel basins with the
remainder of the tower above the water line fabricated of
galvanized steel. Coatings are also used over galvanized
steel to help extend equipment life. The most common
materials are galvanized steel, stainless steel, fiberglass,
plastic, and treated wood, Figure 33-44.
Wet
deck fill Code Alert
Rooftop Cooling Tower Construction
The International Building Code (IBC) specifies
certain restrictions regarding rooftop cooling towers.
Rooftop cooling towers with over 250 ft 2 of capacity or
being taller than 15' must be constructed of noncom-
bustible materials. The exception is fill made of wood at
least 1" thick may be used as long as the exterior of the
tower is a noncombustible material. Also, the base of a
rooftop cooling tower cannot be greater than 1/3 of the
area of the supporting roof deck.
outlet
Cold water
collection
SPX Corporation
Cooling Tower Water Circuits
Figure 33-42. Counterflow cooling tower cutaway shows wet
Cooling towers are designed to have one of two
deck fill onto which the spray nozzles release water for cooling. types of water circuits: open loop or closed loop. In
an open-loop cooling tower, the water from the con-
denser flows into the cooling tower and over the wet
decks, Figure 33-43. Either type of water distribution decks and fill directly. This water is then recirculated
system must be inspected regularly and kept clean in through the condenser before returning to the cool-
order to distribute the water evenly. Proper distribu- ing tower. The condenser and cooling tower share the
tion ensures full thermal performance and prevents same water. In open-loop circuits, some of the water
scale buildup. will be lost to evaporation, drafts, or draining.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 889

SPX Corporation
Figure 33-44. This crossflow cooling tower with vertical
discharge has a fiberglass construction.
SPX Corporation
Figure 33-45. Counterflow cooling towers have air inlets near
In a closed-loop cooling tower, the water in the the bottom of their structure. Air flows upward against the
condenser carries its absorbed heat into a heat exchanger downward flow of the water from above.
that passes the heat into a separate stream of water that
flows through the cooling tower. This separate cooling
tower water flows over the wet decks and fill to release
the heat from the system. Condenser water and cooling
tower water are separate and exclusive. They never mix
or contact each other. Condenser water remains in a
single circuit, consisting of the condenser and one part
of the heat exchanger. Cooling tower water remains in
a single circuit, consisting of the cooling tower and the
other part of the heat exchanger.
A closed-loop circuit allows far fewer contami-
nants into the condenser water loop than an open-loop
circuit. In a closed-loop system, condenser tube clean-
ing can be performed much less frequently than in an
open-loop system.

Cooling Tower Airflow Designs Baltimore Aircoil Company

Cooling towers can have one of two different air- Figure 33-46. A dual inlet crossflow cooling tower with
flow designs. In a counterflow cooling tower, air and vertical discharge.
water travel in opposite directions. Water enters from
above and drops downward to the sump or cold water
basin. Air enters from the lower part of the tower and Cooling Tower Draft Options
flows upward to exit at the top. Air and water flow coun- A natural-draft cooling tower relies on wind
ter to each other (in opposite directions), Figure 33-45. and natural convection to blow through the tower to
In a crossflow cooling tower, air flows across the aid evaporation. A natural-draft tower must be bigger
wet deck from side to side, while water drops down- than a forced-draft cooling tower in order to have the
ward from above. The air and water cross each other's same amount of cooling capacity. However, natural-
path. Crossflow cooling towers can often be identified draft towers have a lower operating cost, as no energy
as using entire side walls as air inlets, Figure 33-46. is consumed in moving air through the tower.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

890 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

An induced-draft cooling tower uses a fan placed local building codes. Codes also dictate proper anchor-
at the air exhaust to draw air into the tower through a age and support of the tower and proper water supply
louver on an opposing side, across the wet deck, and and drainage piping to the tower.
out of the tower through the fan. Induced-draft fans
always blow outward and away from the cooling tower.
An induced-draft crossflow cooling tower would have Cooling Towers in Seasonally Cold Climates
its fan along the side wall that air exits the tower. An Cold ambient temperatures and a low heat load
induced-draft counterflow cooling tower would have can cause cooling tower water to freeze. Freezing typi-
its fan mounted along the top of the tower. cally starts in the corners with reduced heat load. Ice
A forced-draft cooling tower uses a fan placed at formation, which causes increased structural load, can
the air inlet. It draws air in through itself and blows it damage cooling tower components. One solution is to
through and out of the tower. Forced-draft fans always continuously operate the tower with 40°F (4°C) water
blow directly into the tower. A forced-draft crossflow leaving the tower. Basin heaters are available to keep
cooling tower would have its fan along the side wall the water temperature up if the system is shut down
where air enters the cooling tower. A forced-draft in freezing temperatures. Piping may need insulation
counterflow cooling tower would have its fan mounted or electric heat tracing. Some systems have water res-
on the lower part of the tower where air enters. ervoirs inside the building to protect the water from
freezing weather. The reservoirs must be large enough
Thinking Green to hold all the water in the system. In cold weather,
Cooling Tower Efficiency chemicals can be added to the water in the condenser
Cooling tower efficiency can be maximized by
loop of closed systems; however, these chemicals usu-
using variable speed fans rather than adjustable lou- ally are not added to cooling tower water. Do not run
vers to control airflow through the tower. Controlling fans in reverse for de-icing.
airflow by restricting the air intake is inefficient and
places an unnecessary load on the fan motors. Also, Cooling Tower Capacity Controls
ensure that there is good water distribution through the Airflow control can be used to change the cool-
tower. Replace any restricted spray nozzles with clog- ing capacity as well as to protect the unit as outside air
resistant, corrosion-resistant nozzles. temperature drops. Airflow through a cooling tower
can be controlled by cycling fan motors, using multi-
speed motors or variable frequency drives, or modu-
33.3.2 Cooling Tower Operational lating the position of cooling tower louvers. To reduce
Considerations cooling capacity, close cooling tower louvers, slow fan
Cooling towers are an efficient way to release speed, or turn off fans. These are all ways of stopping
heat from an HVACR system or an industrial process. or reducing the movement of air, which impedes evap-
However, it is important for building owners and oration and cooling.
operators to be aware of the various aspects of mainte- Some cooling towers use a thermostatic water
nance and environmental concerns that are necessary mixing valve that maintains a specific head pressure to
for continuous operation. control water-cooled condenser capacity. By regulating
Air and water vapor absorb latent and sensible the temperature of the water returning from a cooling
heat from the water in cooling towers. When ambient tower, condenser head pressure can be held constant.
air is already hot, less heat transfer occurs. To adjust for Water temperature regulation is done by mixing some
increased ambient temperature, either airflow or water of the cooled return water with hot condenser water
flow must be increased. Humid air absorbs less heat, that has not yet entered the cooling tower. Temperature
because it already has a high moisture content, making is monitored at the condenser water inlet.
evaporation more difficult. Dry air is better for cooling
tower operation, because it can absorb moisture more 33.3.3 Water Valves
easily.
Water valves are used in systems having water-
Code Alert cooled condensers. Water valves stop, allow, and regu-
late the flow of water. In some cases, they can vary the
Cooling Towers amount of water proportional to the requirement of
Because the vapor plumes from cooling towers the system. A water valve is located between the water
can drift in the wind and affect other areas, the posi- supply and the condenser. Usually, it is mounted on
tioning of cooling towers is typically strictly regulated by the condenser base.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 891

movement of an electric water valve's plunger is done

Caution
by either a solenoid or motor.
Water Velocity
Solenoid Water Valve
Water velocity should be 7 fps-10 fps (2 m/s-3 m/s).
If flow is too fast, water may remove the oxide coating,
A solenoid water valve is an electric water valve
causing pitting. If the water velocity is too slow, scaling that opens and closes by the operation of a solenoid.
can occur. Like other water valves, it prevents water flow when
the compressor is off and allows water flow when the
Water valves are categorized into groups by their compressor is on. Solenoid water valve operation is
operational control: based on compressor operation. The moment the com-
pressor starts, the solenoid water valve opens. When
• Electric.
the compressor motor circuit is opened, the solenoid is
• Pressure. de-energized, and the solenoid water valve closes. See
• Thermostatic. Figure 33-48.
A solenoid water valve is either fully open or fully
Pro Tip closed. It does not offer variable flow control, so it can-
Strainer in Water Inlets not open partially. Figure 33-49 illustrates two typi-
It is good practice to install a strainer in the inlet to
cal electric water valve circuits. One uses a low-voltage
a water valve, Figure 33-47. solenoid valve. The other uses a 120 V solenoid valve.
Most valves require 120 V.
A solenoid water valve with larger capacity may
Electric Water Valves have the valve stem loosely connected to the plunger.
Electric water valves may be either metered or This permits a shock action to open the valve. Gravity
nonmetered. Metered valves open the flow passage and water pressure close the valve when the power is
slowly with actuator rotation. This is useful when vari- shut off. Large-volume water flow may also be con-
able flow control is important. Non-metered valves trolled by motor water valves.
open faster and fully so a large flow area is immedi- Motor Water Valve
ately available. Both types offer the benefit of minimal A motor water valve is an electric water valve that
pressure drop in full flow application. Voltage level opens and closes by a motor. The inside of a motor-
used for electric water valves may be low voltage or actuated water valve has a screen that may be cleaned
line voltage. or replaced by removing the cap on the bottom of the
The bodies of electric water valves are normally valve. These valves have capacities varying from 1/2"
brass. They are made with either threaded or soldered to 4" pipe size, Figure 33-50.
connections. Plungers are made of noncorrosive steel.
Valve seats are usually made of brass or bronze. A spe-
cial rubber composition is used for the valve face. The

Water in Water out

I

Superior Refrigeration Products Courtesy of Spar/an Division - Parker Hannifin Corporation

Figure 33-47. Water line strainer. Screen is removable for Figure 33-48. A solenoid water valve deforms a diaphragm to
cleaning. either allow or prevent water flow.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

892 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Sensor/ Pressure Water Valves

switching Water A pressure water valve is a water valve that regu-
Transformer device valve lates water flow to a water-cooled condenser based on
high-side pressure. An advantage of a pressure water
Low
voltage valve is that it is able to maintain a constant head
pressure. This is because it reacts according to high-
A side pressure, even when the system is cycled off. A
pressure water valve's bellows are attached to high-
Compressor
side pressure, usually at the cylinder head. Pressure
Water water valves are the most widely used water valves,
valve Figure 33-51.
Variable control is provided by bellows that sense
and react to pressure to control the valves. In other
120V

Contactor/relay Pressure connection

B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 33-49. Solenoid water valve wiring diagrams.
A-Solenoid using low voltage. B-Solenoid using 120 V.
The compressor and solenoid are wired in parallel.

Inlet

Dantoss
Figure 33-51. A pressure water valve is connected to the
Johnson Controls, Inc. high-pressure side of an HVACR system at the compressor
Figure 33-50. A motor raises or lowers the valve stem of this head. The rate of water flow can be varied by adjusting the
water valve. spring pressure using a screw control on the valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 893

words, the higher the head pressure pushing against copper or brass. The valves are equipped with either
the bellows, the more the pressure water valve will a packing gland or a bellows. This is located where
open and the more water will flow into the condenser. the water stem goes into the water valve body. The
Instead of just preventing or allowing water flow at full packing must be adjusted occasionally to keep it
blast, pressure water valves adjust the amount of water from leaking.
allowed to flow, depending on system head pressure. These valves usually do not depend on the pipe
As high-side pressure rises, the bellows in the for support. They do, however, have a mounting
water valve contract. Water flows into a condenser to arrangement or flange. The inlet and the outlet are
cool and condense a system's high-pressure vapor. clearly labeled. Valves are usually threaded for stan-
Pressure water valves open the water circuit only dard pipe connections. Most are constructed so that
when cooling is needed, which is sensed when high- water pressure tends to keep the valve closed. The
side pressure rises. Water flow will continue increasing valves reduce incoming water pressure for protection
as long as high-side pressure increases. of system components and to reduce water consump-
These valves may be adjusted using a heavy spring tion. Figure 33-52 shows a diagram of a large-capacity
that presses against the bellows. The valves are set to valve used on 1" lines. This valve has a gear mecha-
open at specific head pressures. The pressure depends nism for adjusting the pressures.
on the temperature of the water and the refrigerant
used. Some pressure-controlled water designs require Thermostatic Water Valves
opening the system to remove the valve. Others may be A thermostatic water valve is a water valve that
removed without disturbing the refrigeration system. regulates water flow to a water-cooled condenser based
The valve face is often made of a hard rubber on the temperature of condenser exhaust water. These
composition or fiber. The seat is usually made of valves are similar to pressure water valves except they

Valve disc
I
. - - - - Block "vee" seal
Valve stem

Ceramic
valve seat
~ --- - - Valve disc
Adjusting
I-+---- Plug stem

Side View lnlineView

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 33-52. Large capacity pressure water valve. Double valve and seat arrangement balances force from water pressure.
One valve is opened and the other is closed by water pressure.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

894 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

have a thermostatic sensing bulb connected to the bel- in the sensing bulb vaporizes and expands, push-
lows operating the valve, Figure 33-53. ing against the bellows. In the vaporization of the
The sensing bulb is charged with a volatile liq- volatile liquid, heat energy is changed to pressure.
uid and mounted in the condenser water line, where As heat is absorbed into the sensing bulb, the pres-
it reacts with the heat. Remember that a volatile sure rises. This pressure opens the valve when the
liquid is one that easily changes into vapor when condenser water becomes warm. As the water cools,
heat is absorbed. Heat from the condenser water is pressure is reduced, and the thermostatic water
absorbed by the sensing bulb. The volatile liquid valve closes.

Sensing
Adjustment bulb
- knob

Adjustment - ---+i u
knob
Sensing bulb
Water pipe
connection Pipe
-fitting

Water
inlet

A B
Dantoss
Figure 33-53. Note the sensing bulb and temperature adjustment knob on this thermostatic water valve. A-Thermostatic water
valve. B-Cutaway of a thermostatic water valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Chillers are classified by their operating
pressures: high-pressure or low-pressure.
• A rooftop unit (RTU) is a packaged air- High-pressure compression chillers are used
conditioning system designed specifically to primarily for comfort cooling. Low-pressure
be installed on the roof of a building. Many are chillers are capable of producing very low
designed to provide cooling and heating. Many evaporator temperatures.
also have a fresh air inlet to maintain indoor • Water circulated through a water-cooled
air quality and also an economizer that can condenser can be cooled and reused through
provide free cooling when outdoor conditions the use of a cooling tower. A cooling tower
are right. is a structure that rejects heat from the
• An RTU may provide heat through a gas- cooling water of an HVACR system using the
fired furnace, an oil-fired furnace, electric evaporation of water.
heating elements, or by operating as a heat • Cooling tower water is lost by evaporation,
pump. Cooling is provided by its mechanical breezes, and blowdown. A float switch refills
refrigeration system. Air circulation is provided the sump with makeup water. If a cooling
by a blower with multiple dampers responding tower must operate in freezing conditions,
to sensors and controls. a basin heater should be used to prevent ice
• When indoor temperature is warm but outdoor formation. Outdoor piping may require electric
temperature and humidity are low, an RTU's heat tracing.
economizer will turn on the blower and also • Water valves control water flow through
position the dampers to draw in outdoor air water-cooled condensers and chillers. Types
for free cooling. Since the compressor does of water valves include electric, pressure, and
not run during this time, much less electrical thermostatic.
power is used for efficient comfort cooling. An
outdoor air temperature sensor and an outdoor
humidity sensor (enthalpy control) monitor Review Questions
conditions for economizer operation.
• Comfort cooling systems are equipped with Answer the following questions using the information in
multiple controls. Operating controls, such as this chapter.
thermostats, allow the user to adjust conditions 1. Which of the following is a trait of a
in the conditioned space. Motor controls, such packaged outdoor air-conditioning unit?
as motor starters and starting relays, activate A. The condenser coil is located outdoors,

I
and deactivate the compressor. Limit controls and the evaporator coil and furnace are
shut down the system or activate an alarm located indoors.
if operating conditions, such as pressure or B. Rooftop installation is the only location
temperature, exceed safe limits. option.
• Safety concerns when servicing RTUs include C. The supply and return ducts pass through
the height of the building, conveying tools and the exterior wall of the building.
equipment to the roof, and the high winds and D. All of the above.
weather conditions to which a technician is 2. A rooftop unit may provide heat for the
exposed on a roof. indoor climate using the following methods,
• Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) systems use except _ _.
multiple indoor cooling units connected to A. electric heating elements
one or more outdoor units. This provides B. gas-fired furnace
the flexibility of having separately zoned C. heatpump
conditioned spaces. D. solar radiation
• A chiller is a refrigeration system that uses a 3. A rooftop unit can provide "free cooling" if it
mechanical or absorption refrigeration system is equipped with a(n) _ _.
to cool water, which is then circulated through A. cooling tower
a building to provide comfort cooling. B. economizer
C. heatpump
D. variable refrigerant flow

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 895

896 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

4. High humidity outdoors can prevent a 11. A chiller system uses a loop of _ _ to
rooftop unit's free cooling operation when provide cooling to a conditioned space.
the system has _ _ control. A. ammonia
A. blowdown B. cool water
B. enthalpy C. fresh outdoor air
C. purge D. low-pressure refrigerant vapor
D. VRF 12. The secondary refrigerant used in a chiller
5. In a commercial HVAC system, if the system _ _.
thermostat's switch controls a liquid line A. circulates through the conditioned space
solenoid valve, which control usually cycles to provide cooling
off the compressor? B. circulates through the mechanical
A. Enthalpy control. refrigerant circuit
B. High-side pressure control. C. precools the primary refrigerant before it
C. Low-side pressure control. enters the condenser
D. Sequencing control. D. subcools the liquid line
6. A pneumatic control system uses _ _ for 13. Reciprocating compressors are capable of
device actuation. capacity control through _ _.
A. electrical signals A. air-side economizers
B. hydraulic fluid B. cylinder unloading
C. pressurized air C. purge unit operation
D. variable refrigerant flow D. venting
7. A large RTU is most frequently conveyed to a 14. The purpose of a purge unit is to _ _.
rooftop using _ _. B. bypass the compressor when the cut-out
A. a crane temperature is reached
B. on-site assembly A. increase the speed at which the system
C. manual rope and pulley system can be evacuated
D. ramp and rollers C. prevent excessive pressure from building
8. A installed between the base rail of a on the high side
rooftop unit and the top edge of the roof curb D. remove noncondensables from the system
prevents water from leaking through the 15. If a chiller system could only use one
opening. compressor but needed to provide 2000 tons
A. condensate channel of cooling capacity, which type of compressor
B. permeable membrane is most likely to be used?
C. resilient gasket A. Centrifugal.
D. sheet metal drip collector and drain B. Reciprocating.
9. Which of the following is a valid safety C. Screw.
precaution for servicing a rooftop unit? D. Scroll.
A. Before working on equipment, secure 16. A compression chiller economizer improves
hinged panels in the open position. system efficiency by _ _.
B. Extend the top of the ladder 3' above the A. modulating refrigerant flow to match
edge of the roof. cooling capacity
C. Use a rope to lift equipment, tools, and B. providing free cooling from cool outdoor
refrigerant cylinders to the roof. air
D. All of the above. C. removing noncondensables from the
10. VRF in split commercial air-conditioning system
systems can effectively match cooling D. subcooling high-side refrigerant
capacity by _ _.
A. active air filtration
B. modulating the flow of refrigerant
C. opening and closing dampers
D. passive humidification

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 33 Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems 897

17. The purpose of a cooling tower connected to

an HVAC system is to _ _.
A. cool refrigerant before it is circulated
through the conditioned space
B. cool condenser water
C. condense refrigerant before it enters the
evaporator
D. None of the above.
18. Basin heaters are used to prevent _ _.
A. chiller freeze-over
B. ice formation in a cooling tower sump
C. icing over of RTU evaporators
D. All of the above.
19. All of the following water valves provide
variable water flow control, except _ _.
A. pressure water valves
B. solenoid water valves
C. thermostatic water valves
D. All of the above.
20. The operation of a pressure water valve is in
reaction to
A. condenser exhaust water
B. evaporator temperature
C. high-side pressure
D. low-side pressure

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER34 Absorption and
Evaporative Cooling
Systetns

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Explain the absorption refrigeration cycle and
process.
• Identify the heat sources that can be used to operate
an absorption air-conditioning system.
Summarize the operation of residential and
commercial absorption chillers.

Chapter Outline • Compare direct-fired and indirect fired absorption

systems.
34.1 Absorption Refrigeration Systems
• Understand the difference between single-effect and
34.1.1 Absorbants and Refrigerants
double-effect absorption chillers.
34.1.2 Basic Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
34.1.3 Types of Absorption Systems • Explain the differences in operation between
34.2 Absorption Cooling Systems ammonia and lithium bromide absorption systems.
34.2.1 Residential Absorption Chiller • Understand how multiple absorption units can be
Air-Conditioning Systems combined in a multiple unit load system.
34.2.2 Commercial Absorption Systems and Chillers • Summarize the energy efficiency advantages of an
34.3 Absorption System Service absorption air-conditioning system.
34.3.1 Servicing Ammonia-Based Absorption Systems
• Explain the basic concepts behind evaporative cooling.
34.3.2 Servicing Lithium Bromide-Based
Absorption Systems • Understand how a roof pond works.
34.4 Evaporative Cooling • Summarize the function of a roof mist cooling system.
34.4.1 Indoor Applications • Summarize the steps involved in absorption cooling
34.4.2 Wet Roof Cooling system service.
 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 899

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

absorbant indirect-fired Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
absorption intermittent absorption you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
affinity systems • The temperature at which a substance changes
anhydrous ammonia lithium bromide its state depends on the pressure acting on the
cogeneration lithium bromide substance. The higher the pressure is, the higher the
combined heat and power absorption chillers temperature needed to bring about a state change.
(CHP) plant roof mist cooling system (Chapter 5)
continuous-cycle roof pond cooling • Heat transfer is accomplished in refrigeration systems
absorption system single-effect absorption by a refrigerant changing phase between vapor and
direct-fired system liquid. As a refrigerant evaporates, it absorbs heat. As
double-effect absorption strong solution it condenses, it releases heat. (Chapter 6)
system trigeneration
• The four processes that make up a compression
evaporative cooling weak solution
refrigeration system are compressing, condensing,
excelsior wet roof cooling
metering, and evaporating. A compression
refrigeration system uses mechanical energy to drive
the refrigeration process. (Chapter 6)
• Chilled water systems, which are commonly referred
to as chillers, are refrigeration systems that cool
water, which is then circulated through the building
to provide cooling. (Chapter 33)

Introduction
The comfort cooling systems described previously in
the book have been based on the familiar compression
refrigeration system. In this chapter, you will be introduced
to two additional methods of cooling a space. These meth-
ods are absorption cooling and evaporative cooling.

I
900 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

34.1 Absorption Refrigeration In absorption chillers, the refrigerant is typically

water and the absorbant is often a form of sodium. In
Systems some systems however, the refrigerant is ammonia and
Compression refrigeration systems use the water is the absorbant. As described here, water acts
mechanical energy of compression to achieve the pres- as a refrigerant in one system and as an absorbant in
sure levels needed for refrigeration. Absorption refrig- another. The way the substances react to each other
eration systems use heat energy instead of mechanical determines their use as a refrigerant or absorbant in a
energy to achieve refrigeration. Absorption refrigera- given absorption system.
tion systems use heat to change low-temperature, low- When the absorbant becomes saturated with the
pressure vapor into high-pressure vapor. refrigerant, it is called a strong solution. When the
mixture is not fully saturated, it is referred to as a weak
34.1.1 Absorbants and Refrigerants solution. A strong solution contains as much refriger-
ant as possible. A weak solution contains less refriger-
In order to accomplish temperature and pres- ant than a strong solution and is capable of absorbing
sure manipulation, absorption systems use chemicals additional refrigerant.
with specific characteristics. Substances with the right
properties can be used as refrigerants and absorbants. Pro Tip
A refrigerant is a substance that transfers heat from Terminology
a conditioned space to an unconditioned space. An
The terms strong solution and weak solution can
absorbant is a substance that soaks up, or absorbs, a
have different meanings in different publications. When
refrigerant and lowers their combined pressure. these terms are used, it is important to understand
Different combinations of substances can be used whether the term is referring to the ratio of refrigerant
as an absorbant and refrigerant pair, depending on to absorbant or referring to the ratio of chemical (lithium
how the substances interact. If one of the substances bromide or ammonia) to water. In this book, the terms
tends to absorb the other, it is said to have an affinity will always refer to the ratio of refrigerant to absorbant.
for the other substance. Substances used as absorbants
must have an affinity for the substance used as the Figure 34-1 illustrates the difference between a
refrigerant. The absorbant will absorb the refrigerant weak and a strong solution. Water has an affinity for
when cool and release it when heated. ammonia vapor; therefore, water acts as an absorbant.

A +

Ammonia Water Strong solution

(refrigerant) (absorbant) (strong in refrigerant)

B +
...___ ...___

Ammonia Water Weak solution

(refrigerant) (absorbant) (weak in refrigerant)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 34-1. Comparison of a weak solution and a strong solution. A-The water absorbs a large amount of ammonia and becomes
saturated, creating a strong solution. B-The water absorbs a small amount of ammonia and has a weak concentration of ammonia.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 901

In Figure 34-lA, water mixes with ammonia until it generator, condenser, evaporator, and absorber. A basic
becomes saturated, creating a strong solution. It no absorption refrigeration system is shown in Figure 34-2.
longer has the ability to absorb more ammonia. In In an absorption system, the evaporator and
Figure 34-1B, a smaller amount of ammonia is mixed condenser perform essentially the same functions
with water and the solution has the ability to absorb they perform in a compression system. However, a
additional ammonia. It is a weak solution. compression system uses a compressor to change a
low-pressure vapor into a high-pressure vapor. In an
Pro Tip absorption system, the function of the compressor is
Adsorption and Absorption performed by the following components:
When a solid attracts and holds another substance
• Generator (heater)-heats the refrigerant, raising
on its outer surfaces, the process is called adsorp- its pressure.
tion. When one substance attracts and combines with • Absorber-combines refrigerant vapor from the
another substance to form a uniform solution, the pro- solution, lowering its pressure.
cess is called absorption.
• Pump-circulates the refrigerant from the absorber
to the generator.
An absorption system operates under two pres-
34.1.2 Basic Absorption Refrigeration Cycle sures. The high-pressure side, consisting of the genera-
Absorption systems have some similarities to com- tor and condenser, operates at a pressure of 200 psig to
pression systems, but also some significant differences. 300 psig (1400 kPa to 2100 kPa). The low-pressure side,
The system can be divided into four sections including consisting of the absorber and evaporator, operates at

High-Pressure Side
Generator
Condenser
Cooling
water

•••••••
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Check valve

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

~u~~u~~u~~
I Heat source I

Chilled
water
l~·:'~.::'~.::....-.:::-.:.::'T,'._.:.:.':,.::~---.;a ----
I
6 6 6 6 6 6 6

•••••••
Evaporator
Pump
Low-Pressure Side

D Refrigerant vapor (ammonia) • Strong refrigerant-absorber solution

0 Liquid refrigerant (ammonia) D Weak refrigerant-absorber solution
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 34-2. Simple absorption refrigeration system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

902 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

40 psig to 60 psig (275 kPa to 410 kPa). The high and Intermittent Absorption System
low sides are separated by check valves, liquid traps, a As their name implies, intermittent absorption
pump, or other controlling devices. systems are absorption systems that operate intermit-
The generator is warmed by a heat source. The heat tently. Often, one charge of fuel will operate the gener-
causes refrigerant to boil out of the refrigerant-absorbant ator for a short period of time that will run the system
solution. The refrigerant vapor rises to the top of the gen- for about one day. After their cycle of operation ends,
erator and then flows to the condenser. At the same time, they need to be recharged with fuel. The use of inter-
some of the solution at the bottom of the generator passes mittent absorption systems is usually limited to places
through an orifice and then flows to the absorber. The where other adequate, consistent sources of power are
orifice reduces the pressure on the solution, which lowers unavailable.
its temperature. As a result, the solution flowing into the
absorber is once again able to absorb refrigerant. Continuous-Cycle Absorption System
Meanwhile, in the condenser, heat is removed from A continuous-cycle absorption system is oper-
the refrigerant vapor by the cooling medium (water or ated by the application of a limited amount of heat.
air). This causes the refrigerant vapor to condense into This heat is furnished by gas, electricity, or kerosene.
a liquid. The high pressure in the condenser drives the Continuous-cycle absorption systems are often used
liquid refrigerant into the evaporator through an orifice. in domestic refrigerators in recreation vehicles and in
Water tubes pass through the evaporator. The year-round air conditioning of both homes and larger
water flowing through these tubes absorbs heat from buildings.
the conditioned space and carries it to the evaporator.
In the evaporator, heat from the water in these tubes
is absorbed by the liquid refrigerant. This lowers the 34.2 Absorption Cooling Systems
temperature of the water in the tubes. The chilled The number of absorption air-conditioning sys-
water is recirculated to the conditioned space. Since tems used in residential and commercial buildings has
the water is at a lower temperature than the air in the increased. The refrigerants most commonly used in
conditioned space, it is able to absorb additional heat these absorption systems are ammonia and water. In
from the space. most systems, ammonia is the refrigerant and water is
The heat that the liquid refrigerant in the evapora- the absorbant. Large commercial chiller systems may
tor absorbs from the chilled water circuit causes the use water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the
refrigerant to boil into a vapor. The refrigerant vapor absorbant.
is drawn back to the absorber and is cooled by the An absorption system may use any number of
flow of weak solution coming from the generator. In heat sources. These include natural gas, LP (liquefied
the absorber, the heat in the refrigerant vapor is trans- petroleum) gas, kerosene, steam, or electricity (resis-
ferred to the surface of the absorber and then to the tance heating). Absorption systems have few moving
outside air, causing the refrigerant vapor to condense. parts. Small systems have moving parts only in the
The strong solution that is formed at the bottom of the heat source valves and controls. Some larger systems
absorber is pumped back to the generator by the solu- also have circulating pumps and fans.
tion pump. There, the process is repeated.
34.2.1 Residential Absorption Chiller
34.1.3 Types of Absorption Systems Air-Conditioning Systems
Chillers are a primary application of absorption
A typical residential absorption chiller air-
refrigeration systems. Absorption chillers use the heat
conditioning system is shown in Figure 34-3. The
energy of a flame or heating element to complete the
generator has a gas burner that heats a mixture of
refrigeration cycle. These chillers are used for air con-
ammonia and water. The boiling point of ammonia
ditioning or for industrial process cooling. Absorption
is lower than that of water. Therefore, the ammonia
systems are also used in industrial refrigeration and
evaporates and flows through the line marked 1. As
air conditioning and domestic and recreational vehicle
the ammonia vapor passes through the rectifier, some
refrigeration.
of it condenses and is returned to the generator. The
Absorption systems are generally classified by
remaining ammonia vapor passes to the condenser,
their operation cycle:
marked 2, as a high-temperature, high-pressure gas.
• Intermittent systems. As outside air passes over the condenser, it removes
• Continuous-cycle systems. heat from the ammonia. The ammonia condenses to
a liquid and passes through the line marked 3, to the

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 903

Air-Cooled Cycle of Operation

Solution-Pump Type

To cooled

•
Strong solution
(ammonia and water)
D Ammonia vapor
warm water
D Weak solution
(ammonia and water)
D Ammonia liquid
Chilled water
Robur Corporation
Figure 34-3. Refrigeration cycle of a typical residential absorption system. This absorption chiller uses a pump to circulate the
I
solution through the cycle.

refrigerant heat exchanger, also known as a precooler. coming out of the condenser. After passing through
The heat exchanger reduces the temperature of the liq- the heat exchanger, the ammonia vapor passes to the
uid ammonia before the ammonia reaches the evapo- solution-cooled absorber, marked 5. In the genera-
rator. It also heats the cold ammonia vapor leaving the tor, most of the ammonia boils out, leaving a solution
evaporator through line 4. with a weak concentration of ammonia. This solu-
Pressure drops as liquid ammonia leaving the tion leaves the generator at a high pressure. It passes
heat exchanger passes through the evaporator restric- through a restrictor in line 6, which meters the flow
tor into the evaporator. Here, it picks up heat from and separates the high- and low- pressure sides of the
the chilled water circuit and boils to ammonia vapor. system.
Ammonia vapor in line 4 passes through the heat The weak solution passes from line 6 into the
exchanger, where it absorbs heat from the refrigerant absorber. Here, the solution temperature is lowered by

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

904 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

transferring heat to the ammonia vapor in the absorber. covered with hose insulation. The hoses are secured
The weak solution absorbs the low-pressure ammonia with stainless steel clamps to prevent sound trans-
vapor coming from the evaporator, increasing the con- mission. A water-type cooling coil is installed in
centration of ammonia in the solution at the bottom of the air handler of the forced-air system. If the coil is
the absorber. located in a system that heats during the cold season
The solution travels from the absorber, through using a furnace, plastic piping should not be attached
the condenser, where it loses some of its heat. As the directly to the coil. Copper piping extensions should
solution cools, its ability to absorb additional ammo- be used to connect the supply and return hoses to
nia is decreased, so it becomes a strong solution. The the coil. The condensate drain lines must also be
strong solution leaves the condenser and is carried to insulated.
the solution pump through line 7. The pump forces it
at a high pressure to the rectifier through line 8. The Code Alert
strong solution absorbs some heat from the ammonia
vapor in the rectifier. The strong solution then flows Absorption System Piping
to the absorber through line 9, where it absorbs addi- All piping for gas lines and chilled water circuits
tional heat. This preheated solution returns through must comply with local building codes.
line 10 to the generator. The cycle begins all over again.
The same action occurs in larger units except that two The burner operation of absorption systems is
burners may be used. similar to that of a residential gas-fired furnace. The
same controls and gas valves are used as in a nor-
Residential Absorption Air Conditioner mal furnace. The burner of the absorption system is
Construction generally much smaller than that of a whole house
A typical residential gas-fired absorption chiller residential furnace. A control transformer applies the
is shown in Figure 34-4. The unit is installed on a power for the control circuit. The circuit includes a gas
concrete pad. On the surface, the installation appears valve, direct-spark igniter, and time delay switch for
similar to that of a typical compression-type central both heating and cooling. An electromagnetic ignition
air-conditioning system. However, the supply and system provides a direct-spark ignition to the main
return water lines are flexible hoses that are both burner. It has a ten-second flame detection system.

Cable to room
thermostat

Junction box-
houses chiller
control relay

Thermostat Condensate
cable drain
Robur Corporation
Figure 34-4. Residential absorption chiller combined with a typical forced -air furnace. Note the various insulated lines running
between the cooling system and the furnace.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 905

Residential absorption chillers are equipped with on single-phase power, 115 V or 230 V. Individual units
a solid-state time delay. The delay prevents the circu- range from 3 tons to 25 tons.
lation of refrigeration solution and chilled water until
the generator is up to operating temperature. The delay Safety Note
also continues the circulation of solution and water
after the thermostat has been satisfied, until the gen- Absorption System Materials
erator has had time to cool down. These internal components of an absorption sys-
The basic system also has numerous safety con- tem are made of steel and aluminum. Use of copper or
copper alloys is very dangerous, as it may not be able
trols. These include flame detectors, chilled water
to handle the corrosive nature of the solution and high
switches, and heating-side operating controls. These
pressures. Use of copper pipe or components must be
are in addition to basic safety controls, such as high- strictly limited to the chilled water circuit. Use of copper
temperature limits and fused disconnects. materials in any part of the system that circulates refrig-
The capacity of air-cooled chillers varies with erant-absorbant solution could result in an explosion.
ambient air temperature and the temperature of the
chilled water. A decrease in the temperature of the
chilled water leaving the system or an increase in Absorption Heat Pumps
the temperature of the air used to cool the condenser Absorption systems can be designed to provide
results in a decrease in the overall capacity of the sys- hot water for heating in addition to providing chilled
tem. The capacity of a system is directly proportional water for cooling. Such systems are equipped with a
to the temperature of the chilled water leaving the sys- change-over valve which alters the flow of refrigerant
tem and inversely proportional to the temperature of through the system. See Figure 34-6.
the air entering the condenser. Figure 34-5 shows the In cooling mode, the system works as previously
relationship between chilled water temperature, con- described. The generator separates the refrigerant
denser temperature, and system capacity for typical vapor from a strong solution. The refrigerant vapor is
models of residential absorption chillers. condensed in the condenser and then metered into the
An absorption system may have several chilled evaporator. In the evaporator, the refrigerant vaporizes
water coils at different locations throughout a build- and absorbs heat from the chilled water circuit. The
ing. The absorption unit produces chilled water, refrigerant vapor is reabsorbed by the weak solution in
which is then distributed to various fan coils. In this the absorber. The solution is then pumped back to the

I
application, the low pressure and temperature of the generator to repeat the cycle.
chilled water system allows the use of PVC piping for In the heating mode, the change-over valve
the chilled water distribution circuit. The gas-fired is opened, and the flow of cooling water to the con-
absorption units used in such an arrangement operate denser and absorber is shut off. As the generator is

Capacities in Thou ......,""""' ..,, .......,, ..

Air Temperature Entering Condenser
Leaving
Chilled 3-Ton Unit 4-Ton Unit 5-Ton Unit
Water
Temperature 90°F 95°F 100°F 105°F 90°F 95°F 100°F 105°F 90°F 95°F 100°F 105°F

50°F 36.76 36.28 35.10 33.64 49.01 48.37 47.37 44.85 61.26 60.46 58.50 56.07

48°F 36.72 36.18 34.92 32.65 48.96 48.24 47.13 43.53 61 .20 60.30 58.20 54.42

46°F 36.65 36.04 34.50 31 .32 48.86 48.04 46.57 41.76 61.08 60.06 57.50 52.20

44°F 36.54 35.82 33.72 29.60 48.72 47.76 45.51 39.45 60.90 59.70 56.20 49.32

42°F 36.36 35.53 32.30 27.43 48.48 47.37 43.60 36.57 60.60 59.22 53.84 45.72

40°F 36.00 35.03 30.60 23.40 48.00 46.70 41 .30 31 .20 60.00 58.38 51 .00 39.00

Robur Corporation
Figure 34-5. Capacities of typical air-cooled chillers in thousands of Btu/hr.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

906 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Generator Condenser
Cooling
water out

Change-over SU\SU\SU\S
valve (closed) I Heat source I
Chilled

-
water out

---
Chilled
water in
-
Cooling
water in

Heat exchanger
A
Generator Condenser
Cooling
water off

Change-over SU\SU\SU\S
valve (open) I Heat source I
Heated

-
water out

---
Heated
water in

Heat exchanger
B
I • Strong solution D Weak solution • Liquid refrigerant (water) D Vapor refrigerant (water)
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 34-6. Absorption heat pump. A-Cooling mode. B-Heating mode.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 907

heated, refrigerant vapor fills the system. At the same Burner

time, weak solution from the generator flows into the exhaust
pipe
evaporator through the change-over valve. Relatively
cool water is passed through the coil in the evaporator.
The water in the coil absorbs heat from the hot, high-
t
pressure refrigerant vapor in the evaporator, causing
the refrigerant to condense. The condensed refrigerant
mixes with the solution at the bottom of the evaporator.
The solution is then pumped back to the generator to
repeat the process. Since the flow of cooling medium
is shut off in the heating mode, no condensation takes
place in the condenser or absorber. All the heat is
absorbed in the evaporator by the cool water in the coil.
•
34.2.2 Commercial Absorption Systems GF=ICEIUFI
and Chillers
Absorption systems are sometimes used for
commercial air conditioning. Figure 34-7 shows an
air-cooled absorption unit designed to cool a small
commercial building.
Some commercial absorption systems are direct-
fired, meaning that they are directly heated by a burner
or other heating element. Other commercial absorp-
tion systems are indirect-fired, meaning that the heat
that powers the system is produced somewhere out-
connection
side the absorption system and then delivered to the
absorption system, such as piped-in steam, hot water,
or hot gas. If an absorption system uses waste heat Water
connections
from another industrial process, it is an indirect-fired
system. See Figure 34-8. Robur Corporation

Absorption systems can be further classified as Figure 34-7. Gas-fired absorption heat pump for small
single-effect or double-effect systems. A single-effect commercial applications.
absorption system is a design in which all of the heat
released in the condensation of the refrigerant is trans-
ferred to the cooling water and then dissipated to the
atmosphere in the cooling tower. This type of system
has a relatively low operating efficiency, but requires
less heat energy to function.
systems used in residential applications. The primary
function of these systems is to produce chilled water.
The chilled water, in turn, may be used for various
purposes. It may be used for quenching baths in an
I
A double-effect absorption system uses a sec-
ondary, smaller, low-temperature generator to recover industrial process or for chilling drinking water. It
some of the waste heat from the primary generator. may also serve as a special coolant to lower the work-
See Figure 34-9. A double effect system requires more ing temperature of welding tips.
heat input to operate, but a higher percentage of the Ammonia is typically used as the absorbant
heat input to the system is converted to cooling action. in single-effect absorption chillers, but may also be
The result is a higher operating efficiency than that used in double-effect chillers. A double-effect ammo-
achieved by a single-effect absorption system. Double- nia absorption chiller system capable of both chilling
effect absorption systems may use waste heat from and heating water is shown in Figure 34-10. The cool-
industrial operations or solar heat for the secondary ing cycle for this type of chiller system is shown in
generator heat source. Figure 34-lOA.
The refrigerant that is dispersed in the evaporator
Ammonia Systems extracts the heat from the cooling water. As the heat
Ammonia absorption systems for commercial appli- is absorbed, the refrigerant vaporizes and the water
cations are very similar in operation to the absorption in the chilled water coil is cooled. The chilled water is

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

908 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Generator
Condenser
Cooling

---
water out

'''''''
0 ' ' ' '
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 Refrigerant Cooling
water in
boiled out of
~u~~u~~u~~ solution

I Burner
I
Chilled
water out
6 6
6
6

Chilled
water in
Pump Absorber Evaporator
A

Generator
Condenser
Heated Cooling
medium out

---
water out

Heated Check valve

medium in

--- Generator
heating coil
Cooling
water in

Chilled
water out
6 6 6
6 6 6 6
6 6 6

' ' ' ' Chilled

water in
Pump Absorber Evaporator
B
I • Strong solution D Weak solution D Liquid refrigerant (ammonia) D Vapor refrigerant (ammonia) I
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 34-8. Direct-fired and indirect-fired absorption chillers. A-Direct-fired absorption chillers heat the solution inside the
generator using electric heating elements, gas burners, or oil burners. B-lndirect-fired absorption boilers pipe steam, hot water,
or heated gas through a coil in the generator to separate the refrigerant from the absorbant solution.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 909

Secondary
(low-temperature)
generator
Primary
(high-temperature)
generator ! Condenser

Cooling

•• • •• • •• • •• 6
water out
~

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
Cooling
water in

~u~~u~~u~~
Heat source
I I
Chilled
water out

Pump Absorber Evaporator

-
Chilled
water in

I • Strong solution D Weak solution D Liquid refrigerant (ammonia) D Vapor refrigerant (ammonia) I
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 34-9. A double-effect absorption chiller has a low-temperature generator, which extracts additional heat from the vapor
leaving the high-temperature generator. This increases the efficiency of the system, but requires a higher initial heat input.

then recirculated through the conditioned space. The

refrigerant vapor is reabsorbed by the solution in the
absorber. The solution is returned to the generator to
repeat the process.
Lithium Bromide Systems
Lithium bromide absorption chillers use water
as the refrigerant and lithium bromide (LiBr) as the
absorbant. Hydraulic diaphragm pulse pumps or elec-
I
The heating cycle is shown in Figure 34-10B. tric motor-driven pumps are frequently used to trans-
During the heating cycle, the evaporator functions as fer the solution to various parts of the system. These
a condenser. Hot water in the evaporator tubes absorbs systems are often used in large-scale industrial and
the heat given off during condensation of the refriger- commercial applications to provide comfort cooling
ant. The heated water is then recirculated through the and cooling for various industrial processes.
conditioned space. As with all absorption systems, heat energy rather
than mechanical energy is input into the system to pro-
Thinking Green duce the refrigeration effect. A heater or generator is
used in place of a compressor. Lithium bromide chill-
Use of Waste Heat ers operate continuously on low power. The absorbant,
Although a direct-fire burner is shown in Figure 34-10, lithium bromide, is able to absorb large quantities of
the heat for generation could also be supplied by waste
water vapor.
heat from another industrial or residential system. Use
The basic design of a lithium bromide absorption
of waste heat in the absorption system generator greatly
increases the building's overall energy efficiency.
chiller consists of an upper shell and a lower shell. The
upper shell contains the generator and condenser. The

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

910 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Exhaust
Low-temperature gas outlet
generator High-temperature
generator
t

-------
Chilled
water outlet

t
-------
Chilled
water inlet

Valve B
(closed)

Evaporator Absorber t
-
Low-temperature
heat exchanger
Refrigerant Absorbant Cooling
pump water inlet
pump
A

• Strong solution D Weak solution D Liquid refrigerant D Vapor refrigerant

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 34-10. Schematic diagrams of an ammonia absorption system. A-Cooling cycle. B-Heating cycle.

lower shell contains the absorber and the evaporator. A pump circulates the water in the evaporator
See Figure 34-11. through an evaporator spray head. The water is sprayed
Steam inside the generator tubing bundle boils the inside the evaporator over the chilled water coil. The
solution. The heat from the steam causes the water (refrig- chilled water coil is a closed loop that delivers chilled
erant) to boil out of the solution, weakening the solution. water to the conditioned space that needs to be cooled.
This weak solution returns to the absorber via the heat The water in the chilled water coil is flash-cooled by
exchanger. Water vapor released from the solution in the the water vaporizing on the outside of the coil. Water
generator travels to the condenser. There, it condenses on vapor from the evaporator flows to the absorber, where
the cooling tubes, and returns to the evaporator. it is absorbed by the concentrated lithium bromide
The absorber and evaporator are housed together (weak) solution. The absorber has a pump to circulate
and operate at the same temperature and pressure. The the lithium bromide solution through a spray head,
absorber contains a solution with a high concentration increasing water vapor absorption. As the water vapor
of lithium bromide (weak solution). The evaporator is absorbed, the pressure on the remaining water in the
contains water. evaporator is reduced. This reduced pressure makes it

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 911

Exhaust
Low-temperature gas outlet
generator High-temperature
generator
t
Cooling
water off

- ----------~.....
Hot
water outlet

Hot
water inlet

Valve B
(open)

t
~----i-----t' Absorber

High-temperature
heat exchanger
Refrigerant Absorbant
pump pump

Figure 34-10. (Continued)

• Strong solution D Weak solution
B

D Liquid refrigerant D Vapor refrigerant

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
I
easier for the water in the evaporator to boil, generat- The solution is delivered to the absorber. Strong
ing additional vapor. The generator pump moves the solution is drawn from the bottom of the absorber
solution from the absorber, pumping it through the toward the absorber pump (1), where it mixes with
heat exchanger and back into the generator. weak solution returning from the generator. The
Figure 34-12 provides a more detailed view of the evaporator pump (2) recycles the water that did not
operation of such a system. Steam or hot water heats evaporate in the evaporator back to the spray heads.
the water and lithium bromide solution in the genera- The generator pump (3) moves the strong solution
tor. The water turns to water vapor and boils out of the up to the generator.
solution. The water vapor is then condensed by a water- The temperature changes in the system are
cooled condenser. The water flows into the evaporator. marked on the drawing. Cooling water leaves the
There, it evaporates and is absorbed by the concentrated evaporator at 44°F (7°C). It travels through the cooling
lithium bromide (weak) solution in the absorber. coils located in the rooms to be air conditioned (com-
Three pumps maintain the pressure difference. fort-cooled). The water then returns to the evapora-
The absorber pump (1) moves the weak solution. tor at 54°F (l2°C). If the correct operating conditions

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

912 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

are maintained, the lithium bromide solution always condensed and becomes liquid water. The water flows
stays in liquid form. The condenser cooling water also by gravity through an orifice into the evaporator. The
cools the absorber, increasing the solution's ability to water evaporates at a low temperature due to a near-
absorb water. perfect vacuum in the system. The water vapor is
The type of lithium bromide absorption system in absorbed by the lithium bromide solution as it enters
Figure 34-11 and Figure 34-12 uses pumps to circulate the absorber.
the liquids through the system. Some lithium bromide Note that the absorber and condenser are both
absorption systems rely on gravity to circulate the liq- cooled by water coils. The condenser water is cooled in
uids through the system, Figure 34-13. a cooling tower and recirculated. Cooling towers were
Steam heat applied to the generator percolates discussed in Chapter 33, Commercial Air-Conditioning
water vapor and weak solution up to the separa- Systems. The condensing pressure in a system like this
tor. The weak solution then flows by gravity through is about 50 mm to 60 mm Hg (about 1 psia or 6.9 kPa).
the heat exchanger. It flows to the absorber where it The evaporating pressure is 8 mm Hg to 10 mm Hg
absorbs water vapor that is exiting the evaporator. The (about 0.17 psia or 1.2 kPa). Lithium chromate is often
strong solution settles to the bottom of the absorber. It used as a corrosion inhibitor.
returns to the generator after passing through the heat
exchanger. The pressure difference is maintained by Chiller Control Centers
the pressure head of the solution. Many modern chillers are equipped with a con-
In the upper half of the system, the water vapor trol center. The control center displays performance
in the separator rises to the condenser. There, it is information, such as inlet and outlet temperatures of

Generator Condenser

___. Cooling
water out

out

Heat
exchanger

Absorber Evaporator

Chilled
- - water in

\?:::::::!!!!::::::::::::::!:::::::::::!::::::::~:::::::::::::a ___. Chilled

Cooling water out
water in

Generator pump Absorber pump Evaporator pump

• Strong solution D Weak solution • Liquid refrigerant (water) D Vapor refrigerant (water)
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 34-11. Process schematic of a lithium bromide absorption chiller.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 913

244°F-270°F
Steam or hot water

Cooling water out

103°F

0
co 210°F
-- 95°F
""CJ
en
_pi" Chilled water
N
N
t ! out

-- !
;:::i,
I 44°F
I\)
_o
co
;:::i,
r
ffi
-- i
54°F

Chilled water
i
I\) in
0
t
l 95°F

--
Cooling water
in
85°F

D Weak solution

•• Strong solution

--
I
Liquid refrigerant (water)
D Vapor refrigerant (water)

The Trane Co
Figure 34-12. Absorption-type air conditioning system. It uses water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide solution as the I
absorbant.

the chiller, condenser, and hot water circuits. It also building is increased. The use of energy by-products
indicates generator pressure and temperature, refrig- from one process as the primary energy source for
erant and solution temperatures, and heat input. The another process is referred to as cogeneration. For
panel may display additional information, such as example, a building using steam to run a generator
the unit's total operating hours, number of starts, and turbine could use the waste heat from that process to
number of purge cycles completed. operate an absorption chiller. See Figure 34-14.

Efficiency Advantages of Absorption Chillers

The application of absorption refrigeration sys- Pro Tip
tems in comfort cooling and heating is increasing. Tri generation
Energy efficiency is critical in most commercial appli- A power plant that produces electricity and use-
cations, and an absorption system offers increased ful steam is referred to as a cogeneration plant, or
energy efficiency in many situations. combined heat and power (CHP) plant. If some of that
When the waste or by-product energy from one steam is used for heating and some is used to power
process is used as the primary source of energy for an absorption chiller, the process is referred to as a
another process, the overall energy efficiency of a trigeneration or polygeneration .

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

914 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Cooling _
water out

Evaporator-changes liquid
water to water vapor
Condenser-changes
water vapor to
t liquid water
Cooling effect
produced
as water
evaporates

Separator-separates water
vapor from lithium
bromide solution

Absorber-recombines
water vapor
--..---- and lithium
Pump tubes-raise
bromide solution
solution to separator

t Cooling
water in

-
Steam in

- Heat exchanger-cools warm solution from

generator with cool solution from absorber

I• Strong solution D Weak solution • Liquid refrigerant (water) D Vapor refrigerant (water) I
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 34-13. Absorption cycle that uses water as refrigerant and lithium bromide as the absorbant. This system relies on gravity
to circulate the fluids through the system.

Absorption units provide very high efficiency gas prices are usually lower during these months.
when they are used in conjunction with solar energy Absorption chillers take advantage of this price reduc-
systems. With the right equipment setup, the heat tion and provide chilled cooling water at an economi-
generated by solar energy can be used to heat water, cal cost during peak cooling load seasons.
which can then either be used to heat the building or
to operate an absorption cooling system that will cool
the building. 34.3 Absorption System Service
An advantage of using a gas-fired absorption
chiller is seasonal energy costs. Gas usage is tradi- Most residential absorption systems are service-
tionally lower during the summer months. Therefore, able. They are typically equipped with service valves.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 915

Fuel and air in The solution cylinder is then charged with anhy-

i drous ammonia. Anhydrous ammonia is available in

25-lb (11-kg) cylinders. The cylinder has both a vapor
and a liquid valve. Figure 31-15 shows the charging
Electricity
out arrangement.
Electrical
generator
Note that the charging line is connected to the liq-
uid valve of the anhydrous ammonia cylinder. The pail
is partly filled with water. It is connected to the vapor
valve of the solution cylinder. Vapor is purged from
Exhaust
the solution cylinder if necessary to lower the pressure.
out
(This will enable anhydrous ammonia to flow into the
solution cylinder.) The water in the pail will absorb the
Chilled
water out small amount of ammonia purged.
Heat recovery Absorption
boiler chiller
The system must have the correct pressures and
Steam the correct amount of anhydrous ammonia. It must
out also have the correct amount of distilled water and
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
corrosion inhibitor. To check pressures, install a 100%
steel gauge manifold, steel lines, and steel fittings. Do
Figure 34-14. Cogeneration example. A gas turbine powers a
generator to produce electricity. Exhaust from the gas turbine
not use any equipment containing copper or brass. The
heats a boiler. Steam from the boiler is used to power an steel gauge manifold must have standard steel fittings
absorption chiller. and steel valves. The manifold will operate exactly
like the gauge manifolds described in earlier chapters,
Figure 34-16.
Leaks in ammonia absorption systems can often
However, the technician should be trained by the man- be detected by smell. If a leak is too small to produce
ufacturer before attempting to service these systems. a noticeable odor, a wet litmus paper test strip can
be moved around the suspected leak site. The litmus
Safety Note paper will turn red if it is exposed to ammonia.
Working with Ammonia-Based Absorption
Systems Caution
Ammonia is toxic and flammable when mixed at No Bubble Leaks with Ammonia
certain ratios with air. Wear a face shield or safety gog- Bubble leak tests cannot be used for ammonia
gles when working with ammonia. Because ammonia absorption systems. The leaking ammonia would be
reacts with some metals, you should use only steel or
aluminum tubing, gauges, fittings, and manifolds when
servicing ammonia systems.

34.3.1 Servicing Ammonia-Based

absorbed by the soapy water without producing bubbles.

34.3.2 Servicing Lithium Bromide-

Based Absorption Systems
Lithium bromide is a nontoxic, nonflammable,
I
Absorption Systems nonexplosive, and chemically stable salt used in some
An ammonia-based absorption chiller is charged absorption systems. In a lithium bromide absorption
with a solution of ammonia, distilled water (pH 6.0 +), system, water is the refrigerant. Lithium bromide is
and a corrosion inhibitor. A solution cylinder is used mixed with the water as an absorbing solution. The
to charge the system with the solution. This cylinder resulting mixture is a liquid. It can be handled in open
usually has about a 45-lb (20-kg) capacity. The solu- containers but becomes corrosive when exposed to air.
tion charge is about 35 lbs (16 kg) of distilled water. It Octyl alcohol is sometimes added to reduce the sur-
also contains corrosion inhibitor and 10 lbs (4.5 kg) of face tension of the lithium bromide solution. It acts as
anhydrous ammonia (ammonia that is free of water). a wetting agent.
The solution cylinder is filled with distilled water A solution containing 65% lithium bromide by
and corrosion inhibitor (yellow in color). It is put in weight will start to crystallize at 110°F (43°C). The solu-
through the fill plug. If a white precipitate forms in the tion must not be allowed to reach lithium bromide con-
solution, the solution should be discarded and a new centrations high enough or temperatures low enough
batch made. to allow crystallization.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

916 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Center
Vapor plug Liquid Liquid Vapor
valve valve valve valve

Charging
hose

Bucket
A

B
C
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 31-15. Cylinders set up for recharging an absorption system. A-The solution cylinder has a liquid valve, vapor valve,
and center plug. It is being charged with liquid ammonia from the cylinder at the right (1 lb ammonia for each 2 lbs distilled water).
B-Ammonia cylinder on a scale. C-The pail holds water and a purge line connected to the gas valve of the solution cylinder.
Purging decreases pressure in A to allow flow from B.

A B
Ritchie Engineering Co., Inc. - YELLOW JACKET Products Division
Figure 34-16. Ammonia systems typically use gauges, hoses, and fittings made from steel. A-Gauge manifold for ammonia
system. Notice the chemical formula for ammonia: NH 3 • B-Refrigerant service hose with steel fittings for use with ammonia.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 917

A typical charge is made up of the following 34.4 Evaporative Cooling

ingredients:
As you have already learned, if warm, dry air is
• Lithium bromide solution 120 gal (454 liters).
moved rapidly over water at the same temperature,
• Corrosion inhibitor 1 pt (473 ml). some of the water will evaporate. When those water
• Refrigerant (water) 35 gal (132 liters). molecules evaporate, they absorb heat energy from the
• Octyl alcohol (2-ethylhexanol) 1 gal (3.7 liters). surrounding molecules, causing the temperature of
The solution becomes thicker if the amount of the remaining liquid water to drop. When this natu-
lithium bromide in the solution increases. A greater ral cooling process is used to cool a space or objects, it
concentration of lithium bromide will cause a greater is referred to as evaporative cooling. In dry climates,
temperature difference between the evaporator and evaporative cooling is both effective and practical.
the chilled water. If solution concentration gets too For example, if air that is 105°F (41°C) with 20% rel-
high, the refrigerant will turn solid and must be dis- ative humidity is blown over a reservoir of water, some
solved. If the absorber becomes too cold (below 85°F or of the water will evaporate. The remaining water can
29°C), solidification can also occur. cool to as low as 55°F (13°C). Normally, the water will
cool down to a range of about 65°F (18°C) to 70°F (21°C).
Safety Note As air is forced around the water container, the air is
cooled to approximately 75°F (24°C) or 80°F (27°C) with
Working with Lithium Bromide
about 40% relative humidity. The cooled air can then
Lithium bromide solution may irritate skin, eyes,
be distributed into the space to be cooled. The condi-
and mucous membranes. Always use protective gloves,
tioned room would be quite comfortable. Figure 34-17
face mask, and eye protection when working with lith-
ium bromide.
illustrates such a system.

Maintenance of a lithium bromide absorption sys- 34.4.1 Indoor Applications

tem should include the following tests:
Evaporative cooling is often used in climates with
• Specific gravity. bright sunshine and low relative humidity. For exam-
• Alkalinity and pH. ple, evaporative cooling can maintain a safe tempera-
• Copper content. ture for plants growing in greenhouses. The typical
evaporative cooling system used in greenhouses is

I
• Suspended solids.
shown in Figure 34-18.
• Corrosion inhibitor concentration. At one end of the greenhouse is an opening cov-
To check the system for leaks, it is charged with ered by a tight lattice of fibers such as excelsior (fine
nitrogen or helium in accordance with the manufac- curled wood shavings). At the top of the lattice are
turer's instructions. Soapy water is applied to potential water pipes with small holes. Water leaks out of the
leak points, such as welded joints, sight glasses, and dia- 1
small holes and flows downward, wetting the fibers. A
phragm valves. If bubbles form, a leak is indicated. After fan at the other end of the greenhouse draws in outside
the leak test, the nitrogen or helium is removed, any air through the lattice. The air entering the greenhouse
necessary repairs are made, and the system is purged. is cooled by the evaporation of the water on the lattice
Proper purging is necessary to remove any nonconden- surfaces. Plants do best under conditions of high rela-
sibles from the refrigerant-absorber solution. tive humidity. Therefore, this type of cooling is ideal.
It provides a high relative humidity as well as a lower
Pro Tip temperature inside the greenhouse.
Maintenance of Lithium Bromide Absorption Foundries sometimes use this system in situations
Chillers where a few degrees of cooling are desirable. In such
Once air enters a lithium bromide system, the lithium installations, the evaporation takes place in a structure
bromide solution becomes highly corrosive. The damage on the roof of the building. The cooled air is brought
caused by corrosive solution can make it very difficult to down into the work area.
recondition a failing system. Every effort should be made
to prevent air from entering the system and to keep the
lithium bromide solution properly balanced and free of 34.4.2 Wet Roof Cooling
contaminants. The manufacturer's maintenance recom-
Wet roof cooling is a method of cooling indoor
mendations must be closely followed.
temperature by the evaporation of water on a

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

918 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Wetted

Blower

Hot
outdoor
air
-
---
-~-
-- e~~ To cooled space
Air 15°F to 30°F
(8°C to 17°C)
cooler than
outdoor air
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 34-17. Evaporative cooling process. Outside air filters through a water-saturated evaporative medium, is cooled by
evaporation, and is circulated by a blower.

building's roof. Like other applications of evaporative mists small amounts of water onto the roof of a build-
cooling, it is used primarily in climates where ambi- ing. The water droplets evaporate when they hit the hot
ent air temperatures are high and relative humidity is roof. In doing so, the water absorbs a relatively large
low. There are numerous methods of wet roof cooling. amount of heat from the roof's surface. Roof mist cool-
Some systems are designed so that the roof is a trough ing is designed to prevent heat from entering a struc-
or pond. ture. It is a simple method of cooling. The cost of a roof
With a roof pond cooling, the entire surface of the misting system may be less than the cost of other types
roof remains wet and the water is replaced as it evapo- of mechanical air-conditioning equipment.
rates. Roof ponds are typically 2"-3" (50 mm-75 mm) Roof mist cooling systems operate only during the
deep. Where there is bright sunshine much of the day, summer and primarily during daylight hours. However,
the building heat load may be high. If the relative the systems may be operated into the night for addi-
humidity is low, a roof pond can maintain a comfort- tional cooling. One type of system cools the water at
able indoor temperature. night and stores it in an insulated container. The water
Roof misting systems are another type of wet roof cooled at night is then used for evaporative cooling dur-
cooling system. A roof mist cooling system periodically ing the day. A roof mist cooling system can reduce the

Trough
I• Cold water I
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 34-18. A typical evaporative cooling system used in a greenhouse.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 919

flow of solar heat from the roof into the building's inte- through the roof to the interior of the building. It should
rior by more than 90% during daylight hours. be noted that solar radiation transferred through the
A roof mist cooling system includes a network of roof is generally the largest contributor of unwanted
water pipes on the roof. The network is a supply line heat inside a building. A roof misting system virtually
that branches into "fields." Depending on water pres- eliminates the roof as a contributor to the internal heat
sure available, fields are generally 5000 ft2 (465 m 2) or load. See Figure 34-20.
larger. Spray heads are distributed throughout the net- The higher the temperature of air, the more water
work of piping and are turned on and off by solenoid vapor it can hold. Evaporation will continue even
valves, Figure 34-19. when the surrounding air's relative humidity is 100%,
An electronic control designed specifically for as long as the temperature of the roof is higher than
roof misting turns the solenoid valves on and off as the wet-bulb temperature of the air/vapor combination
needed. The solenoid valves open and close the water adjacent to the surface. The roof cooling system should
supply to the sprinkler heads. The electronic control maintain a roof surface temperature close to the wet-
receives data from temperature sensors on the roof and bulb temperature of the air surrounding it, thereby
uses that data to calculate the amount of water that can minimizing the transfer of heat from the roof into the
be evaporated at any given time. Only that amount building.
of water is sprayed onto the roof. This prevents water In circumstances where the interior of a building
runoff, waste of water, and water stagnation. is very hot due to generation of heat within the build-
Evaporation continues as long as the roof's surface ing, cooling the roof can transfer the internal heat to
temperature is greater than the wet-bulb temperature the outside of the roof. The cooler the roof is, the greater
of the ambient air. Roof temperatures of 150°F-165°F the amount of internal heat that will be transferred to
(65°C-74°C) can be reduced by 60°F-75°F (33°C-42°C), the roof, where it is dissipated.
thus reducing the heat gain into the building through Evaporative roof cooling can be used as a stand-
the roof. alone system or in conjunction with a mechanical air-
As the water mist evaporates, the roof is cooled. This conditioning system or energy management program.
reduces the amount of solar radiation (heat) transferred

A B
Sprinkool Systems International, Inc.
Figure 34-19. Roof misting system. A-The system consists of a network of piping and spray heads, creating a cooling field.
B-lndividual spray head.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

920 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Roof Temperature
155

150
: : : : : : : : : : :
145 : ~ :

140
i/
:
I\ : : : :
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
I : \ : : : :
135

130
r I

125
\i
E 120 I \
G)
; 115
V !\
'ta
/: \
ai 110
: : : : :
0.
E
{!!. 105
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
: I :
: : : : \ : :

100 :
\
95 !/ :
: .,.v
'- ~
;--........ \
90 I/ ~ i\
I/ ~ ~ ~i
85

80
/{ ~K
75 K"~ VJ ~
'~ l,/: : : : : : : : :
70 : : : : : : : :
12:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00
AM AM AM AM AM AM PM PM PM PM PM PM AM
Sprinkool Systems International, Inc.
Figure 34-20. Graph showing the real-time temperature reductions using a roof cooling system (RCS). The red line denotes the
roof temperature with the system off. The blue line indicates the roof temperature with the system on.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Commercial absorption systems may be direct-
fired or indirect-fired. Direct-fired systems use
• An absorption refrigeration system uses heat a burner or other heat source inside the system
energy to drive the refrigeration process. Both to directly heat the solution in the generator.
compression and absorption refrigeration Indirect-fired systems use piped-in steam, hot
systems use evaporators and condensers, but water, or hot gas to heat the solution in the
instead of using a compressor, absorption generator.
systems use a generator. • Absorption systems can be further classified as
• The two classifications of absorption single-effect or double-effect systems. In single-
refrigeration systems are intermittent and effect systems, all of the heat absorbed during
continuous-cycle. Intermittent systems do not the condensation of the refrigerant is rejected
have a constant power source; therefore, they from the system through a cooling tower. In
run on a single charge for a given amount of a double-effect system, some of the heat from
time. Continuous-cycle systems have a constant the high-temperature generator is used to
power source; therefore, they run as long and create additional vapor in the low-temperature
often as needed. generator.
• Absorption systems can use ammonia as • Some commercial absorption systems use
the refrigerant and water as the absorbant, ammonia as the refrigerant and water as
or water as the refrigerant and lithium the absorbant. Other systems use water as
bromide as the absorbant. The heat needed the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the
to run an absorption system can come from absorbant.
many sources, including natural gas, LP gas, • Some simple evaporative cooling systems, like
kerosene, steam, solar energy, and electricity. those used in some greenhouses, draw air
• In a typical absorption chiller, heat supplied through a wetted medium into the space to be
to the generator boils refrigerant out of a cooled. This cools the air being drawn in and
refrigerant-absorber solution. The solution, increases its humidity.
which contains very little refrigerant (weak • Evaporative cooling can be used to cool roofs
solution), then travels to the absorber. The in order to prevent the transfer of heat from the
refrigerant vapor passes to the condenser, roof to the interior of the building or to transfer

I
where it is changed to a liquid. The liquid heat from inside a building to outside. Roof
refrigerant passes through a restriction, into the cooling systems are usually ponds or mists.
evaporator where it turns into refrigerant vapor • A roof pond is a shallow pool of water that
again. As it evaporates, it absorbs heat from the continuously evaporates and is replenished,
water in the cooling coil. The refrigerant vapor cooling the roof. A roof mist cooling system
travels into the absorber, where it is reabsorbed sprays a precise amount of water onto the roof.
by the solution, returned to the generator, and The water evaporates quickly, cooling the roof
begins the cycle again. in the process.
• Residential absorption chillers are typically
installed outside on a slab. The cooling coil
is installed in the plenum of the air handler. Review Questions
Controls for such systems can include gas
valves, ignition system, flame detectors, chilled Answer the following questions using the information in
water switches, and time delays for heating and this chapter.
cooling.
1. While compression systems use mechanical
• The capacity of an absorption chiller system energy to power refrigeration, absorption
is dependent on ambient air temperature systems use _ _ energy to do the same.
and the temperature of the chilled water. A. heat
The capacity is directly proportional to the B. magnetic
temperature of the chilled water leaving the C. mechanical
system and inversely proportional to ambient D. nuclear
air temperature.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 921

922 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

2. In an absorption system, a substance that 9. In a residential absorption chiller, the _ _ is

soaks up the refrigerant returning from the installed in the air handler plenum.
evaporator is called the _ _. A. absorber
A. absorbant B. evaporator
B. affinity C. generator
C. precooler D. water-type cooling coil
D. restrictor 10. When an absorption heat pump is in heating
3. Which of the following is the process in mode, _ _.
which a solid attracts and holds a substance A. the evaporator acts like a condenser
on its outer surfaces? B. the condenser acts like an evaporator
A. Absorption. C. the generator acts like an absorber
B. Adsorption. D. All of the above.
C. Subcooling. 11. Which of the following statements regarding
D. Superheating. an indirect-fired absorption system is true?
4. Which of the following is the process in A. Indirect-fired absorption systems do not
which a substance attracts and combines have a generator.
with another substance to form a uniform B. Indirect-fired absorption systems must have
solution? a secondary (low-temperature) generator.
A. Absorption. C. Steam, hot water, or hot gas is produced
B. Adsorption. away from the system and delivered
C. Subcooling. through pipes.
D. Superheating. D. All of the above.
5. When an absorption system is operating, 12. Which of the following best explains the
high pressure is maintained in the _ _. difference between a double-effect absorption
A. absorber and generator system and single-effect absorption system?
B. condenser and evaporator A A double-effect system has a lower operating
C. condenser and generator efficiency than a single-effect system.
D. evaporator and generator B. A double-effect absorption system has
6. When a solution in an absorption system both a primary and secondary generator.
is saturated with refrigerant, it is a(n) _ _ C. A double-effect absorption system
solution. requires less heat input to operate than a
A. affinity single-effect system.
B. cogeneration D. In a double-effect absorption system, the
C. strong function of the absorber and condenser
D. weak are combined in a single chamber.
7. In an absorption system, refrigerant is boiled 13. Which of the following is not true when an
out of the refrigerant-absorber solution in the absorption system changes from cooling to
heating mode?
A. absorber A. Cooling water is shut off.
B. condenser B. The generator produces no heat.
C. evaporator C. One or more valves change position.
D. generator D. Water sent to the conditioned space is
warmed.
8. Which of the following may be used for a
heat source in absorption chillers? 14. Which of the following statements regarding
A. Natural gas. ammonia absorption systems is not true?
B. Steam. A. Ammonia acts as the refrigerant.
C. Electricity. B. Water boils out of the solution in the
D. All of the above. generator and condenses in the condenser.
C. Water acts as the absorbant.
D. All of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 34 Absorption and Evaporative Cooling Systems 923

15. Which of the following statements regarding

lithium bromide absorption systems is not
true?
A. Lithium bromide acts as the refrigerant.
B. Water acts as the absorbant.
C. Lithium bromide is reabsorbed by the
weak solution in the absorber.
D. All of the above.
16. Using waste heat from one process to power
another process is referred to as _ _.
A. coadaptation
B. cogeneration
C. polyreabsorption
D. power derivation
lZ For servicing ammonia absorption systems, it
is important that the gauge manifold, valves,
lines, and fittings used should never be made
of
A. aluminum
B. cast iron
C. copper
D. steel
18. A water and lithium bromide solution should
not be exposed to air to prevent the solution
from becoming _ _.
A. bitter
B. corrosive
C. explosive
D. nuclear
19. Roof misting and roof ponds are examples of
_ _ cooling systems.
A. absorption
B. evaporative
C. excelsior
D. trigeneration
20. Wet roof cooling is most effective in _ _
climates.
A. cool, dry
I
B. cool, humid
C. hot, dry
D. hot, humid

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER35 Hum.idity Control

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Understand the basics of relative humidity (rh),
moisture content in the air, and the effect of dry-bulb
temperature on humidity levels.
• Summarize the effects of high and low relative
humidity levels on people and building materials.
• Compare different approaches to controlling indoor
relative humidity.
• Understand how humidistats control humidifiers and
dehumidifiers.
Chapter Outline • Compare the design and operation of evaporative
humidifiers, atomizing humidifiers, and vaporizing
35.1 Humidity Levels and Comfort humidifiers.
35.1.1 Humidifier Basics
• Explain the different ways water is supplied to
35.1.2 Humidistats
humidifiers and compare the different type of water
35.2 Types of Humidifiers
that can be used (hard, naturally soft, softened,
35.2.1 Central Humidifier Designs
demineralized, and distilled).
35.2.2 Portable Humidifiers
35.3 Dehumidifying Equipment • Summarize the design and operation of a typical
35.3.1 Dehumidifiers dehumidifier.
35.3.2 Use of Desiccants • Understand the steps involved in humidifier
35.4 Servicing and Installing Humidifiers installation and service.
 Chapter 35 Humidity Control 925

Technical Terms • Relative humidity is stated as a percentage. Air with

a relative humidity of 25% contains only one-fourth
air changes per hour nozzle-type humidifier of the moisture it is capable of holding. (Chapter 27)
(ACH) piezoelectric crystal • Dew point is the temperature below which water
atomizing humidifier piezoelectric (ultrasonic) vapor in the air will start to condense. It is the
bypass humidifier humidifier temperature at which air will have 100% relative
central humidifier plate humidifier humidity. (Chapter 27)
dehumidifier plenum-mounted
demineralized water humidifier
desiccant portable humidifier Introduction
evaporative humidifier rotating disk humidifier
fixed filter humidifier rotating drum humidifier Good, complete air-conditioning systems must pro-
humidifier soft water vide heat, remove heat, and clean and circulate the air.
humidistat softened water Most systems accomplish all of these tasks. However,
hygroscopic element under-duct humidifier many systems do not completely control the relative
impeller humidifier vaporizing humidifier humidity of the air. To control relative humidity, there
medium hard water very hard water must be two devices in the system ready to be used at
any time, winter or summer:
• A device to add water vapor to the air (humidifier).
Review of Key Concepts • A device to remove water vapor from the air
(dehumidifier).
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter: In some central air-conditioning systems, a humidi-
• Latent heat is heat that changes the physical stat causes the system to operate if the air is too moist.
state of a substance, such as ice melting or water The evaporator is located in the plenum chamber of
evaporating. (Chapter 4) the central air-conditioning system. When the air-
conditioning system is operating, the cold surfaces of the
• Since the evaporation of a substance, such as water
evaporator will condense out moisture, drying the air.
into vapor, requires it to absorb heat, there is a
This method provides fairly effective humidity control
cooling effect around the substance from where the
during the cooling season.
heat is drawn into the substance. (Chapter 4)

I
Another method of controlling humidity is to bring
• Since the condensing of a substance, such as vapor in and mix cool air and warm air to achieve the desired
into water, requires it to expel heat, there is a temperature and relative humidity. Both cool and warm
warming effect around the substance. (Chapter 4)
air should have a normal (50%) relative humidity. By
• Humidity is the presence of moisture or water vapor mixing these air volumes in different proportions, the
in the air. Humidity is moisture in vapor form, and it needed temperature and relative humidity conditions I
is invisible. (Chapter 27) can be produced.
• The amount of moisture that air will hold depends
on the air temperature. Warm air holds more
moisture than cold air. (Chapter 27)
• Relative humidity (rh) is a term used to express the
amount of moisture in an air sample compared to
the total amount of moisture the same sample would
hold if it were completely saturated at the same
temperature. (Chapter 27)
926 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

35.1 Humidity Levels and Comfort Too much humidity may cause swelling of hygro-
scopic materials (such as wood products). It may cause
Relative humidity (rh) is a ratio of the moisture condensation on cold surfaces, such as windows, win-
content in the air compared to the maximum amount dow frames, and doors. Water vapor may also condense
of moisture that the air can hold at its current tempera- on the inner surface of outside walls. Wood frames can
ture. As air is heated, it is able to hold more moisture, rot from water dripping off cold glass window panes.
so its relative humidity decreases (unless additional Mold can grow and rot can occur if a home's relative
moisture is added). For example, when outside air at humidity level is maintained above 50%. At a relative
30°F (-1°C) and 90% rh is heated to 72°F (22°C), its rh humidity of 70%, mold thrives.
drops to about 18%. The amount of moisture in the air During the heating season, the windows and exte-
is the same, but humidity has dropped. The psychro- rior walls of a building can often be much colder than
metric chart in Figure 35-1 shows this relationship. the indoor air temperature. If the temperature of the
Human comfort requires a relative humidity walls or window panes falls below the dew point of
between 30% and 50%. A lower relative humidity the indoor air, condensation will form. This condensa-
results in dry skin, mouth, nose, and throat. A low tion can drip onto wood and drywall surfaces where
relative humidity also causes hygroscopic materials to it will support mold growth, mildew, and rot. For this
lose moisture. Examples of common hygroscopic mate- reason, it is sometimes necessary to lower the humid-
rials include natural wood fibers (wood furniture and ity indoors when the temperature outside is extremely
woodwork) and most foods. Low relative humidity can cold. Although drier air might not be as comfortable in
cause wood to crack and furniture joints to get loose. the short term, it will help prevent condensation from
Dry air also promotes the generation of static electric- forming and the damage and health problems that can
ity. To increase relative humidity, moisture must be result from it.
added to the air. The chart shown in Figure 35-2 identifies the rec-
Typical indoor moisture sources are plumbing ommended indoor relative humidity levels for various
devices, cooking, and perspiration. In fact, all water- outdoor temperatures. The recommended indoor rela-
based activities in a building increase the relative tive humidity is 40% when the indoor temperature is
humidity. Perspiration and respiration of humans and 72°F (22°C) and the outdoor temperature is 30°F (-l C). 0

animals increase relative humidity. In addition, mois- If the temperature outside drops to 0°F (-l8°C), the rec-
ture in the air can be increased and controlled with ommended indoor relative humidity level would be
humidifiers. 25%. A higher relative humidity level would increase
the risk of condensation forming. If the indoor tem-
perature is cooler than 72°F (22°C), the recommended
.35 indoor relative humidity levels would be slightly
~ higher than those listed. If the indoor temperature is
160 401e above 72°F (22°C), the recommended relative humidity
45 ~
140 a: levels would be slightly lower.
.50 i
120 :c
.60 .!!!
.0
100 .70 "i
.80 rn
80 :O .90 Recommended Indoor Relative Humidity
~ Based on Outdoor Temperatures
60 "§
.!!? Outside Recommended Inside
40
'6
,.5 Temperature RH (at 72°F)
20 :!
-10°F 20%

20 30 40 50 60 7072 80 90 100 0°F 25%

Dry-Bulb Temperature (°F)
10°F 30%
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
20°F 35%
Figure 35-1. This graph shows that an increase in dry-bulb
temperature results in a decrease in relative humidity but a 30°F 40%
constant moisture content (grain/lb). A-Starting point. The air
is at 30°F (-1 °C) with a 90% rh. B-The air sample is heated Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
from 30°F (-1 °C) to 72 °F (22 °C) without adding any water Figure 35-2. This chart shows the recommended inside
vapor. As a result, the relative humidity decreases from 90% relative humidity based on outside air temperature when
to 18%. inside temperature is kept at 72 °F (22 °C).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 35 Humidity Control 927

35.1.1 Humidifier Basics of moisture required to maintain a relative humidity

of 30% can be significant. For example, it may require
The term humidifier refers to equipment that adds the addition of up to 25 gallons of water to the air of
water vapor to the air. For example, imagine a system a 3,000 square foot home to maintain 30% relative
where the air returning to a warm air furnace is 60°F humidity at 72°F (22°C).
(16°C) with 25% rh. The furnace heats the air to 140°F Humidifiers are used to add needed moisture
(60°C), and a humidifier adds moisture to the warmed (water vapor) to room air. A ranch home that is 25' x
air. This heated air is then mixed with the air in the 60' with 8' ceilings has a volume of 12,000 ft 3 • Up to
room. 16 gallons of water may need to be added to the air per
The graph in Figure 35-3 shows the effects of the day. The amount of water needed would be impacted
heating and humidifying process. The line from A to by the relative humidity of the intake air entering the
B represents the air being heated. The line from B to building. If air entering the space has a high moisture
C represents the warm air passing over the humidi- or humidity level, less water would need to be added.
fier. The temperature of the air decreases, but the latent Air changes per hour (ACH) is a measure of how
heat in the air increases, so the total heat remains con- many times the entire volume of air within a defined
stant. Remember, it requires about 1000 Btu to vaporize space is replaced in one hour. It is used to measure the
each pound of water. The dotted line between C and A ventilation rate. The following formula can be used
represents all of the possible temperature and relative to calculate the number of air changes necessary in a
humidity combinations that can be created by mixing building:
various ratios of the heated and humidified air with
untreated air. D indicates the final condition of the air Air changes per hour airflow (in cfm) x 60 min
as it is delivered to the conditioned space. volume of room (cubic feet)
The ideal relative humidity for a room depends
on personal preference. Some people like more humid-
ity than others. As a general rule, relative humidity 35.1.2 Humidistats
should be maintained at about 30%. During extremely A humidistat is a control device that responds
cold weather, a home loses humidity. Cold air inside a to changes in humidity and activates and deactivates
home being heated to 73°F can have a relative humid- parts of the humidity control system, such as humidifi-
ity as low as 6%. As a comparison, the humidity in the ers, dehumidifiers, or air mixers as needed. It is usually
Sahara Desert is approximately 25%. located in the same room as the temperature con-

I
Too much moisture in the air may result in the for- trols. In humidifiers, the humidistat closes the circuit
mation of bacteria and fungus, and too little moisture when humidity decreases (drops). On a dehumidifier,
can dry out building materials and skin. The amount the humidistat closes the circuit when the humidity
increases (rises). See Figure 35-4.
Humidistats are typically adjustable to maintain
relative humidity between 20% and 90%. Most humidi- 1
stat sensing elements should be mounted on a return
r air duct at a minimum of 6" upstream of the bypass
duct or humidifier. A humidifier's solenoid valve opens
only when the furnace and blower are running. If the
water is still flowing when the furnace is not running,
there is a bad connection or valve that is not seated
,....- --"' c
I properly. Figure 35-5 shows two humidistats.
_ ..,.,... I
The sensing element of a traditional electrome-
,....-" D
chanical humidistat is called a hygroscopic element.
Such an element stretches as the moisture content of
the air increases and shrinks as humidity decreases.
60°F 100°F 140°F
Commonly used hygroscopic elements include human
Dry-Bulb Temperature -
hair, wood, nylon ribbon, and membranes.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Electronic humidistats are equipped with solid-
Figure 35-3. This psychrometric chart depicts a warm air state sensors in place of a hygroscopic element. In an
recirculating heating cycle. A-Cold air return. A to B-
electronic humidistat, the sensor resistance changes as
Heating in furnace. B to C-Humidifying air. C to A-Range of
conditions available by mixing warmed and humidified air with the moisture content of the air changes. Some materi-
room air. D-Final condition after mixing. als used in solid-state sensors include:

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

928 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

L1 L2

· - - - - - - - - 120 V -------+-I

Humidifier
motor
r-----7
I I
1------:.-I___. _--;1----r-----1

t_____
I I
'.{ST I

Closes on
decrease
J

• ---
OFF
-
of relative
humidity t
Solenoid
water valve
A

L1 L2 ,.,. .,,11
'4---------- 120 V -------+-I

r-----7
I I
I _--;1_ _ _---1
I I
t_____
I I
J

Closes on Dehumidifier
rise of relative compressor
humidity
B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 35-4. This diagram shows the role of a humidistat in a
humidifier and in a dehumidifier. A-In a humidifier, the humidistat General Filters, Inc.
energizes the solenoid water valve and humidifier motor when
Figure 35-5. Humidistats are available with analog dial
humidity drops below a set level. B-ln a dehumidifier, the
adjustments or incremental digital adjustments for controlling
humidistat activates the dehumidifier compressor when the
relative humidity.
relative humidity rises above a set level.

• Hygroscopic salt (for example, lithium chloride). 35.2 Types of Humidifiers

• Carbon particles embedded in a hygroscopic Humidifiers can be attached into ductwork, in
material. which case they add moisture to the air before it leaves
In these substances, the resistance decreases as the the supply ducts and enters the conditioned space.
humidity increases. An electronic humidistat recog- These types of humidifiers are referred to as central
nizes the changes in resistance in these materials and humidifiers. Humidifiers can also be standalone units
generates a corresponding output signal. that are placed in the spaces where the humidity level
The change in size, shape, or electrical resistance is to be maintained. These types of humidifiers are
of the sensing element is used to operate a switch that referred to as portable humidifiers.
activates or deactivates a humidity control system, like
a humidifier or dehumidifier, or triggers a damper
actuator. An electronic humidistat varies its output 35.2.1 Central Humidifier Designs
current based on an internal resistance that changes Central humidifiers are humidifying units that
with humidity. are incorporated into an HVAC system through bypass

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 35 Humidity Control 929

ductwork or by installing directly into the return or

supply ductwork. These installations may vary by Seasonal
damper
manufacturer.

i
A bypass humidifier humidifies bypassed air that
flows from the supply air plenum into the return air
plenum. A certain amount of conditioned air in the
supply plenum flows through a bypass duct, into the
humidifier, and back into the return plenum. Not all of
the conditioned air follows this bypass route. The air
that is bypassed is humidified, Figure 35-6.
The pressure difference between the lower pres-
sure return plenum and the higher pressure sup-
ply plenum forces some air from the supply plenum
through the bypass humidifier and into the return
plenum just ahead of the furnace. During the cool-
ing season, a damper in the bypass duct is closed
to prevent air from passing through the humidifier,
Figure 35-7. Drain
For central humidifiers that are not the bypass connection Water supply
type, there are two ways to install it into ductwork. A solenoid valve
General Filters, Inc.
plenum-mounted humidifier is installed through the
Figure 35-7. Air flows through this bypass humidifier by
side of a return or supply ductwork. An under-duct entering from behind and exiting out the side. In summer,
humidifier is installed through the bottom of a return when a humidifier will not be used, the bypass passage may
or supply ductwork. be closed by the seasonal damper.
Humidifiers can be further classified based on
the way they add moisture to the air. There are three
main categories of humidifiers: evaporative humidi-
fiers, atomizing humidifiers, and vaporizing (steam) Evaporative Humidifiers
humidifiers. Evaporative humidifiers add moisture to the air
through evaporation. In general, these humidifiers

I
contain an element that is kept damp. As air is forced
through the humidifier, some of the moisture in the
Humidistat Humidifier element evaporates, increasing the humidity of the air.
There are four main types of evaporative humidifiers:
• Plate humidifiers (low-capacity).
I
• Fixed filter humidifiers.
• Rotating drum humidifiers (for restricted spaces).
• Rotating disk humidifiers.
Plate Humidifiers
Plate humidifiers consist of a series of porous plates
and a water pan. The pan is typically equipped with a
float valve, which regulates the water level. The porous
plates are arranged so their bottom portions are sub-
merged in the water pan. The porous material acts like a
wick, drawing water up through the plate. As air passes
through and around the plates, some of the water in the
plates evaporates, increasing the humidity of the air. As
the water evaporates out of the plates, additional water
Bypass duct is drawn up through the plates by capillary action. Plate
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher humidifiers generally have a lower capacity than other
Figure 35-6. This bypass humidifier is mounted on the types of humidifiers. Also, their effectiveness decreases
return supply plenum. A bypass duct from the supply plenum as the evaporating water leaves behind mineral buildup
connects to the humidifier. that clogs the porous material.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

930 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Fixed Filter Humidifiers drum humidifier may be installed with a bypass duct
In a fixed filter humidifier, a pad consisting of running from the furnace plenum to the humidifier.
numerous layers of a tight metallic mesh is wetted by An under-duct drum humidifier is installed into the
water metered through a solenoid valve. Evaporation bottom of a duct. In both cases, heated air passes over
takes place as heated air passes through the evaporator the wet, rotating drum and absorbs moisture. The
pad. Water that has not evaporated flows to the bottom humidified air is then reheated in the furnace and dis-
of the humidifier and is drained out. Humidified air tributed throughout the house.
is then returned to the heating system and enters the Drum humidifiers should be inspected annually.
living area. Their sleeves should be checked for wear and cleaned
This type of humidifier is equipped with a sole-
noid water valve to regulate water flow, and can be a
bypass or plenum-mounted type. Figure 35-8 shows
an under-duct humidifier that uses a fixed filter.
Warm air
duct Humidistat lo],,
Rotating Drum Humidifiers
The main components of a rotating drum humidifier
are a water pan and a rotating drum. The drum is cov-
ered in an absorbent filter sleeve and the bottom por-
tion of it is submerged in the water pan. As the drum
rotates, it soaks up water from the water pan. Moisture
in drum filter sleeve material then evaporates as the
moistened section of the filter sleeve is rotated into the
airstream, Figure 35-9.
motor
Figure 35-10 shows a typical under-duct rotat-
ing drum humidifier. A float in the water pan opens
and closes a water supply valve to maintain a constant
water level in the pan. The water for the humidifier is Water
Water Solenoid
pan
typically supplied by the building's potable water lines. line valve
drain
Drum humidifiers may be wired to run when the
furnace operates or when the air handler blower oper-
Owarmwater . Coldwater
ates. Two types of installation are common: bypass
and under-duct. For a bypass installation, a standalone Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 35-9. Illustration of an under-duct humidifier using a
rotating drum to add moisture to the plenum air.

Absorbent filter
Drum

Water level
adjustment
screw

\
I
r I
Drum
motor
valve Water
Drain Water supply Drain pan
connection connection connection
Skuttle IAQ Products Skuttle IAQ Products
Figure 35-8. When a fixed filter humidifier's solenoid valve Figure 35-10. A rotating drum humidifier consists of a
opens, water flows down across the mesh medium. Heated air motorized drum with an absorbent filter sleeve, a water pan,
circulating through the ductwork evaporates the dropping water. and a float-operated water supply valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 35 Humidity Control 931

or replaced as needed. Float mechanisms should be Nozzle-Type Humidifiers

checked for calcium buildup and cleaned. Always In a nozzle-type humidifier, water is forced through
replace the sleeve with the correct replacement part. a restrictive nozzle, which creates a very fine mist. That
fine mist is injected directly into the supply airflow, where
Rotating Disk Humidifiers
it evaporates, raising relative humidity. Since this type of
Rotating disk humidifiers are similar to rotating
humidifier does not have a water reservoir, there is no risk
drum humidifiers, but instead of having a single rotat-
of problems associated with stagnant water.
ing drum covered by an absorbent sleeve, they have a
series of plastic disks covered with shallow grooves.
Pro Tip
Like the drum in a rotating drum humidifier, the disks
in a rotating disk humidifier are partially submerged Nozzle Clogging
in a water pan. Water clings to the grooves as the disks The nozzle on nozzle-type humidifiers can easily
are rotated. As air passes around the disks, the resid- become clogged with minerals from the water. If possi-
ual water on the disks evaporates, adding moisture to ble, filter the supply water. If not possible, then regularly
the air. clean the nozzle.

Pro Tip Impeller Humidifiers

Rotating Disk Humidifier Applications Impeller humidifiers have a spinning disk that
flings water against a diffuser, which atomizes the
Because the disks do not deteriorate the way an
absorbent drum sleeve deteriorates, less maintenance
water on impact. The water droplets then enter the
is required. Because there is no porous material to clog airstream, where they evaporate, raising the relative
or deteriorate, this type of humidifier is often recom- humidity of the air.
mended for situations where only hard water is available. Piezoelectric (Ultrasonic) Humidifiers
Piezoelectric (ultrasonic) humidifiers use a
Atomizing Humidifiers vibrating element to atomize water (break it up
An atomizing humidifier sprays small water into tiny droplets). Often, the vibrating element is a
droplets into the air, either by mechanically fling- piezoelectric crystal. A piezoelectric crystal is an
ing water against a diffuser or by forcing it through electronic device that vibrates when electric current
a nozzle, atomizing the water. The atomized moisture is run through it. The crystal operates at a high fre-
evaporates easily in dry, warm environments. quency of about 100 kHz (100,000 cycles per second).

I
There are three main types of atomizing See Figure 35-11.
humidifiers: A piezoelectric humidifier produces moist air that
feels cool when it comes in contact with the body. This
• Nozzle-type humidifiers.
is because the tiny droplets of water in the air quickly
• Impeller-type humidifiers. vaporize when they contact a warmer object. A piezo-
• Piezoelectric (ultrasonic) humidifiers. electric humidifier is shown in Figure 35-12. 1

Air
Connection
wires
--- Air
inlet

outlet ,......"'"""'..............----, Connecting

wires

t Crystal
plate

Water
pan --- ---water

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 35-11. In this type of humidifier, a piezoelectric crystal vibrates to break water into mist. Note that the crystal plate size is
exaggerated for clarity.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

932 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Unlike evaporative and atomizing humidifiers,

vaporizing humidifiers use their own heat source
. . .- - - Water vapor (electric heating coils) to create steam. This steam is
discharge
then added to the air to increase its humidity. Rather
than relying on the heat of the warm air, vaporizing
humidifiers can accurately control their steam produc-
tion using their own heat source.
An adjustable humidistat controls the electric heating
coil. When the humidistat turns on a vaporizing humidi-
fier, its water supply solenoid valve opens to fill the water
reservoir. When the water level touches the water level
probe, the solenoid valve closes, and the electric heater
begins heating the water. Steam rises from the water res-
ervoir and travels through tubing to enter the airstream
leaving the furnace, increasing the humidity, Figure 35-13.
Vaporizing humidifiers are relatively easy to
install. They may be designed to be installed in a duct
or plenum chamber or installed remotely with a small
duct connecting its steam chamber to the ductwork.
drain valves Vaporizing humidifiers may be used in buildings
A using steam, hydronic, or warm-air heating systems.

Central Humidifier Water Supply

/ Water
/ vapor
In most central humidifiers, water is supplied to the
humidifier through potable (suitable for drinking) water
lines. Typically, a saddle valve is used to tap into one of the
home's water lines. Then, compression fittings are used to
connect tubing between the saddle valve and the humidi-
fier's water supply valve, Figure 35-14.

Piezoelectric
humidifier

B
with permission from Carel Industries - all right reserved
Control module
Figure 35-12. A-Piezoelectric humidifier. B-Diagram of a
piezoelectric humidifier installed in a fan coil unit.

Vaporizing (Steam) Humidifiers

Evaporative and atomizing humidifiers rely on
heat in the airstream to evaporate water. These sys-
tems work well when the air in the supply ducts is
very warm. However, the cooler the supply air is, the
less effective the humidifiers operate. Evaporative
and atomizing humidifiers may not provide adequate General Filters, Inc.
humidification when used with certain warm-air heat- Figure 35-13. A vaporizing (steam) humidifier's front panel
ing systems, like low-temperature heat pumps. conceals controls, hardware, and the steam cylinder.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 35 Humidity Control 933

Code Alert the water source. The resulting color change indicates
Accessing Domestic Water the hardness of the water. Consult a reference chart for
recommendations for water filtration.
When dealing with water, be aware of local build-
ing and plumbing codes. Some jurisdictions require that
Ideally, distilled water would be used in humidifiers
access to a water line include a T-fitting and a perma- because it does not put any foreign matter into the air. In
nent shut-off valve instead of a saddle valve. Codes may addition, it leaves no deposits in the humidifier or in the
also place restrictions on the use of compression fit- duct system. Although distilled water would be the best
tings. Check with local building authorities before begin- type of water for a humidifier, it is not available in suf-
ning work on such a project. Note that this often applies ficient quantity for use in central humidifiers. City water
to water accessed for central humidifiers and also ice is often used and results in minimal calcium buildup and
makers and water dispensers for refrigerator-freezers. corrosion of metal parts. Annual cleaning of a humidifier
will help prevent failures. In areas that have hard or very
Water from city water mains or from wells contains hard well water, a water softener is often used to remove
various types of foreign matter. If the water is to be used minerals from the home's water supply. Humidifiers that
in a humidifier, this foreign matter should be treated or operate with well water and softened well water may
removed. The quality of water varies with its source: require more frequent maintenance.
• Soft water is natural, untreated water with a low
mineral content of less than 5 grains of hardness
per gallon and no chlorides. The natural source is 35.2.2 Portable Humidifiers
rainwater. Central humidifiers can be easily added to forced.-
• Softened water is water in which minerals have been air heating systems. However, central humidifiers cannot
removed by the ion exchange process (as with a water always be added to heating systems that use hydronics,
softener). When water is softened, unwanted mineral steam, or electric heat. Also, some buildings may not need
ions are replaced with water-soluble sodium salts. humidification in every room. In such cases, occupants
• Demineralized water is water that has been may decide to use a portable humidifier.
treated to remove minerals. A portable humidifier is a stand-alone unit placed
where a specific humidity level needs to be maintained.
• Medium hard water (well water) is untreated These are used for room humidity control, not building
water with 5 to 15 grains/gal. of mineral content. humidity control. Figure 35-15 shows a typical portable
• Very hard water (well water) is untreated water humidifier.
with over 15 grains/gal. of mineral content.
Hard water is tested by using a water hardness test
kit. These kits include two strips that are dipped into

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher

Figure 35-14. A self-tapping water valve that can be used to Figure 35-15. Portable humidifiers often have a water tank
access potable water for humidifiers in jurisdictions where allowed. that needs to be removed and refilled after a cycle.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

934 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Like a central humidifier, a portable humidifier is Portable humidifiers are easily maintained. The
used to maintain the relative humidity in a given space. water tank and the wet filter can be removed and
The components of a portable humidifier are housed in cleaned or replaced. Maintenance should be performed
a single cabinet, which is located in the room or space in in strict accordance with the manufacturer's schedule
which humidity is to be increased. Many portable humid- to keep the humidifier working properly.
ifiers add moisture by circulating air across a wet filter,
though some units use ultrasonic humidification.
The cabinet has air intake and outlet openings. 35.3 Dehumidifying Equipment
Often, a fan circulates air through the cabinet. The Excessive humidity is a common problem that can
wet filter is partially submerged in a reservoir filled cause discomfort to occupants, cause wood to swell,
with water. Water wicks up the filter and is exposed and promote the growth of mold and mildew. If a con-
to the airstream. With its water tank removed, a por- ditioned space's relative humidity is too high, some
table humidifier's wet filter is accessed for inspection type of dehumidifying equipment may be needed.
or replacement, as shown in Figure 35-16. For example, buildings using electric heat frequently
An electric heating element is sometimes installed have high relative humidity. If a building envelope is
in the water pan to warm the water for greater evap- very tight, humidity can build up as a result of normal
oration. The controls on a typical cabinet humidifier activity. Common sources of humidity include:
consist of an on-off switch and a humidistat, which • Cooking.
controls the fan motor and other components, depend-
• Wash basins.
ing on the type of humidifier.
Some portable humidifiers use a float-operated • Lavatories.
switch that turns on an indicator light when the water • Respiration.
level in the water pan gets too low. Most units must be • Perspiration.
refilled manually. However, some can be connected to • Laundry.
building water supply and refilled by means of a valve • Showers and bathing.
controlled by an automatic float mechanism.
• Houseplants.
• Pets.

Wet filter (dry air inlet) 35.3.1 Dehumidifiers

A dehumidifier is a device that decreases rela-
tive humidity by condensing moisture out of the air.
Dehumidifiers have a cooling coil over which air is
blown. By keeping the coil temperature below the dew
point of the air, moisture condenses out of the air when
the air comes into contact with the cold surface.
Typically, a dehumidifier consists of a hermetic
compressor, condenser, and evaporator with a capillary
tube refrigerant control in a single packaged unit. A
motor-driven fan forces air through the evaporator. Due
to the low evaporator temperature, moisture carried in
the air condenses on the evaporator surfaces. The mois-
ture drips to the bottom of the evaporator and into the
condensate trough, Figure 35-17.
Air flowing through a dehumidifier's evapora-
tor coil is both cooled and dehumidified. The air then
flows through the condenser coil. Heat from the con-
denser is transferred to the air flowing through it.
Therefore, the air leaving a dehumidifier is about the
Humid air Humidistat Water same temperature as it was when it entered. However,
outlet reservoir air discharged from a dehumidifier has a lower rela-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher tive humidity than its intake air.
Figure 35-16. With its water tank removed, a portable humidifier's Dehumidifiers may be standalone, portable units
wet filter is revealed. A fan draws in dry air through the wet filter. for spot dehumidification or units incorporated into

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 35 Humidity Control 935

Humidistat Capillary tube Casing

Evaporator

~
~
~
On-off ~
switch ~

(Q~
Humid ~
Condensate
pan
Condenser

air in

Drain-
Motor control

D Low-pressure vapor • Low-pressure liquid D High-pressure vapor • High-pressure liquid

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 35-17_ The components and operation of a room dehumidifier are similar to those of a window air conditioner.

a central HVAC system for building dehumidifica- A whole house dehumidifier is ducted into the
tion. Often, a house may have acceptable humidity on airstream of a forced-air furnace. Air that is drawn
the ground floor and upstairs but high humidity in from all the rooms of a building through the return air
its basement or crawlspace. In such a case, a portable duct passes over the dehumidifier's evaporator coil to
dehumidifier is the solution, Figure 35-18. remove moisture. This dehumidified air then returns

I
to the rest of the ductwork, Figure 35-19.
Ducting arrangements can vary by application. Some
ducting arrangements require the dehumidifier to run
simultaneously with the HVAC system, and others require
the dehumidifier to run during the Off cycle. A dehumidi- 1
fier can work with the air conditioner to balance humidity
levels, or it can work independently of the air conditioner.
This arrangement will affect how controls are wired.

-I
- \ Dehumidified
airout

General Filters, Inc.

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Figure 35-19. A typical whole house dehumidifier. Ducts
Figure 35-18. This portable dehumidifier is located in a divert air through the dehumidifier and return it into the
basement mechanical room. airstream dehumidified.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

936 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Some duct arrangements used with dehumidi- adequate moisture to the air under all operational con-
fiers may incorporate automatic dampers to regulate ditions. Once selected, humidifiers must be carefully
airflow to dehumidify two different zones to different installed. If the unit has a water reservoir, mount it so
levels. Some ducts may include dampers be used for it is level in all directions. Use a spirit level to check
fresh air inlet from outside. the angle.
A dehumidifier is usually controlled by a humidi- The water feed line should be tapped into a cold
stat. However, some electronic thermostats have a water line. This is often done in the same manner as an
built-in humidistat function. These can be used to con- ice cube maker line, using a piercing or saddle valve.
trol heating, cooling, humidity, and fresh air intake See Figure 35-20. Check with local authorities to see
for indoor air quality control. In addition to an on-off if this is acceptable. After water lines are connected,
switch and a humidistat, a dehumidifier usually has check for leaks.
other controls for safety and optimal operation. The overflow drain tube (bleeder tube) should
One such control is a float switch. If the conden- slant down all the way to the outlet. The outlet should
sate drain line becomes clogged or restricted, moisture be at least 1" above the open drain to prevent siphoning
condensed in the dehumidifier could spill out. Before of waste water back into the potable water supply.
spilling occurs, a float switch responds by turning off The humidifier may be controlled by a low-voltage
the dehumidifier's compressor, which stops the con- humidistat and a relay or by a 120 V humidistat.
densing and accumulation of moisture. Electrical installation should be done according to the
A dehumidifier's evaporator coil surface tempera- local electrical codes. The humidifier must be plugged
ture must be kept above freezing, otherwise frost or into a grounded receptacle.
ice could form on the coil. This could happen when a After installation, the unit should be turned on
dehumidifier operates for a long time or conditioned (electricity and water) and checked for proper opera-
space air is already very cool. If frost builds up enough, tion. After each month of operation, check for bacte-
it could block airflow and stop dehumidifying the air. rial growth and scale buildup inside the humidifier. If
To prevent this from happening, a frost control ele- evidence of bacterial growth, algae, or scale is found
ment monitors temperature. If temperature drops too in the humidifier, clean the unit thoroughly and treat
low, the frost control will turn off the dehumidifier's the water in the reservoir on a regular schedule to pre-
compressor. However, the fan will continue to oper- vent future problems. Water treatment compounds are
ate to bring as much heat as possible to melt any frost available at hardware stores and HVAC supply dealers.
quickly. Once the temperature rises, the frost control
element will turn on the compressor to begin dehu-
midification again.
Saddle valve Fill valve

35.3.2 Use of Desiccants

Sometimes, dehumidification of air is accom-
plished with special chemicals called desiccants. The
chemicals are usually circulated so they are exposed
to the air. Moisture from the air is adsorbed by the
chemicals. The chemicals are then circulated to a dif-
ferent chamber where they are heated. Any moisture
adsorbed by the chemicals is released as water vapor
when the chemicals are heated. The moisture driven
out of the chemicals is exhausted to an area outside the
conditioned space. The heated, dry chemicals are then
ready to repeat the process.

35.4 Servicing and Installing

Humidifiers Humidifier Overflow
drain
Humidifier capacity should be based on the size of
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
the space being conditioned and the design conditions
Figure 35-20. A whole house humidifier with a water line
in that space. The humidifier must be able to deliver tapped from the cold water supply to the water heater.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
• Vaporizing humidifiers use a concentrated
Summary heat source to produce steam, which enters the
• Relative humidity is the ratio of the moisture airstream and increases humidity.
content of air compared to the maximum • In most central humidifier installations, water
amount of moisture that the air can hold at its is supplied to the humidifier through the
current temperature. The warmer air is, the building's potable water lines. Water often
more moisture it can hold. People are generally contains minerals that leave a residue as
comfortable at a relative humidity between 30% the water is evaporated. The most common
and50%. mineral removal process is ion exchange water
• Low relative humidity can shrink wood and softening.
dry out skin. High humidity causes wood • If hard water or softened hard water is used
to swell and allows mold and mildew to in a humidifier, it will require more frequent
grow. During the heating season, if indoor maintenance than a humidifier that uses
relative humidity levels are not adjusted natural soft water or city water.
to correspond with outdoor temperatures, • Portable humidifiers are standalone units that
condensation can form inside on walls and are placed in the space that requires humidity
windows. During extremely cold weather, control. In most portable humidifiers, the water
indoor relative humidity should be kept supply must be replenished manually.
lower than normal. • A dehumidifier is a device that removes excess
• Humidity can be controlled in different ways. humidity from the air. The most common type
Air-conditioning systems can remove excess of dehumidifier is very similar to a window air
humidity. Humidifiers can add moisture to the conditioner in design and operation. Air drawn
air, and dehumidifiers can remove moisture into the dehumidifier passes over the cold
from the air. evaporator, which causes moisture to condense
• Humidistats measure the moisture content out of the air. The air then passes over the
of the air and turn on or off humidity control warm condenser and is reheated before it exits
equipment. the dehumidifier.
• Humidifiers can be part of a central HVAC • Other methods of dehumidification use a

I
system or standalone, portable units. Central desiccant to remove unwanted moisture from
humidifiers may be installed outside the the air. In these systems, a chemical is exposed
plenum using bypass ductwork or directly into to the air and adsorbs moisture. The chemical
the plenum. is then circulated to a different part of the
• Humidifiers can be classified by the way they system where it is heated. As the chemical
introduce moisture into the air. There are three is heated, the moisture it has adsorbed is
main categories of humidifiers: evaporative vaporized and vented to an area outside the
humidifiers, atomizing humidifiers, and conditioned space.
vaporizing humidifiers. • Humidifiers must be properly sized to provide
• As air passes through an evaporative adequate moisture under all operational
humidifier, moisture from a dampened element conditions. The water supply line should be
evaporates and increases the humidity of the tapped into a cold water line. The humidifier's
air. Common types of evaporative humidifiers drain line should end at least 1" above a drain
include plate, fixed filter, rotating drum, and to prevent siphoning. Electrical hookup of the
rotating disk. humidifier must be in accordance with local
electrical codes, and water connections must be
• Atomizing humidifiers add a mist of fine done according to local plumbing and building
water particles to the air by either flinging codes.
water or by forcing the water through
a nozzle. Common types of atomizing
humidifiers include nozzle-type, impeller,
and piezoelectric (ultrasonic).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 937

 7. Humidifying an entire building's conditioned
Review Questions space, central humidifiers are categorized by
Answer the following questions using the information in the following installation types, except a(n)
this chapter. _ _ humidifier.
A. bypass
1. The ratio of the moisture content in the B. portable
air compared to the maximum amount of C. plenum-mounted
moisture that the air can hold at its current D. under-duct
temperature is called _ _.
A. hygroscopic level
8. The following humidifiers are categorized as
B. piezoelectric pressure atomizing, except _ _.
C. relative humidity A. hygroscopic
D. vapor saturation level B. impeller-type
C. nozzle-type
2. When humidity is too high in a building, the D. piezoelectric (ultrasonic)
following events may occur, except _ _.
A. frequent generation of static electricity
9. Using their own heat source (electric heaters),
B. growth of mold, bacteria, and fungus _ _ humidifiers add moisture to air by
C. formation of condensation on cold creating steam.
surfaces A. piezoelectric (ultrasonic)
D. swelling of hygroscopic materials
B. plate
C. rotating drum
3. When a humidifier adds moisture to air D. vaporizing
already heated by a furnace, the temperature
of the air _ _. 10. Central humidifiers are typically supplied
A. decreases somewhat with water from _ _.
B. increases somewhat A. a building's tapped water lines
C. increases a lot B. bottled water
D. remains steady
C. rain
D. sewer piping
4. Being a measure of ventilation rate, _ _
refers to the replacing of the entire volume of 11. Moisture from air passing through a
air in one hour. dehumidifier condenses on its .
A. compressor --
A. air changes per hour (ACH)
B. available static pressure (ASP) B. condenser
C. external static pressure (ESP) C. evaporator
D. humidistat
D. total air balance (TAB)
5. A humidistat is a control device that responds 12. Before condensation spills out of a
to changes in conditioned space humidity by dehumidifier, its _ _ shuts off the
doing the following tasks, except _ _. compressor, stopping the production and
A. cycle on and off the attic exhaust fan accumulation of moisture.
A. float switch
B. modulate dampers and air mixers
B. frost control element
C. turn on or off a dehumidifier
D. turn on or off a humidifier
C. humidistat
D. hygroscopic element
6. A traditional electromechanical humidistat
senses humidity using a(n) _ _. 13. To prevent or undo the blocking of airflow
A. desiccant
through a dehumidifier, the _ _ shuts off
B. hygroscopic element the compressor.
A. float switch
C. piezoelectric crystal
D. solid-state sensor B. frost control element
C. humidistat
D. hygroscopic element

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 35 Humidity Control 939

14. Special chemicals exposed to conditioned air

to adsorb moisture and release it outside of
the conditioned space are called _ _.
A. bioaerosols
B. desiccants
C. hygroscopic elements
D. piezoelectric crystals
15. Why must the overflow outlet of a whole
house humidifier be installed at least 1" above
an open drain?
A. The gap allows gasses to escape from
the condensate before it enters the sewer
system.
B. The gap prevents drain water from being
siphoned back into the potable water
supply.
C. The gap prevents humidifier vibration
from stressing the drainpipe.
D. The gap provides an air break that allows
the condensate to drain properly.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER36 Thertnostats

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Describe how a thermostat can function in different
roles in HVACR systems.
Chapter Outline • Explain the operating principles of different
36.1 What Is a Thermostat? temperature-reactive components and the switching
36.1.1 Thermostat Sensing and Operation components used in thermostats.
36.1.2 Thermostat Features and Options
• List the features and options available in modern
36.2 Types of Thermostats
thermostats.
36.2.1 Heating Thermostats
36.2.2 Cooling Thermostats / • Understand the differences among heating, cooling,
36.2.3 Combination Thermostats combination, and multistage thermostats.
36.2.4 Multistage Thermostats ~- • Understand the purpose and operation of
36.3 Line-Voltage Thermostats anticipators in thermostats.
36.4 Low-Voltage Thermostats • Summarize the operations and applications of line-
36.5 Millivolt Thermostats voltage, low-voltage, and millivolt thermostats.
36.6 Digital and Programmable Thermostats
36.6.1 Wireless Thermostats 1 • Identify and explain the operation of line-voltage
thermostats.
36.6.2 Power-Stealing Thermostats
• Explain the operation of low-voltage thermostats.
36.6.3 Programmable Thermostats
36.6.4 Programming a Thermostat Understand the use and operation of millivolt
36.7 Thermostat Installation thermostats in standing-pilot heating systems.
36.7.1 Thermostat Wiring Explain the use and operation of wireless and power-
36.7.2 Free Cooling stealing thermostats.
36.7.3 Installing Wireless Thermostats • Program and set up a programmable thermostat.
36.8 Thermostat Diagnostics
• Identify thermostat wiring terminals by their letters.
36.8.1 Heating System Diagnostics
36.8.2 Cooling System Diagnostics • Arrange free cooling through the use of an air-side
36.8.3 Multistage HVAC Systems economizer in a forced-air HVAC system.
36.8.4 Low-Voltage Measurements • Evaluate a building to determine suitable locations
36.8.5 Closing a Troubleshooting Service Call for thermostats and remote sensing devices.
36.8.6 Line-Voltage Thermostats • Diagnose an HVAC system that is not operating
36.8.7 Domestic and Commercial Refrigeration properly by using its thermostat.
Systems
• Diagnose a high current draw on a step-down
36.9 Zoned Systems
transformer used with a low-voltage thermostat.
36.9.1 Zoned System Operational Sequence for
Heating • Understand the operation and purpose of the various
36.9.2 Zoned System Operational Sequence for components used in a forced-air zoned system.
Cooling • Troubleshoot a forced-air zoned system that is not
36.9.3 Troubleshooting Zoned Systems operating properly.
 Chapter 36 Thermostats 941

Technical Terms Review of Key Concepts

barometric damper modulate Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
bypass damper multistage thermostat you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
combination thermostat normally closed damper • Series circuits provide current with a single path to
contact point bounce normally open damper follow, whereas parallel circuits allow current to flow
cooling anticipator ohm out along two or more electrical paths. Therefore, in a
DIP switch power-stealing thermostat series circuit, the voltage drop across each electrical
free cooling power-open/power-closed load is added together to calculate the total circuit
freezestat damper voltage drop. In a parallel circuit, amperage through
heat anticipator programmable thermostat each electrical load is added to calculate the total
heating-cooling thermostat reed switch circuit current. (Chapter 12)
learning thermostat slave thermostat • According to Ohm's law, voltage equals current
line voltage system lag times resistance (V = I x R). According to Watt's law,
line-voltage thermostat system overshoot electrical power (watts) equals current times voltage
low-voltage thermostat temperature limit switch (P =Ix E). (Chapter 12)
master thermostat temperature swing
• Sensing devices, such as bimetal devices,
master-slave thermostat thermostat
thermistors, and fluid-filled sensing bulbs, react to
design Wi-Fi enabled thermostat
temperature change and can be incorporated in
mercury switch zoned system
various control devices. (Chapter 17)
millivolt thermostat
• Solid-state (semiconductor) electronic components
are incorporated into many sensing and switching
devices in HVACR systems. (Chapter 14)
• Wiring diagrams for HVACR systems can be ladder
diagrams, which show sequence of operation, or
pictorial diagrams, which show the location and
wiring interconnection of devices. (Chapter 16)
• A control system relies on processing feedback based
on its set point, control point, and offset. (Chapter 16)
• Airflow through ductwork can be managed manually

I
or automatically using dampers. (Chapter 29)

Introduction
One of the most common control devices in HVACR
systems is the thermostat. A thermostat is a sensing device
that reacts to temperature change. Often, a thermostat reacts
in order to control a system's starting and stopping when
preset temperature conditions are reached. Conditioned
space temperature is usually the primary variable that must
be measured, but many other temperatures can be mea-
sured to monitor system operation and efficiency.
942 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

36.1 What Is a Thermostat? Figure 36-1 shows various sensing elements

used in different types of thermostats. A bimetal strip
Over time, specific industries, such as HVACR, reacts to changes in temperature by bending. It is usu-
develop their own jargon. As a result, miscommunica- ally wound into a coil, which allows a longer strip to
tion can result when an industry person and a non- be used in a smaller space. The longer the strip, the
industry person speak together. For example, the word greater the movement it will produce.
thermostat does not mean the same thing to everyone.
To most non-HVACR people, a thermostat is just the Contacts and Magnets
device they operate to change the temperature in their Having a long bimetal coil that can produce more
building. To HVACR people, a thermostat may be any movement for each degree of temperature change
kind of switch that automatically responds to a change is designed to reduce contact point bounce, which
in temperature, such as a bimetal disc. Many HVACR causes arcing. Using magnets to hold contacts closed
parts manufacturers list bimetal switches as ther- also reduces arcing and contact point bounce. Longer
mostats. These thermostats are often used as safety bimetal strips also reduce contact "walking" (sliding
devices, such as some roll-out switches in gas furnaces. over each other). Contact walking can also cause arcing.
Be mindful of the word thermostat and what that term Some three-wire thermostats have two sets of
may mean to customers, clerks, and any person using contacts. One set is for "pull-in" and the other is for
that word. This chapter will focus on the thermostat "hold-in." Pull-in contacts are energized first. They
as it is understood by the average non-HVACR person: are usually larger and draw more current than hold-
as the control device running a building's heating and in contacts. The hold-in contacts are then energized to
cooling system. maintain the contacts in a closed position. These con-
Thermostats were traditionally a simple set of con- tacts maintain stable connections.
tacts that closed or opened on a temperature rise or fall.
They required the occupant to manually adjust the set Reed Switch
point to maintain a room at the desired temperature. Bimetal strips in thermostats are not always
Modern thermostats can be much more responsive designed to work with a pair of contacts. A bimetal
and intuitive. Wi-Fi enabled thermostats, for example, strip can also work in conjunction with a reed switch
can be operated from anywhere in the world using a or a mercury switch. A reed switch consists of a pair
smartphone. Learning thermostats can remember an of electrical contacts in a glass tube that are opened
occupant's desired set point and adapt the HVAC sys- and closed by an outside magnet. A magnet connected
tem operation to automatically program On and Off to the movable end of a bimetal coil opens and closes
cycles and temperature set points. Some thermostats a reed switch's contacts based on how close it is to the
can modulate system operation (increase or decrease reed switch, Figure 36-2.
intensity), in addition to starting and stopping a sys-
tem. This can result in a significant reduction in energy Mercury Switch
usage over the life of the thermostat. This chapter The movable end of a coiled bimetal strip may
describes the basic components of thermostats and hold a mercury switch. A mercury switch consists of a
reviews specific thermostats in depth. sealed tube containing a small puddle of mercury and
two to four contacts made of the ends of wires that run
outside the tube, Figure 36-3.
36.1.1 Thermostat Sensing and Since a mercury switch opens and closes based on
Operation how far it is turned or tilted, it may also be called a
tilt switch. Since the tube is enclosed and the mercury
An important part of a thermostat is its sensing
moves quickly from end to end when tilted, electrical
element. This component reacts to temperature change.
arcing does not occur.
There are several different types:
• Thermistor. Thinking Green
• Bimetal strip. Proper Mercury Thermostat Disposal
• Rod and tube. Older thermostats used mercury as a switching
• Bellows or diaphragm. element. Mercury is a toxic substance. Prolonged expo-
sure may cause severe health effects. It is also harm-
• Thermocouple.
ful to the environment. Due to its health risk and harm
• Hydraulic. to the environment, the use of mercury thermostats is
• Digital sensor. being phased out and banned in some nations. Mercury

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 943

Low-expansion
metal High- Temperature
expansion helix decrease

+- Temperature rise I / Temperature

+- Temperature
decrease
t. l ~ rise
High-expansion Low-expansion Temperature Temperature
metal metal casing h. decrease rise
Bimetal Strip Bimetal Helix Gas-Filled Bellows

Temperature rise:
, _ / less resistance

i "" Temperature decrease:

more resistance

Temperature
decrease

t
To primary
t
Amplifier
L___________r--~ 7
Temperature rise
Sensing
bulbs

controls

Thermistor Fluid-Filled Diaphragm Fluid-Filled Bellows (Used in Boilers)

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 36-1. Basic types of thermostat sensing elements.

is a hazardous waste. Proper disposal of mercury ther-

A mercury switch's sealed glass tube prevents dust,
mostats is required by law. Mercury should only be sent lint, and oxygen from wearing and corroding the contacts.
to an authorized recycler, Figure 36-4. The Thermostat As the bimetal coil warms, it expands, which tilts the mer- .
Recycling Corporation is an industry-funded, nonprofit cury tube. Once it turns far enough, mercury slides from
organization that offers recycling services to HVACR one end of the tube to the other end. At one or both ends, I
contractors. Many states and municipalities hold mer- the mercury puddle flows to complete the circuit between
cury and hazardous material recycling and collection
programs. Check with your local town hall for additional
information on local programs. Additional information
about proper mercury handling and disposal proce-
dures can be found at the Environmental Protection
Agency website.

Electrical
contacts

--~ =~D
i~__...__ Mercury Electrical
puddle contacts
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher dcwcreations/Shutterstock.com
Figure 36-2. A reed switch may be used in a thermostat with Figure 36-3. The electrical contacts of this mercury switch
a bimetal coil and magnet. are positioned on only one end of the bulb.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

944 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Pro Tip
Leveling a Thermostat with a Mercury Switch
Be aware of how important angle and tilt is to mer-
cury switch operation. If a thermostat with a mercury
switch is mounted at an angle, its set point calibration
can be off. On every service call, a technician should
make sure to check that a thermostat is mounted level,
as this will affect the temperature at which the mercury
flows from one end of the tube to the other.

Figure 36-6 shows a mercury switch thermostat

wiring diagram for a hot water heating zone valve.
When connections #5 and #4 are closed, the motorized
zone valve opens. When the thermostat's bimetallic strip
Thermostat Recycling Corporation tilts the mercury tube the other direction, connections
Figure 36-4. Take old mercury thermostats to an authorized #5 and #6 close. This closes the motorized zone valve.
recycler to ensure they are properly handled. Due to the hazardous nature of mercury, many
thermostats use other sensing elements to monitor tem-
perature. Electronic thermostats use a small thermistor to
the wires. Mercury switches were used extensively until
sense room air temperature. There are no moving parts in
the 1990s. They are still found in many older thermostats
an electronic thermostat. A thermistor changes its electri-
in residential and commercial buildings.
cal resistance in response to temperature change.
Caution
Safety Note
Mercury Exposure Handling Mercury Spills
Mercury is an extremely hazardous material and
In the event of a mercury spill, immediately evacuate
must be disposed of properly in accordance with local
the area. Mercury spills may release mercury vapor into
and federal guidelines. If a mercury spill occurs, do not
the surrounding area. Stay out of the exposed area for at
touch it. Call local hazardous material (HAZMAT) dis-
least 15 minutes. Ventilate the area and shut off HVAC
posal authority. Persons exposed to mercury should
equipment and open windows. Follow these guidelines:
seek medical help immediately.
• Never touch mercury.
As a coiled bimetal strip reacts to heat by expand- • Never vacuum up mercury. Doing so would spread
ing or contracting, it tilts the mercury switch. The pud- it through the air.
dle of mercury always flows to the lowest point in the • Never wash mercury down the drain.
glass tube. If the mercury puddle is touching any two or • If you get any mercury on your clothing or skin,
more contacts, it will allow current to flow through the immediately remove contaminated clothing and
wires. When a bimetal coil expands or contracts in the wash all contaminated skin areas with soap and
cold water. Seek medical attention.
other direction, it will tilt the glass tube, and the mer-
cury puddle will flow away from those contacts, open- • Contact a local hazardous material disposal agency
for cleanup and disposal instructions.
ing the circuit and stopping the current, Figure 36-5.

w
Heating Power Heating Power Cooling

Heated to Start Cooling Cycle Cooled to Start Heating Cycle

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 36-5. When a bimetal coil tilts the mercury switch within a certain range of angles, the mercury puddle will flow to and
remain in contact with the wire contacts, allowing current to flow.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 945

Water valve
thermostat
- - - -.- To auxiliary circuit for
operating burner
and/or circulator

Side B of
motor switch

Calling for Transformer

heat
Mercury
~----rfll-- Line
Side A of - - - - - - - ~ voltage
tube motor switch

I-- Internal wiring ------ External wiring I

Schematic of Valve Control
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 36-6. The single-pole, double-throw mercury switch in this thermostat opens and closes a motorized zone valve in a
hydronic, steam heating, or chilled-water cooling system.

36.1.2 Thermostat Features and Options Changeover (how the system switches between heating
and cooling modes):
When selecting a thermostat for a given applica-
• Manual-usually has a three-position selector
tion, be aware of all the available features and options.
switch: Heat, Off, and Cool.
Several to review include the following:
• Automatic-occurs whenever the set point
Power source: temperatures are sensed.
• Low-voltage: 24 Vac. Programming options:
• Power-stealing. • Learning.
• Battery. • Nonprogrammable.
• Millivolt-from heat applied to a thermocouple • Weekdays and weekend.
device.

I
• 7-day.
• Line voltage: hardwired into the building service • Vacation/away settings.
at 120 V, 120/240 V, 208 V, or 240 V.
Display:
Temperature-sensing device:
• Touchscreen.
• Thermistor.
• Smartphone.
• Thermocouple.
• LCD.
• Bimetal coil.
Service reminders:
Switching: • None.
• Solid-state. • Air filter change.
• Reed (magnetic) switch. • Air cleaner.
• Diaphragm switch. • Humidifier water pad change.
• Mercury switch. • UV lightbulb change.
• Bellows switch.
Communication interface:
• Contacts with magnets.
• Wi-Fi.
Contact points: • Ethernet (hard-wired).
• SPST (single-pole, single-throw) two-wire. • Internet accessible.
• SPDT (single-pole, double-throw) three-wire. • Home automation system interface.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

946 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Special features: electrically connected. These controls open the circuit

• Talking thermostat. when the temperature rises. They complete the circuit
when the temperature falls.
• Easy-to-read display.
One type of 24 V thermostat is a two-wire 24 V
Temperature display: thermostat. It controls the 24 V furnace devices directly.
• Indoor. Figure 36-8 shows a wiring circuit for a control using
a mercury switch. The circuit is designed for forced-air
• Outdoor. heating.
• Multiple (in different set point zones). Another type of low-voltage thermostat has
three wires connected to it. The wires are connected
when the thermostat's sensing element reacts to a
36.2 Types of Thermostats temperature drop. Once these wires are connected,
There are many types of thermostats that control they close a holding circuit. The wires will open
heating and cooling systems. The two basic ones are the circuit when the thermostat's sensing element
heating thermostats and cooling thermostats. Often reacts to a rise of temperature. This type of thermo-
these are combined into one unit called a heating- stat must be used with a relay. The relay opens and
cooling thermostat or a combination thermostat. Some closes the 120 V circuit for an oil burner, gas burner,
heating-cooling thermostats change from one mode of or electric heater.
operation to another automatically, while others must A holding circuit is used in larger applications
be switched manually. where a 24 V relay does not have enough strength to
hold down the gas relay. The 24 V circuit signals a
120 V circuit, which is capable of providing sufficient
36.2.1 Heating Thermostats current to hold down a large burner relay.
This section introduces the basic operation of a Another type of 24 V thermostat has separate on
heating thermostat. A residential heating thermostat and off controls. One of these opens the contacts on
typically controls a 24 Vac or 120 Vac circuit. However, a rise in temperature to cycle off the heat. The other
there are also some heating thermostats that control closes contacts on a drop in temperature to cycle on the
millivolt circuits. heat. This type of thermostat is used on gas burners,
Heating thermostats usually operate on a 0.5°P to oil burners, or electric heaters.
2°P (0.3°C to 1°C) differential or smaller. This allows
close temperature control. Older thermostats use a
bimetal strip as the temperature-sensing element
instead of a thermistor. A small magnet connected
on or near the contacts is often used to produce snap
action between the contact points. The differential
is usually established by moving this small magnet
closer to or farther from the bimetal strip. Moving the
magnet closer reduces the differential. Moving the
magnet farther away increases the differential. A range
adjustment is usually a direct force on the bimetal.
Thermistors use an electric resistance element for tem-
perature control. It is possible to obtain differentials of
0.01°P using thermistors for more accurate control.
Dial/
Some thermostats are hydraulically operated.
Figure 36-7 shows a diaphragm mechanism. The dia-
phragm moves as a liquid expands and contracts. The
dial adjusts the setting and the small magnet produces
snap action in the thermostat. Hydraulic thermostats
Tube to the
sensing element
~c
Magnet

are primarily used in industrial applications where

having wiring in an enclosed area may be a safety
issue due to explosive fumes, such as in manufactur-
~
Contacts
ing processes. White-Rodgers, Emerson Climate Technologies
Thermostats are rated by the voltage they carry. Figure 36-7. Diagram shows a side view of a hydraulically
They are also rated by the controls to which they are operated thermostat.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 947

Combination
fan/limit control Limit Fan
Thermostat

Transformer

L1---
Power
supply

Two-wire oil burner control or

-------L2-
stoker relay or gas valve
Fan

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 36-8. Wiring diagram of a circuit for a heating thermostat. The fuel control is in the low-voltage (24 V) circuit, and the
blower fan is in the line-voltage (120 V) circuit.

Pro Tip Temperature Swing

Some line-voltage thermostats produce a wide
Open Thermostat Contacts swing of temperatures. Conditioned space tempera-
If contact points remain open when they should ture will vary too much. Temperature swing is the
be closed, there may be lint or some other substance total difference of the high and low temperature in a
between the points, resulting in an open circuit. To clean
room. This includes values below the cut-in tempera-
contact points, first shut off power to the thermostat.
ture and above the cut-off temperature.
Then use a piece of clean paper to rub between the
contacts. If the contacts are pitted, a fine emery cloth
For example, a thermostat is set for 75°F (24°C)

I
may also be used to clean the terminals. with a 6°F (3.3°C) differential. However, the room cools
If a mercury switch remains open when it should to 70°F (21°C) before any heat is delivered to the room,
be closed, the open circuit may be caused by a mercury and then the room warms to 80°F (27°C) before heat
tube that is not level. Use a plumb line or level to care- flow is stopped. The 10°F (5.6°C) temperature swing
fully level the tube. may be too large for comfort.
I
Heating systems are equipped with safety con- Pro Tip
trols known as temperature limit switches. Most Thermostat Setting Adjustment
furnaces contain a bonnet temperature limit, which When adjusting a thermostat, avoid heating it with
ensures that the furnace plenum does not exceed your hands or breathing on the sensing element. If the
recommended temperatures. A bonnet temperature thermostat is warmed above the room temperature,
limit is also known as a high-limit. Large-capacity incorrect thermostat settings may result.
heating systems use a relay along with low-voltage
thermostats to control high-wattage loads. Some tech- When a thermostat's points close at the begin-
nicians prefer low-voltage thermostats with a relay ning of a heating cycle, it takes a certain amount of
on all electric heating systems. This reduces system time for the furnace to heat up and to move this heat
overshoot. to the conditioned space. During this start-up period,
System overshoot (heat lag) occurs when a fur- the conditioned space temperature may continue to
nace shuts down and the amount of residual heat drop, even as much as a few degrees. This tempera-
that has built up is sent through the ductwork and ture drop between the time the heating system turns
into the conditioned space, raising the temperature on and the time heat is delivered to the conditioned
above the set point. Some thermostats compensate space is called system lag. To avoid the discomfort
for heat lag and are programmed to shut down the of lower temperatures, a system's cut-in temperature
furnace and blower before the thermostat reaches may need to be set about 1°F (0.6°C) above the lowest
the set point. temperature desired.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

948 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

The combination of system lag and system over- the conditioned space. If the thermostat is set for 74°F
shoot often results in occupant discomfort and frustra- (23.3°C), the thermostat will turn off the heater while
tion, because of the wide range of temperatures in a the room temperature is actually 73°F (22.g q. Then 0

conditioned area. For example, a system has a set dif- residual heat from the furnace will continue to flow
ferential of 6°F (3.3°C), and an occupant sets the heat- into the conditioned space, and room temperature will
ing system for 75°F (24°C). This means that the heating rise to 74°F (23.3°C). By turning off the heating system
system will turn on at 72°F (22°C) and turn off at 7gop before this occurs, system overshoot is reduced.
(26°C). However, due to system lag, heat only begins Heat anticipators can be either fixed or adjustable.
reaching the room when the temperature has dropped They are most often used on low-voltage and millivolt
to 70°F (21°C). Also, heat only stops warming the room thermostats (24 Vac and 750 mV). The anticipator size (cur-
by the time it reaches go°F (27°C). In one cycle of opera- rent capacity) is related to the current flowing through the
tion, the temperature swings from 70°F to go°F (21 °c to thermostat contacts. Current level depends on the electri-
27°C), Figure 36-9. cal loads connected to the thermostat for both millivolt
This wide temperature swing can be reduced but and 24 Vac thermostats, such as a gas valve or relay coil.
not completely eliminated. To stop system overshoot, The current varies between 0.15 A and 1.0 A
a thermostat would need to shut off the system before With a fixed anticipator, current through the
the set temperature is reached in the conditioned space. anticipator equals the control circuit current. An
In order to do this, additional heat above room temper- adjustable anticipator is regulated to match the
ature must be produced for the temperature-sensing control circuit current. Manufacturer's installation
device to detect in order to switch off the heater early.

Heat Anticipators
Electronic thermostats using a thermistor as the
sensing element are simply programmed to provide
control as standard heating and cooling anticipators.
The system may also have an algorithm or program Magnet- C
that learns how long it takes the system to reach the set
point temperature and automatically shuts down the
unit prior to reaching the set point. Anticipator
Mechanical thermostats generate heat in the ther-
mostat's electrical circuitry. Often, it is not enough to
keep the thermostat temperature higher than the con-
ditioned space temperature. To produce this higher '\simetal
strip
temperature, many thermostats contain a small heat-
ing coil. When the thermostat closes its contacts to
call for heat, current flows through the coil to produce
enough heat to keep the thermostat warmer than the C (common) R or Rh
ambient air temperature. These small resistance coils
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
are usually called heat anticipators. Figure 36-10
Figure 36-10. This diagram shows a heat anticipator wired in
shows a heating thermostat wiring schematic diagram series with the bimetal coil. In this design, the heat anticipator
with a heat anticipator. warms the coil when current flows through it, which is only
During the heating cycle, a thermostat with a heat when the heating system is producing heat for the conditioned
anticipator remains about 1°F (0.6°C) warmer than space.

ii:" 80 ~ - - - - - - - - - :
:;..... 78
e:::, ~
t
Temperature
~ 75;-~=~~'-,'---'~~~~--~-~_,,-~--cc-~~- Differential swing
G) (6°F)
(10°F)
~ 72
__
t
{!!. 70 +
Time ....,.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 36-9. Chart showing temperature swing.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 949

instructions indicate the setting and adjustment pro-

cess for heat anticipators.
An anticipator with a higher rating than the con-
trol circuit current will warm the thermostat more
slowly. This higher rated anticipator will produce less
heat, because it is designed for a higher current than
the control circuit provides. An anticipator with a lower
rating than the control circuit will warm the thermo-
stat more quickly. The more residual heat in the heat-
ing system, the larger the capacity of the anticipator. '-simetal
strip

36.2.2 Cooling Thermostats

Comfort cooling thermostats are similar in design Cooling
to heating thermostats, but they react in the opposite anticipator
manner. The control contacts open as the room cools C (common) Yor Re
and close as the room warms. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 36-11. Schematic wiring diagram of a cooling
Pro Tip thermostat equipped with a cooling anticipator.
Function on a Rise
In the HVAC industry, the function that a control per-
heat causes the bimetal coil to activate the cooling sys-
forms is normally the function that occurs during a rise in
the system variables. For instance, a heating system opens
tem when the room temperature is about 1°F (0.6°C)
on a rise in temperature. In other words, a heating control
below the cut-in setting. For example, if a thermostat
opens its circuit to stop the heater when it senses a rise is set to cut in at 78°F (25.6°C), it will actually start the
above the thermostat set point. The opposite happens in system at 77°F (25.0°C).
a cooling system, which closes its circuit on a rise in tem- Often, cooling systems require a few minutes to
perature. Many safety and limit switches open on a rise to begin operating at full capacity. If a cooling system
stop operation and prevent damage to components. were to begin operating when a conditioned space
reaches the cut-in temperature, it could still be a short

I
As with heating thermostats, the most commonly while before any cooling would occur. During this
used cooling thermostats are electronic, which use time, the temperature in the conditioned area would
a thermistor to sense room temperature. Although continue to rise. A comfort cooling system with a cool-
cooling thermostats are available as either 24 Vac or ing anticipator can start an air-conditioning system in
120 Vac controls, the 24 Vac thermostat is most widely time for cooling to begin when the cut-in temperature
1
used. Bimetal thermostats usually have a 1°F (0.6°C) is reached.
differential and have cooling anticipators. These small During the On cycle, the bimetal coil closes its con-
electric resistance elements are in parallel with the tact, and nearly all of the current flows through the con-
contact points. Cooling anticipators close the bimetal- tacts rather than through the anticipator. Essentially,
controlled points just before the room reaches the the bimetal coil contact bypasses the anticipator. As a
cut-in temperature, as they are energized when the result, the cooling anticipator provides no heat during
thermostat has not yet turned on the cooling cycle. the On cycle.

Cooling Anticipators
System lag and system overshoot problems are not
36.2.3 Combination Thermostats
limited to heating systems but are also often present Today, most thermostats are used for operating
in comfort cooling systems. To compensate for system both heating and cooling systems. Such thermostats
lag, cooling thermostats often include cooling antici- are called combination thermostats. Figure 36-12
pators. A cooling anticipator is a high-value resistor shows a simplified wiring diagram for a combination
wired in parallel with the bimetal coil. Both are con- thermostat that includes a bimetal coil, heat anticipa-
nected to the common (C) and cooling (Y) terminals in tor, and cooling anticipator.
a thermostat, Figure 36-11. Combination thermostats are available for both
A cooling anticipator conducts current during the line-voltage and low-voltage applications. Many com-
cooling system's Off cycle to produce heat. This added bination thermostats use switches to change from

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

950 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Heating/cooling/off Temperature
switch setting Fan switch

'• j

Cooling

4l - ------ --------- -------------------\--'i---

anticipator

--o

Heating Power Cooling

(W) (R) (Y) Thermometer
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher A
Figure 36-12. Schematic of a bimetal heating-cooling
thermostat equipped with both a heat anticipator and a cooling
Time remaining before
anticipator. setting is reached Thermometer

heating to cooling and to select fan operation as contin-

I
uous or automatic. Some use a dial or slide for setting
the temperature. On others, these features are accessed
through a touch screen or keypad. Combination ther-
mostats can have either a mechanical or digital display,
Figure 36-13.
Multiple wires connect to a thermostat. The num-
ber of wires depends on the heating and cooling stages
and other features that the thermostat is designed to
control. A schematic diagram including a combination
thermostat is shown in Figure 36-14.
Some thermostats include advanced controls, such
as controls designed to monitor and regulate humidity,
indicate when to replace an air filter, or operate other
functions. These controls usually operate on a 24 V
circuit.

36.2.4 Multistage Thermostats Temperature

A multistage thermostat is a thermostat that can setting
control a system's heating and cooling capacity through
various means, such as modulating compressor and B
fan operation or varying fuel combustion or electrical Honeywell, Inc.; Courtesy of Nest Labs, Inc. Copyright © 2012
power. For electric heat, this may involve energizing Dwight Eschliman
more or fewer electric heating elements. For gas or oil Figure 36-13. A-Round thermostat with analog readout.
heat, this could mean regulating fuel to a burner. For a B-Round thermostat with digital readout.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 951

5-wi re system
Trans. Therm.
,-Cf----C>-----~
Thermostat

i
Gas valve
C.
.$
Q) ....
c a,
a,
(.) ....E
<( .E Voltage
> Cl)
C
0 (13 compensator
-st"~

Ungrounded
>
(hot)

Grounded
(neutral)

Ungrounded L....---------+------<~------------------
(hot)
Contactor

t
Grounded
(neutral)

Figure 36-14. Electrical wiring diagram for a 24 Vac combination thermostat.

s;,,, E,Wro,m,o•J c,mm1,, ,,~""' c,;m,re c,mm1, Am,,,,, I
heat pump or air conditioner, this could mean govern- For cooling in a single-family residence, a multi-
ing fan and compressor operation. Multistage thermo- stage thermostat may control blower speed and com-
stats are usually designed for low-voltage operation. pressor capacity. Some scroll compressors can bypass a
In single-family residences, a multistage thermo- small amount of discharge vapor into the suction line
stat may control different parts of a building's HVAC to reduce cooling capacity. Other compressors may
system. In a gas furnace, a multistage thermostat will be able to run at different speeds, which a multistage
often control a two-stage or modulating gas valve that thermostat would determine.
will vary the amount of gas burned and the amount of In large residential or commercial buildings, a
heat produced. A multistage thermostat will also often single multistage thermostat uses multiple sets of
vary the speed of the indoor blower based on tempera- contacts to control multiple condensing units, fur-
ture readings and settings. naces, and blowers. This allows sequenced opera-
In an electric furnace, more or fewer sets of electric tion for heating or cooling capacity control. Most
heating coils may be energized to produce more or less multistage mechanical thermostats are replaced
heat. These operations are used to reduce energy con- with electronic thermostats, which offer the advan-
sumption, prolong furnace operation, and maintain a tage of programming different set points and cycles
stable average temperature in the conditioned space. for each unit.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

952 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Many multistage thermostats are recognizable by

their terminals used for multiple stages of operation.
Standard heating and cooling systems only have one
stage of operation. Terminal W controls heating opera-
tion, and terminal Y controls cooling operation. When
a thermostat has more than one W terminal (Wl, W2,
etc.), it can control multiple stages of heating operation.
If a thermostat has more than one Y terminal (Yl, Y2, Heating
etc.), it can control multiple stages of cooling operation, stage
terminals
Figure 36-15.

36.3 Line-Voltage Thermostats Cooling

stage
In industry, line voltage is typically considered terminals
either 120 Vac or 240 Vac. A line-voltage thermostat
is a thermostat that typically operates using either
120 Vac or 240 Vac. It may be designed to control cur-
Jackson Systems, LLC
rent as high as 22 A.
Figure 36-15. This zone control panel is capable of
Line-voltage thermostats are primarily used
communicating with multistage thermostats for heating and
for electric baseboard resistance heaters and do not cooling operation.
require the use of a step-down transformer to a low-
voltage thermostat. They offer the advantage of being
wired directly to the heater. Line-voltage thermostats
are also used in commercial applications to control
infrared heaters that operate on 240 V.
A line-voltage thermostat may be wall-mount 0
or mounted directly to an electric heating unit,
Figure 36-16. Thermostats mounted on baseboard 70
heaters are usually encased in attractive covers. They 0
may have a calibrated dial mounted on an adjustment
knob or digital controls, Figure 36-17. 50

36.4 Low-Voltage Thermostats

A low-voltage thermostat is a thermostat that
typically operates at 24 Vac supplied by a step-down
transformer. A heating and cooling system uses a
120 Vac to 24 Vac step-down transformer to power a
low-voltage thermostat's control circuit board. This
includes the display showing a variety of relevant
information to occupants, Figure 36-18.
Low-voltage thermostats often control relays and
contactors. These relays and contactors are often used
to switch line-voltage circuits on and off. Low-voltage
thermostats carry only a small amount of electrical
power. This is an advantage, as these lower current
levels are safer, having lower shock potential than line
voltage, Figure 36-19.
Cadet Manufacturing Ca.
Transformers are usually rated by their primary
Figure 36-16. This analog line-voltage thermostat uses a
and secondary voltages, as well as the volt-ampere
bimetal switch to turn on and off electric resistance heating
(VA) rating of their design. For example, a step-down units.
transformer may come with a rating of 120 V to 24 V
and a VA rating of 40. This means that the primary side

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 Chapter 36 Thermostats 953

IIIIIIIIIIII

l!IU
RETURN

70
•
lnsteon

0 CC Figure 36-18. A low-voltage thermostat's display showing

temperature measurements, temperature set point, humidity,
MODE time, and other information.

Thermostat control Relays

B wiring terminals
Cadet Manufacturing Co. York International Corp.
Figure 36-17. Electric heat baseboard-mounted thermostats. Figure 36-19. Low-voltage thermostat wiring going to an air
A-Electronic programmable thermostat controlling line conditioner's condensing unit uses relays to switch the higher
voltage. B-Analog dial thermostat controlling line voltage. current loads of the compressor and condenser fan.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

954 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

input voltage is 120 V, the secondary side output volt- specifications before buying thermostat cable for installa-
age is 24 V, and the current rating on the secondary tion to ensure it has enough conductors.
side of the transformer is 1.67 A (40 VA+ 24 V = 1.67 A).
Be aware of the current load of a circuit in which a Pro Tip
transformer is being placed. Drawing too much current Thermostat Wiring Diagrams
on its secondary can cause a transformer to fail. When
Because of the variety of systems and optional
possible, include a properly sized fuse on the second- controls, not all manufacturers follow the same wir-
ary side of a transformer circuit. The fuse should be ing color code or lettering system. Be sure to connect
rated high enough that all loads can operate without wires as indicated in the wiring diagrams provided by
a problem. However, the fuse should be rated low the manufacturer. When installing a replacement ther-
enough to protect the transformer from a high current mostat, always mark the existing thermostat's wires
draw that could burn out the windings, Figure 36-20. according to their terminal connection before discon-
necting any wires.
Pro Tip
Overloading 24 V Transformers
Code Alert
Most 24 V transformers will produce between 27 V
and 28 V when properly placed into a circuit. If the tech- Class 2 Circuits
nician measures a voltage of 24 V or lower, it is time to Low-voltage thermostats control the power to low-
check the transformer and the loads on the circuit for voltage controls of Class 2 (power) circuits as defined
excessive current draw or failure. by the National Electrical Code (NEC). Class 2 circuits
are generally used for remote control or signaling cir-
cuits. These are power-limited circuits, which means
Caution there is less chance of electric shock or fire initiation.
Some municipalities require that a licensed electrician
Low-Voltage and Line-Voltage Devices complete the wiring for these circuits. For more informa-
Low-voltage thermostats will be damaged if con- tion on Class 2 circuits, see Article 725 of the NEC.
nected to line-voltage (120 V or 240 V) circuits. Be care-
ful to check an electrical device's voltage and current The thermostat mounting usually requires other
before installing it and energizing the circuit. parts. The subbase-the part to which the thermostat
is attached-contains the wiring terminals. Sometimes
Low-voltage thermostats normally use 18 AWG it holds other parts, such as switches, indicator lamps,
wire for distances up to 50' (15 m). For distances over so: and batteries. Beneath the subbase may be a wall
16 AWG wire is typical. Thermostats require multiple plate. This is the part attached to an outlet box or wall.
wire connections. Always review system and thermostat Figure 36-21 shows a simple wiring diagram for a low-
voltage thermostat.
Most low-voltage thermostats sense tempera-
ture using a thermistor. A thermistor is a device that
changes its electrical resistance based on temperature.

Subbase
Heat R-W
Clock Cool R-Y
terminals

Cooling
'-----Heat
.----+- Common

Clock ____. ____ Step-down

transformer transformer
L1 L2 L1 L2
Jackson Systems, LLC Honeywell Inc.
Figure 36-20. Many step-down transformers used with HVAC Figure 36-21. Low-voltage thermostat wiring diagram. Note
systems are rated 40 VA. These can safely provide 1.67 A at that not all thermostats have clock terminals, and not all
24 Vac. require a clock transformer.

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 Chapter 36 Thermostats 955

These thermostats have numerous advantages over

older bimetal coil and mercury switch thermostats:
• Environmentally friendly-a thermistor replaces
a hazardous mercury switch.
• Programmable-digital input allows easy
programming by the homeowners.
• Durable-few or no moving parts or contacts to
sustain wear.
• Expandable-programming may allow additional
stages of operation and sensors.
• User friendly-touch screen models allow easy
operation and access to information.
• Remote access-wireless interface via the web
and smart device applications.
• Easily serviced-trouble codes may be accessed
from user screen or USB port.
White-Rodgers Division, Emerson Climate Technologies
Figure 36-22. This thermocouple senses the heat of a pilot
36.5 Millivolt Thermostats light and generates enough electrical power to operate a
A millivolt thermostat is a heating thermostat solenoid valve controlled by a millivolt thermostat.
that operates a small solenoid valve powered by a
very small direct current (de) voltage produced by a
Thermostat
thermocouple device. Millivolt thermostats require no
external power source. The thermocouple is located
near a gas pilot light, which provides the heat required
to generate enough electrical power for operation,
Figure 36-22.
Millivolt thermostats were common for many Limit
control
years but have generally been phased out. These ther-
(if used)
mostats depend on a standing pilot light, but many gas
furnaces and other gas-fired appliances no longer have Thermocouple~

-
I
a standing pilot light. Therefore, millivolt thermostats Gas
cannot be used to control such systems. For safety and valve
environmental reasons, many areas no longer permit
the use of a standing pilot light. Many low-voltage elec-
tronic thermostats are capable of operating millivolt
Honeywell Inc.
systems and can be used as replacements.
Figure 36-23. Millivolt thermostat wiring diagram.
Millivolt thermostats cannot be used to operate
cooling systems. They are only used on systems with
a standing-pilot ignition. These are mainly found on solenoid, which closes the valve and stops the main gas
older heating systems, stoves, fireplaces, and water supply. After the main burner is turned off, the small
heaters. Millivolt thermostat systems are series circuits pilot gas supply continues to keep the pilot lit, which
that usually have only two wires. Two wires originate keeps voltage ready for the next On cycle.
from the thermocouple device. The circuit loops in
series through a bimetal coil-operated mercury switch,
a solenoid valve, and back to the thermocouple device, 36.6 Digital and Programmable
Figure 36-23.
When a millivolt thermostat's switch closes, cur-
Thermostats
rent from the thermocouple passes through the solenoid Advances in electronic circuitry and controls
valve. The solenoid valve then opens to supply fuel to have revolutionized the thermostat and its capabili-
the burner. When the desired temperature is reached, ties. Electronic thermostats use the same basic operat-
the thermostat's switch opens. This stops current to the ing principles as earlier models. However, the various

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

956 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

functions are all accomplished with electronic compo-

nents, such as transistors, solid-state relays, integrated - .. &

circuit chips, and microprocessors. The versatility of

electronics allows a thermostat to control and monitor
numerous circuits through its ability to communicate
with compatible transducers and sensors. These func-
tions include sensing, switching, timing, and staging.

36.6.1 Wireless Thermostats

Wireless thermostats electronically activate a
responder on the furnace or air conditioner. This can
be done up to a distance of about 120' (36.5 m). Wireless
thermostats may also include remote wireless sensors,
such as outside temperature sensors, air filter sensors,
and humidity sensors. Each sensor sends a signal to A
the thermostat that is programmed to operate the heat-
ing and cooling unit and various zone valves or damp-
ers throughout a building.
A wireless thermostat may be moved from room
to room. It responds to the temperature of whatever
room it is in. Since it is an electronic battery-powered
unit, the thermostat has no moving parts. It can have
an accurate adjustable differential from 0°F to about
5°F (0°C to about 3°C). Many have a range of 45°F to
90°F (7°C to 32°C).
An advantage of a wireless thermostat is that
it may interface via Wi-Fi to mobile devices, such as
a tablet PC, smartphone, or laptop. This provides the B
homeowner with the ability to change the set tempera- Courtesy of Nest Labs, Inc. Copyright © 2012 Dwight
ture from anywhere. Remote control also allows the Eschliman
user the ability to precondition the home. For example, Figure 36-24. Wireless thermostats allow for easy adjustment
the user may raise or lower the home's temperature and monitoring. A-Controlling a thermostat remotely through
while still at work so that the home is heated or cooled a laptop. B-Reviewing HVAC system energy usage over time
using a smartphone.
prior to the owner's arrival. Many HVAC manufactur-
ers offer a mobile application that may be downloaded
to a smartphone or mobile device to control the HVAC
system remotely, Figure 36-24.

36.6.2 Power-Stealing Thermostats

Power-stealing thermostats are electronic ther-
mostats that draw a small amount of power from the
low-voltage side of the HVAC system control to oper-
ate the thermostat electronics. The current draw is in
the milliamps (mA) range. Power-stealing thermostats
are very efficient and do not require a separate power
source to operate. Figure 36-25 shows one type of
power-stealing thermostat display.
A power-stealing thermostat "steals" power for
the control board by tapping into the fan, cooling, Contro/4 Corporation
or heating terminals. When the heating or cooling is Figure 36-25. A power-stealing thermostat with a touch
operating, a small amount of current flows into the screen interface. Note this unit is a whole home management
thermostat to recharge its internal battery. system.

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 Chapter 36 Thermostats 957

components of a solid-state thermostat usually include

Caution
a thermistor (temperature sensor) and an integrated
Power-Stealing Thermostat Compatibility circuit board.
Power-stealing thermostats may not be compat- Many heating-cooling systems use a programma-
ible with some HVAC system circuit boards. The small ble thermostat governed by a clock. It changes the tem-
voltage draws required by the thermostat may result perature range during the night and returns the range
in activation of the relay from which the thermostat is to normal during the day. Many also provide seven-
attempting to draw power. This may result in HVAC day settings, which enable different temperature set-
control board failures or relay issues. To prevent this
tings for weekdays and weekends. This type of control
condition, it may be necessary to install a small bypass
resistor. The bypass resistor is placed between the
can provide a lower operational cost by operating an
power-stealing thermostat leg and common. The resis- HVAC system only when needed and operating less
tor prevents overcurrent conditions to the control board. when occupants are away. Figure 36-27 shows a single
Figure 36-26 illustrates a power-stealing thermostat day's schedule as governed by a thermostat's clock.
wiring diagram with a bypass (bleed) resistor installed. Unlike line-voltage or mercury switch thermo-
Also, some zone valves used in hot water heating sys- stats, many electronic thermostats do not have heat
tems require a small bleed resistor to be installed across anticipators, because they often use remote sensing
two pins on the zone valve. units. A remote sensing unit includes a temperature
sensor that is at the end of a cable run from the thermo-
stat to within a few feet from a supply register, so it will
36.6.3 Programmable Thermostats more accurately sense the actual room temperature.
A programmable thermostat contains a micro- Through the use of electronic circuitry rather than
processor that functions as a clock and allows users mechanical controls, a greater variety of control options
to select different indoor climate conditions for dif- and features are available in a thermostat of the same
ferent blocks of time. The precision and responsive- size as an older mechanical thermostat. A typical elec-
ness of solid-state controls result in the best operation tronic thermostat can perform the following functions:
for high-efficiency operation. These same controls • Fully programmable temperature settings. Various
are often used to detect, monitor, and display for the temperatures can be programmed to achieve
user the system conditions. The conditions are indi- maximum comfort throughout the day. These
cated by instruments, lights, and recorders. Electronic settings can also be varied for each day of the
week depending on occupancy, allowing high
levels of efficiency.
Single-Stage Gas or Electric Heat Thermostat

Outdoor
temperature
switch I

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher Venstar

Figure 36-26. Single-stage combination thermostat wiring Figure 36-27. This programmable thermostat's display is
diagram with 270 Q 3 W bypass resistor in the circuit for showing the time and temperatures for system operation for
power-stealing setup. Fridays.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

958 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Multistage and combination control. A single

device can control various stages of heating
and cooling. For heat pump applications,
programmable thermostats designed specifically
for heat pumps should be used, Figure 36-28.
• Override control. This feature overrides the
thermostat's normal programming in order to
maintain a preset temperature condition. An
example would be a vacation setting. A single
temperature might be desired for those periods of
time when no one is home.
• Digital display using a back-lit LCD screen. Room
temperature, desired temperature, time, and date
are displayed at the push of a button.
• Battery backup. Most electronic thermostats are
low-voltage thermostats, and most models have a Venstar
battery backup. The battery backup prevents loss Figure 36-29. This thermostat allows its user to select the
of an entire program in case of a power failure. frequency of equipment service reminders.
• USB or wireless interface. Some thermostats can
be programmed and monitored using a USB cable
a heating and cooling system warm-up or cool-down
or wireless connection from a laptop or handheld
time. They adjust the operating cycles accordingly.
device.
Outside temperature can often be digitally displayed.
Additional features that can be found on some
models include the following: • Security protection. The thermostat requires a
security code before allowing the user to modify
• Maintenance alerting. The unit can automatically
settings. This feature is sometimes used in
keep track of the number of days that the air filters,
commercial settings in which the thermostat is in
humidifiers, and other components are in use.
a public location.
Then, it will automatically signal with a light or
Programmable thermostats vary somewhat with
tone when maintenance is required, Figure 36-29.
each manufacturer. Some are available as a control unit
• Outside temperature anticipator. Some electronic with one or more separate temperature sensing units.
thermostats sense outside temperature and include The sensors can be mounted in a conditioned space,
this value in calculations to determine the length of and the control unit can be mounted elsewhere, such
as a manager's office, Figure 36-30.
Programmable thermostats, due to their precision
components, offer exact temperature control. Usually,
temperature can be controlled within 1°F (0.6°C) of the set
temperature. Programmable thermostats offer significant
energy savings without reducing overall comfort. This is
accomplished through simple preprogrammed tempera-
ture settings. Once the unit has been programmed, very
little effort is required from the owner.

36.6.4 Programming a Thermostat

A programmable thermostat allows an occupant
to tailor indoor comfort to suit individual preference
and schedule. Often, they are used to change the tem-
perature settings for night and reset them for differ-
Venstar ent periods through the day. Most units include preset
Figure 36-28. A programmer must input how many stages programs, but allow the operator to modify the pro-
of cooling and heating operation will be used with the system gram to desired temperatures for different times and
connected to a thermostat. days of the week.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 959

Daily Heating Program

~
- 73
e:::,
e 70
~
E
{!!.
'E 65
~ 63 -4--------'
i
Midnight

7:00 am 11:00 pm
Thermostat Remote - Time of Day
control unit sensing unit Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 36-31. A typical programmable thermostat control
program for a heating day. When occupants are present and
Arzel Zoning Technologr, Inc.
awake in the morning and evening, the thermostat maintains a
Figure 36-30. An electronic thermostat with a separate 73°F (22.?°C) set point. When the occupants are away during
control and sensing unit. the day or asleep at night, the thermostat maintains a 63°F
(17.2 °C) set point.

Most thermostats permit programming on three

basic levels: Lower temperature
away set point
• Time of day.
• Day of the week.
• Heating or cooling.
Programming a thermostat involves adjusting the
on-off schedule and temperature of a building to meet
the occupant's desired comfort while maximizing the effi-
ciency of the HVAC system. Programs allow the tempera-
ture in a room to rise and fall based on occupancy levels.
Depending on the season and weather, systems
may be programmed to allow the temperature set

I
point to raise or drop at night when the occupants are
sleeping or the building is vacant. Systems can then
either raise or lower the set point to a more comfort-
able temperature in the morning just prior to wake-up
or occupancy. If a building is left vacant all day, the
set point may be set lower or higher for the entire day,
depending on the season.
Figure 36-31 illustrates a typical program for a
heating day. The thermostat is set at 63°F (17.2°C) during
the night. Prior to the occupants waking up at 7:00 am, Courtesy of Nest Labs, Inc. Copyright© 2012 Dwight Eschliman
the thermostat calls for heating. The home warms up Figure 36-32. Thermostat in automatic away mode.
to the set point of 73°F (22.7°C) for the hour that the
occupants spend getting ready for work or school and
eating breakfast. The set point then falls back to 63°F Figure 36-33 illustrates a cooling program. In the
(17.2°C) when the occupants are away, Figure 36-32. morning, prior to the peak power rate hours and a reduced
From 8:00 am until 4:00 pm, the house is vacant, and thermal load from the sun and outdoor temperature, the
the building is allowed to cool down to 63°F (17.2°C). Prior air conditioning cools the building to 70°F (21°C). During
to 4:00 pm, the thermostat calls for heat and begins warm- the day, when occupants are away, the building temper-
ing the building. By 4:00 pm, building temperature has ature is allowed to rise up to a 73°F (22.7°C) set point.
risen to the set point of 73°F (22.7°C). The house remains Before occupants return home, the thermostat turns on
this warm until bedtime at 11:00 pm. the air conditioning to cool the building back down to

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

960 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Daily Cooling Program

E 73
l!! 72
.a 70
f!
G)
Q,
68
E
..
{!!.
C
·o
65
D..
ai
U)
Midnight Noon
4:00 pm MOD

7:00 am 11:00 pm I\ V
Time of Day
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 36-33. Daily cooling program. lnsteon
Figure 36-34. This home energy monitor displays the cost of
kilowatts per hour next to indoor temperature.
70°F (21°C) by 4:00 pm. In the later evening, with lower
solar load, the set point is allowed to rise back up to 73°F
(22.7°C). It is important to not allow the building to heat
up during the day. The air-conditioning system would
then have to remove the large amount of heat accumu-
lated throughout the day.
The advantage of using a programmable thermostat
is that it can provide energy savings when a building is
not required to maintain a high or low set point, such as
when occupants are away. Many electric utilities charge
higher rates for "peak times;' when energy consumption
is at its highest. During daylight working hours, energy
usage is at its peak. By programming the heating and
cooling system to a more moderate set point during peak
periods, daily energy consumed is reduced, which results
in a smaller power bill. Home energy monitoring systems
can display the cost of kilowatt per hour and energy usage
data. This can serve as a reminder to conserve energy as
much as possible, Figure 36-34. Venstar

Manufacturers are developing new technologies and Figure 36-35. This thermostat shows hours of heating
system operation over the course of several days. By knowing
thermostat features that allow increased self-monitoring
our habits and temperature preferences, we can program
of energy usage over time. These thermostats can show thermostats to run only when and as much as needed to
occupants hours of system run time, electrical energy prevent wasting energy.
used, and other useful information, Figure 36-35.

Thinking Green
Programming a Thermostat
36.7 Thermostat Installation
A properly programmed thermostat can significantly Thermostat wiring varies by manufacturer. Each
reduce a customer's utility bill without sacrificing comfort. thermostat should come with installation instructions,
The thermostat should be programmed to adjust tempera- which must be followed to ensure proper operation.
ture to save energy during periods that the occupants are When replacing a thermostat, it is common practice to
typically asleep or away. However, the system must main- use the existing thermostat wiring from the furnace,
tain the energy-saving temperature for an extended period boiler, or heat pump. It is always a good practice to note
(several hours) or the energy used to restore the normal which wires were connected to the old thermostat ter-
temperature will offset any savings. minals and label these accordingly.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 961

36.7.1 Thermostat Wiring Look for the corresponding wiring terminals in a sys-
tem's condensing unit, air handler, and any other sys-
Although thermostats and units may be wired dif- tem control board, Figure 36-37.
ferently, there are some basic conventions and terminal The subbase may also contain other components.
designations used when wiring a thermostat: Of importance to thermostat subbase installation are
• Re-cooling power. DIP switches. DIP stands for dual in-line package. These
• Rh-heating power. are small switches grouped together in a single pack-
• R-power. age. They are commonly found on circuit boards and
used to manage system settings. Usually, they are
• Y-condensing unit (compressor) contactor. positioned once for the commissioning of a system and
• Y2-compressor contactor (stage 2). then left alone. A subbase may have DIP switches used
• C-24 V common connection.
• W-heat relay (stage 1).
• W2-heat relay (stage 2).
• G-fan relay (cooling only).
• CR-cooling relay.
• 0/B-heat pump reversing valve.
• Aux/E-heat pump auxiliary heat.
• HMD-humidification.
• DHD-dehumidification.
• Ts-outdoor temperature switch.
• Out, Temp, OD, OAS, or ODT-outdoor air tem-
perature sensor.
• In or IDT-indoor temperature sensor.
• Ml or DMP-air duct damper control.
Thermostats with auxiliary functions may use dif-
ferent terminal designations than those shown here.
Always refer to manufacturer literature to be certain. A
Removing an installed thermostat reveals its sub-
base. Wiring terminals with letters show what parts of

I
a system are controlled by the thermostat, Figure 36-36.

Wiring
B
terminals York International Corp.
York International Corp. Figure 36-37. Note the thermostat wiring terminals located on the
Figure 36-36. Subbase of a low-voltage thermostat. left side. A-In a condensing unit. B-On a system control board.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

962 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

to indicate the type of heating and cooling system that

will be connected to the thermostat, Figure 36-38.
After installing a new thermostat, always test it to
make sure that it operates as it should. Some thermo-
stats include some self-diagnostic capabilities. To check
wiring connections before programming a thermo-
stat, use the test outputs function available on certain
thermostat models. This initiates operation immedi-
ately by bypassing any time delays, which confirms
---
---- . .
:;- ,•,

.-
... -
'·
~
.
9

.
whether the wiring is correct before programming all T,, .• n,.. 1,,.
days, times, and set points, Figure 36-39.

36.7.2 Free Cooling

Building owners and system designers continue
to look for energy saving methods and technologies. Venstar

A great way to reduce electrical power consumption is Figure 36-39. The test outputs function bypasses any time
delays and initiates operation immediately. This function
to utilize free cooling. However, this is only available
quickly checks the wiring connections and can be a quick
under certain conditions. Indoor air must be warm and starting point for troubleshooting a system.
in need of cooling. Outdoor air must be low in tem-
perature and preferably also low in humidity.
Cool outdoor air
Free cooling is the use of an air-side economizer
Supply Unit Free cooling /
to draw in cool outdoor air to reduce indoor air tem- plenum with fan damper l 'sarometric
perature. An air-side economizer controls an HVAC (open) -f
damper
system's blower and duct dampers. By opening and (open)

..
closing certain dampers, a system's blower can draw
in the cool outdoor air and exhaust warm indoor air.
This is considered free cooling because only dampers
and the blower are using electrical power. The com-
pressor does not run during free cooling. Since a com-
pressor consumes much more electrical power than a
fan does, using a few dampers and a blower to draw + + Conditioned Space t /
in cool outdoor air is comparatively, but not actually,
Return air vented to attic or
"free," Figure 36-40. outdoors to balance pressure
A thermostat must be equipped to control free cool- Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
ing. The thermostat will need to have an outdoor air Figure 36-40. A forced-air system diagram using an air-
temperature sensor connected. When outdoor air tem- side economizer for free cooling. As indoor pressure rises,
perature is low enough, free cooling operation can begin. a barometric damper opens and releases return air to an
Some systems may also monitor outdoor humidity. unconditioned space or outdoors.

o-~
Venstar
Figure 36-38. This thermostat subbase has three DIP switches. The top switch tells the thermostat whether the system is a heat
pump or uses gas or electric heat. The middle switch determines whether the heat pump reversing valve is energized for cooling
or for heating. The bottom switch tells the thermostat whether the system uses gas or electric heat.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 963

For these systems, relative humidity must be low enough • Drafts or dead air spots behind doors and in
before operation begins. This is called enthalpy control. For corners.
more information on enthalpy control, see Chapter 33, • Hot or cold air from ducts.
Commercial Air-Conditioning Systems.
• Radiant heat from the sun or an appliance.
To operate free cooling, a thermostat often must be
capable of controlling more than one stage of cooling • Concealed pipes and chimneys.
operation. Stage one cooling (Yl) can be used to oper- • Unheated areas behind it, such as an outside wall.
ate free cooling. Stage two cooling (Y2) can be used With Wi-Fi enabled thermostats, a user can
for running the air conditioning. Thermostat termi- operate the thermostat while away from the building.
nal Yl controls the damper positions. The diagram in Whole home automated systems enable a homeowner
the example earlier showed two motorized dampers. to monitor and adjust settings using an Internet-
To control and operate these dampers requires addi- connected device, Figure 36-42.
tional step-down transformers and relays. See the wir-
ing diagram for controlling the free cooling damper in
Figure 36-41.
When the outdoor temperature sensor senses the
cut-in temperature (65°F in this example), the thermo-
stat initiates stage one cooling (Yl) for free cooling. The
thermostat signals the damper relay, which energizes
the free cooling damper. The indoor blower also turns
on to begin drawing in the cool outdoor air. When out-
door air temperature rises too high or the thermostat
is satisfied with the cooling indoors, the thermostat
cycles off the free cooling operation.

36.7.3 Installing Wireless Thermostats

The use of wireless thermostats with remote sen-
sors has made the location of such thermostats less
critical. Remote, wireless temperature and humid-
ity sensors allow the control to be placed in a conve-
nient location, while the sensors are located in the best
location to measure room conditions. The location of

I
a thermostat sensor is important. Similar to a tradi-
tional thermostat, it should be located in an average-
temperature location. An example would be an inner
wall about 5' above the floor. It should be out of the
way of furniture and beyond the reach of small chil- Contro/4 Corporation
dren. The location of a temperature sensor should be Figure 36-42. Thermostat operation from a tablet and smart-
changed if it is affected by any of the following: phone.

Damper
Free cooling Thermostat subbase
relay

1
damper
24Vac
65° For less
SOVA~
Outdoor Line
temperature voltage
sensor

Venstar
Figure 36-41. A forced-air system wiring diagram for free cooling.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

964 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Wi-Fi enabled home automation systems include

a controller that is connected to the buildings lighting, Thermostat Terminal Checking Chart
window shades, and security system. Whole home Wiring HVAC System Mode of Operation
automation allows maximum energy conservation. For Terminals
Heating On Cooling On
example, at night the system can automatically reduce
the thermostat set point, shut off room lights, and close RandW Closed Open
blinds to conserve energy.
RandY Open Closed
Pro Tip Rand G Open Closed
Setting Up Online Account and Downloading Apps Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Learning and Wi-Fi enabled thermostats often Figure 36-43. A thermostat's electrical terminal
require setting up an online account and download- configurations for a comfort heating and cooling system. This
ing software to operate the thermostat from a wireless table assumes that the thermostat's fan setting is on auto.
device or the Internet. Following installation, remem-
ber to assist the homeowner in setting up their online
account and selecting the correct app. This will allow
the homeowner to monitor their energy savings and Thermostat
Step-down
operate their thermostat remotely. transformer R

36.8 Thermostat Diagnostics

It is good practice to begin troubleshooting a com-
fort cooling or heating system using the thermostat.
This is a quick way of locating the source of system
malfunction. The process usually determines that the Fan Cooling
cause is one of the following: relay

• Wiring problem. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

• Furnace/air handler problem. Figure 36-44. A basic low-voltage thermostat wiring diagram.
• Thermostat problem.
The diagnostic sequence for a heating thermostat
thermostat, source voltage will be 120 Vac or 240 Vac.
and a cooling thermostat is almost the same with two
Always use a meter to identify what the source voltage
major differences in operation. A heating thermostat is
is before attempting any diagnostics or repairs.
considered "calling for heat" if the setting on the ther-
mostat is two or more degrees over room temperature.
Pro Tip
A cooling thermostat is considered "calling for cool-
ing" if the set point is two or more degrees under room Keep a Mercury Switch Level
temperature. A technician can check whether a ther- Before beginning diagnostic steps on a thermostat,
mostat is operating according to these principles by check whether it uses a mercury switch. If so, make
measuring voltage across its electrical terminals. See sure that the thermostat is mounted level. A thermostat
Figure 36-43 for terminal configuration for heating that is mounted crooked can tilt a mercury switch so that
and cooling operation. the system cycles on and off outside of calibration. Do
not just "eyeball" the thermostat. Check it with a level.
Before checking voltage, make sure the thermo-
stat's fan switch is set to auto. When taking a voltage
reading, the meter is sensing a difference in electrical
potential. The voltage across an "open" connection is 36.8.1 Heating System Diagnostics
the source voltage. The voltage across a "closed" con-
Before diagnosing a heating system using a ther-
nection is O V. There is no voltage difference between
mostat, review any available manufacturer literature
the two sides of a closed switch, Figure 36-44.
about the system. Be sure to know what each thermo-
Before taking measurements, determine what
stat terminal controls before measuring. Common ter-
type of thermostat is installed. The two most com-
minal designations are listed here:
monly used thermostats are low-voltage and line-
voltage. On a low-voltage thermostat, source voltage • Re-cooling power.
will most often be 25 Vac to 28 Vac. On a line-voltage • Rh-heating power.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 965

• R-power.
between the furnace and the thermostat. This
• Y-compressor contactor. wiring problem will need to be fixed.
• C-24 V common connection. 9. Examine the thermostat cable. All thermostat
• W-heat relay. cables have multiple wires, and sometimes there
• G-fan relay. may be one or more wires that are not in use. If
• O/B-heat pump reversing valve. the cable has an unused wire, use it to replace
the wire connected to terminal R or W. Before
Pro Tip trying this, take more electrical measurements.
Fan Relay 10. To determine which wire to try switching
first, measure voltage across terminals R and
Frequently, the thermostat's G (fan relay) terminal
G and then across terminals R and Y. If the
does not control the auto fan setting in heating mode.
Instead, the blower fan may be controlled by a tempera-
meter does not read source voltage for either
ture switch or a time-delay switch in the furnace. The measurement, the problem is most likely the
furnace switch delays the starting of the blower until the wire connected to terminal R. If the meter
furnace has heated the air in the heat exchanger. If the indicates source voltage, the problem is most
fan is controlled by the thermostat and starts on the call likely the wire connected to terminal W.
for heating, the cold air in the ductwork would be blown 11. Based on these measurements, switch out the
into the conditioned space. problem wire with the unused wire. Change the
wire connections at the terminals on the thermo-
stat and at the furnace to the unused conductor.
Troubleshooting a Heating System with 12. Measure voltage across terminals R and W
a Low-Voltage Thermostat on the thermostat. If the meter does not read
The following procedure can be used to source voltage across terminal R and any of
troubleshoot a low-voltage thermostat for a the other terminals mentioned, it is likely
heating system that is not working: that the entire thermostat cable between the
1. Turn off the power at the furnace. furnace and the thermostat is completely bro-
ken. A new thermostat cable will need to be
2. Place a jumper across terminals R and W installed and all wire connections redone.
on the furnace circuit board or control
connections. 13. If the meter does read 25 Vac to 27 Vac across

ter- 1
terminals R and W, the problem is likely the
3. Turn the power back on and wait up to three thermostat.
minutes. Make sure the access door or panel
switch is depressed, else it will prevent the 14. For a final check, secure a jumper across
furnace from turning on. minals R and W on the thermostat subbase.
1
The heating system should cycle on within
4. If the furnace does not turn on, the problem three minutes. System operation under this
is inside the furnace and troubleshooting condition confirms that the thermostat is
should continue inside the furnace. If the fur- faulty. After diagnosing the problem, remem-
nace does start the heating cycle, the problem ber to remove any jumper installed.
is not in the furnace. The problem is in the
15. If the thermostat is an electronic thermostat,
thermostat or its wiring. Continue the follow-
check the batteries before recommending a
ing diagnostic steps.
replacement thermostat. Dead batteries will
5. Turn off the power at the furnace and remove cause a battery-powered thermostat to fail.
the jumper.
16. After determining that the thermostat is the
6. Turn on the power again and make sure the problem, check whether the thermostat uses
door switch is depressed. a mercury switch. If yes, replace the thermo-
7. Go to the thermostat, remove the thermostat stat and the subbase. Work with the customer
from the subbase, and use a meter to check to locate an acceptable electronic thermostat
the voltage across terminals R and W. The replacement. Many customers with older,
meter should read between 25 Vac and 27 Vac. round mercury thermostats prefer a round
8. If the meter does not read between 25 Vac electronic thermostat, as these have the same
and 27 Vac, there is a problem with the wire appearance and functionality.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

966 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

36.8.2 Cooling System Diagnostics circuit that has low voltage, rule out one of these
Diagnosing a cooling system problem using a ther- problems and focus on the remaining.
mostat is similar to diagnosing a heating system prob- 1. Begin by tracing the thermostat circuit from
lem. The main difference is to check across terminals the step-down transformer to the R termi-
R and Y and also across terminals R and G, instead of nal at the furnace or air handler, then to the
R and W. When a thermostat is calling for cooling, the thermostat, and then to the heating relay or
R to Y terminals will be closed to energize the cooling cooling contactor. Look for any electrical
contactor or relay in the condensing unit. In addition, loads that are connected in series with these
the R to G terminals will be closed to energize the relay conductors.
controlling the indoor blower motor. 2. If you find a load that should be in the circuit,
remove it and retest the voltage to see if the
Pro Tip problem is solved.
Thermostat Vibration 3. Trace the parallel loads in the circuit. While
If a building owner notices that a system frequently tracing the circuit, create a ladder diagram
turns on and then off without running for the entire dura- schematic that includes all the electrical loads,
tion of its scheduled operation, seek out the location of switches, and other devices. If a manufactur-
the thermostat. Systems may short-cycle because the er's schematic is available, use it as a guide but
thermostat is exposed to vibration. Examples would verify that the actual system matches the sche-
include stairways or shaky walls. Always mount a ther-
matic. The circuit may have been modified
mostat to a firm structure.
after being installed. While tracing through
the circuit, look for any add-on devices, such
36.8.3 Multistage HVAC Systems as humidifiers, air cleaners, and zone control
panels. All of these devices should have their
Thermostats that have a W2 or Y2 terminal are own transformers, but may be installed incor-
considered multistage thermostats. A thermostat in rectly. Always refer back to manufacturer
heating mode will not close across terminals Rand W2 directions regarding proper installation prac-
until the temperature drops down below the set point tices and wiring recommendations.
by more than 3°F, in most cases. In cooling mode, ter-
minals R and Y2 will not close until the temperature 4. After identifying all the electrical loads in
rises above the set point by more than 3°F. These tem- the control circuit from the secondary side of
perature separations between first and second stages the step-down transformer back to common,
are adjustable in many cases. When troubleshooting add all the current ratings, then multiply this
second-stage problems, be sure to adjust the thermo- total by the control circuit voltage (typically
stat to close the correct terminals. 24 V) to determine the actual volt-amperes
(VA) load. This value should be less than the
VA rating of the secondary of the transformer.
36.8.4 Low-Voltage Measurements If the number is not lower, replace the trans-
Voltage readings of 24 Vac and below do occur on former with another transformer that has a
low-voltage circuits, but this low value should be seen as VA rating greater than the value calculated.
a sign of a problem. A 24 Vac measurement means that 5. Check the amperage of each load. Start with
the transformer is aging or one of the loads on the circuit one branch of the parallel circuit and use a
is pulling more electrical current than can be provided clamp-on ammeter that has a .10 A scale. If
by the transformer. In some cases, this can be caused by that is not available, wrap the wire around
the addition of accessories that draw more current into the clamp 10 times and then divide the result-
the circuits. Take measurements to find if a high current ing reading by 10. Energize the circuit and
draw is causing the excessive voltage drop. record each reading on the ladder diagram.
6. Compare each amperage load measure-
Diagnosing a High Current Draw on a ment with the current rating on the device's
Transformer label. The current measured should never be
When looking for voltage drops or high greater than the current rating on the label of
current draws, you apply the principles of Ohm's the electrical load. If it is greater, replace that
law. Electrical loads in series drop voltages. electrical load. Most low-voltage loads cannot
Loads in parallel add amperages. For a control be repaired.

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 Chapter 36 Thermostats 967

Note: There are certain electrical loads to Diagnostics Using a Line-Voltage

look at more closely. These include the following: Thermostat
cooling contactors in the condenser, time delay
relays in the condenser, fan relays in the air 1. Check that the circuit breakers for the electric
handler, solenoids in the liquid line, gas valve heating units are turned on and not open.
solenoids, zone dampers, zone control panels, 2. Carefully remove the thermostat cover and
zone valves, gas ignition controls, oil primary then remove the thermostat from the subbase.
controls, and some thermostats themselves. 3. Review system literature and wiring in order to
anticipate the correct voltage measurement. Set
your meter to a higher-than-expected setting
Pro Tip and measure the voltage across the two termi-
More Than Just Measurements nals. The measurement should read line voltage
across the open circuit. Note that some electric
While working through a system and taking amper-
age readings at each load, listen to the loads in opera-
heat systems can use 120 Vac or 240 Vac.
tion. Chattering contactors or relays are a sign that that 4. If the measurement is not line voltage, there is
load is not functioning properly. Be certain to run through a problem with the wiring. Depending on the
all modes of operation (heating, cooling, fan-on, and fan- system's location, further repair work may
auto), as each mode energizes different control voltage need to be done by a licensed electrician.
loads. If the system uses a heat pump, check the revers-
5. If line voltage is measured at the subbase, the
ing valve and run through the defrost sequence.
problem is the thermostat and it will need to
be replaced.
36.8.5 Closing a Troubleshooting 6. Select a similar line-voltage thermostat or an
Service Call electronic thermostat specifically designed
for use with line voltage. Never replace a
After repairing a thermostat wire problem or line-voltage thermostat with a low-voltage
replacing a thermostat, ask the customer if they want to thermostat.
keep the broken part. If not, remove and properly dis- 7. Prior to replacing a thermostat, open the cir-
pose of any parts and mercury or digital thermostats. cuit breaker to disconnect the circuit. Use a
In addition, survey the work space and double-check

I
voltmeter to take measurements to ensure
that any jumpers have been removed, covers replaced, that the electrical circuit is open.
and electrical switches returned to their proper posi-
8. Replace the thermostat.
tion. Show the customer that the repair worked and
help them set the thermostat for their comfort. Make 9. Re-energize the circuit once repair work is
sure to leave any manuals or paperwork that came complete and verify that the problem has
1
with the thermostat. been corrected.
If any older thermostats were replaced with a web- 10. As with any other repairs, show the customer
enabled Internet thermostat, ensure that the customer what was replaced, offer to leave any replace-
knows how to access the thermostat from their com- ment parts, and show them how to operate
puter or smartphone. Taking the time to make sure the the new thermostat.
customer fully understands the equipment now will
increase the customer's satisfaction and may prevent a
callback in the future. 36.8.7 Domestic and Commercial
Refrigeration Systems
36.8.6 Line-Voltage Thermostats Thermostats are also used on domestic and com-
Diagnosing a defective line-voltage thermostat on mercial refrigeration systems. Most of these ther-
an electric heating system is somewhat different from mostats are line-voltage thermostats and control the
diagnosing a low-voltage thermostat. Line-voltage evaporator fans, condenser fans, compressors, and
thermostats normally provide power directly to the liquid line solenoid valves. These thermostats should
baseboard or ceiling panel heating units. While line- be diagnosed in the same way as an electric heat line-
voltage thermostat operation is less complex, risk of voltage thermostat. However, remember that a refrig-
electric shock is higher. Review all electrical safety pre- eration thermostat closes on a rise in temperature,
cautions before dealing with line voltage. rather than a drop in temperature.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

968 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

36.9 Zoned Systems calls for heat, it sends a demand signal to the boiler.
The demand signal causes the boiler to start produc-
Zoned systems are designed to heat or cool dif- ing heat to supply the operating pump or open zone
ferent areas of a building to different comfort, humid- valve. When the thermostat for the temperature zones
ity, and ventilation settings. Zoned systems can control calling for heat are all satisfied, the valves will close,
water flow, forced air, or electrical supply in different the pumps will stop, and the boiler will shut down and
areas of a building's HVAC system. Zoned systems are wait for the next call for heat.
found in both residential and commercial environ- Another type of zoned system is the forced-air
ments. While the basic operations are identical, the size zoned system. These systems use multiple thermo-
of these systems varies. The simplest zoned system is stats to control dampers in ductwork that open or close
electric baseboard heating. based on the call for heat or cooling in different com-
Most electric baseboard heating systems are fort zones of a building. The zone thermostats are also
zoned. Each area of the building has a separate line- connected to the air handler or furnace through a zone
voltage thermostat that controls one set or one single control board or panel. This central zone control board
baseboard. For example, a house would have a sepa- tells the air handler to heat, cool, dehumidify, or ven-
rate thermostat in each bedroom, bathroom, kitchen, tilate based on the priority of each zone and what the
and open area. Each thermostat would control the tem- thermostat's demand signals, Figure 36-45.
perature in that specific area of the home by turning Forced-air zoning is more complex than the electric
its baseboard on and off as the temperature falls and baseboard heat or hydronic zoning because of the need
rises. This allows each room to be set for the comfort of to maintain airflow, limit velocity, and limit pressures
the room's occupants. within the ductwork and across the blower motor in
Another example of zoning is found in residential the equipment. To understand this better, take a 4-ton
hydronic heating for baseboards. As with the example (48,000 Btu/hr) cooling system with three zones in a
of electric heat, a home may have two or three thermo- home as an example. The three zones are the basement,
stats (zones). Each thermostat controls a valve or a pump first floor (ground), and second floor (upstairs). For air
coming off of the central boiler. When the thermostat conditioning, airflow must maintain 400 cfm (cubic

ZONEFIRST
Figure 36-45. Basic components of a forced-air zone system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 969

feet per minute) per ton of air conditioning. Therefore, • One zone control panel.
a 4-ton system must maintain an airflow of 1600 cfm • One static pressure bypass damper.
(400 cfm x 4 tons). Optional components could include the following:
If airflow drops below this level, the evaporator
• Freezestat on evaporator coil to prevent ice
coil will start to build up ice and freeze. This presents
buildup.
a unique challenge when designing a zoned system.
What happens when an air handler designed to sup- • Temperature sensors for supply and return ducts
ply 1600 cfm of airflow to three zones in a building to sense if air is too cold or hot.
receives a call to supply airflow to only one zone? Not • Outdoor temperature sensor for outdoor reset.
only does the coil freezing up present problems, but The thermostats for most modern zoned systems
also the remaining zones will have an increased veloc- are the same ones discussed earlier in this chapter.
ity of air causing noise in the ductwork and diffusers. Some of the older zoned systems have what is called a
These areas may also experience cooling but without master-slave thermostat design. The master thermostat
any dehumidifying of air. Additionally, the increased sets the mode of the system. For example, it determines
velocity may cause uncomfortable drafts for the occu- whether the system runs in heating or cooling mode.
pants of the space being conditioned. Another risk in The slave thermostat monitors the temperature of the
this scenario is that the increased air pressure at the zone in which it is located. However, if the slave ther-
blower wheel will cause the indoor blower motor to mostat calls for cooling while the master thermostat is
increase its amperage drawn. At a minimum, increased set for heating, cooling will not cycle on until the mas-
amperage draw will increase a customer's electric bill. ter thermostat's mode is changed to cooling. The wiring
At worst, increased amperage draw can begin to over- and design of the slave thermostats are different from
heat and burn out the blower motor. This is assuming the standard thermostat, and the service technician
that the blower motor is a single-phase motor, which is should make sure to replace the thermostat with one
very common. However, if an HVAC system's blower recommended by the manufacturer.
motor is an ECM (electronically communicated motor), In modern systems, the zone control panel regu-
the customer's power bill will rise, and the system will lates the entire system. It takes each thermostat input
be extremely noisy as the motor attempts to compen- and determines what area of the conditioned space
sate for the restriction in the ductwork.
A zoned system for a three-floor house needs to
be able to respond to a single zone's call for cooling
Zone2 Supply Supply
without forcing more cold air onto the other two zones. damper air sensor plenum
Zone 2 (upstairs) may call for cooling, but the basement closed Zone 3 damper
open
and ground floor are already comfortable and would
get cold with any more cooling. This means that only
1/3 of the building may need to be heated or cooled at
any given time. Thus, the zoned system must be able to
maintain sufficient airflow across the evaporator coil,
even when automatic zone dampers in the ductwork
--- Bypass damper
open I
close to prevent airflow into two of the three zones.
Most systems now overcome this problem by Zone 1
installing a bypass damper in ductwork between damper
the supply and the return at the air handler. Often closed
Return
the bypass damper is a barometric damper. This is air
a damper that opens and closes in reaction to static sensor
pressure. If the pressure in the ductwork exceeds a Furnace
certain level, the damper opens and allows the air to Return
flow from the supply to the return to be recycled across air
the coil and sent out again into the supply plenum, plenum
Figure 36-46.
A three-zone system would require several Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

components: Figure 36-46. When a zone control panel receives a call

for cooling to only one zone (example is Zone 3), it performs
• Three thermostats. several functions. It opens the zone 3 damper, closes the zone
• Three electric dampers (or more based on existing 1 and zone 2 dampers, and opens the bypass damper as
ductwork). needed to maintain proper static pressure and velocity.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

970 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

needs to receive airflow. It determines if it is a call for

heat, a call for cooling, and in some situations, which
zone should have priority. The zone panel then opens
the appropriate damper and closes the others. Higher-
end zoned systems can tie into a building control sys-
tem or a home automation system to provide a more
integrated level of control.

Caution
Work in a Zone Control Panel
Zone control panels do not have replaceable
parts, so it is extremely important to follow all manufac-
turer directions when installing and servicing them. Be
extremely careful with loose wires and jumpers, as the
terminal connections are very small and close together,
Figure 36-47.

Rectangular zone dampers are typically multiple-

blade dampers, Figure 36-48. Some are opposing blade
dampers, and all dampers must fit tightly inside the main
Jackson Systems, LLC
supply trunks to each zone on the system. Many of them
Figure 36-48. Rectangular zone damper.
use foam tape around their edges to prevent leakage.
When mounting zone dampers into ductwork,
make sure that the blades move freely and do not damper is in the open position when power is not
scrape against the side of the ductwork in any location. applied to its motor. When power is applied, a small
Zone dampers should also be installed in a location shaded-pole motor drives the damper closed. When
where they can be easily removed for future service. the system calls for the damper to open or when the
Make sure that there is enough clearance to completely system cycles off, the damper returns to the open state
remove the damper from the ductwork. using the force from a small spring mounted on the
For most modern zoned systems, zone damper motor shaft. There are also normally closed dampers
motors are primarily normally open. A normally open that work in the exact opposite manner of normally
open dampers. A normally closed damper is in the
closed position when power is not applied to its motor.
A spring holds the damper closed when no power is
applied. When energized, a motor opens the damper.
An example of a normally open damper is a smoke
or fire damper used where ductwork penetrates a fire-
wall in a commercial building. The fire damper is held
open with the motor. If there is a fire or building power
is removed, the damper closes to prevent smoke from
migrating through the ductwork.
Some older dampers and those used in some
commercial systems are power-open/power-closed
dampers. These dampers require power to open and
power to close. A technician can easily identify these
dampers by looking at the number of wires connected
to the damper motor. A normally open damper or nor-
mally closed damper will have two wires connected
to its motor. A power-open/power-closed damper will
have three to five wires connected to its motor, depend-
ing on the configuration of the damper.
Honeywell, Inc. Power-open/power-closed damper motors require
Figure 36-47. This zone control panel operates with a two- an end switch that comes premounted on the motor
zone heat pump system. that actuates when the damper is in the closed position.

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 Chapter 36 Thermostats 971

An end switch on a damper can be used in two differ- damper with adjustable weights that determine the
ent ways. An end switch can close when the damper is pressure at which the damper opens. Often, these
closed, or it can open when the damper is closed. weights are on a lever on the outside of the ductwork.
Most often, an end switch is wired in series with the The adjustable weight is set to keep the damper closed
damper motor. When the damper reaches its closed posi- until the pressure in the ductwork exceeds the engi-
tion, the end switch opens, which interrupts the current neered maximum level. As the pressure in the duct-
flow to the damper motor. By opening, the end switch work pushes open the bypass damper, supply air
stops the electrical signal to the motor from the zone con- is allowed to flow directly into the return duct. This
trol panel when the damper is in the correct position. bypassing action maintains proper airflow across the
On a few of the higher-end commercial damp- evaporator coil, Figure 36-50.
ers, mainly those tied into building automation sys- The second type of bypass damper uses a motor-
tems, a motor shaft-mounted end switch closes when driven blade that opens as the pressure in the duct-
the damper is in the correct position. This closed work rises past a preset level. A zone control panel uses
switch sends a signal to the automation system that pressure sensors in the supply and return plenums to
is monitoring and controlling the damper positions, monitor air pressure and signal when to open the elec-
Figure 36-49. tric dampers, Figure 36-51.
There are two general types of static pressure
bypass dampers. The first and most frequently used
type is a barometric damper. This consists of a blade

Damper closed

J1
Zone
control
panel

NC end Damper
Jackson Systems, LLC
switch motor
A Figure 36-50. Rectangular single-blade barometric damper

I
used for bypass.

Zone
control
panel

Damper
control Damper
contacts motor

Control
NO end contacts
B switch coil
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 36-49. Damper end switch wiring options example.
Check manufacturer diagrams when available. A-A normally
closed (NC) end switch opens when the damper reaches the
closed position. B-A normally open (NO) end switch closes
when the damper reaches the closed position. A NO end ZONEFIRST
switch signals the controller, which opens contacts to stop the Figure 36-51. Static pressure controller for use with an
damper motor. electric bypass damper.

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972 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Even though controls monitor air pressure and Caution

bypass airflow to maintain certain operational condi-
tions, some zoned systems use additional safety com- Condensate Drain Lines during Defrost
ponents. A freezestat is a thermostat set to open if air When defrosting a frozen coil, make sure the con-
temperature above the evaporator coil drops to 33°F. densate lines are not plugged. If the drain pans or drain
When a freezestat opens, it either directly de-energizes lines overflow, they could cause building damage or
the cooling contactor or sends a signal to the zone con- wet areas outside the equipment. If water does over-
flow and spill, be sure to clean up all water to prevent
trol panel. Most freezestats used in residential and light
mold growth. It is a good idea to clear condensate lines
commercial applications close when the temperature before starting to defrost an air-conditioning or refrigera-
rises 5°F. Check the manufacturer documentation for tion coil.
exact temperatures. On some larger commercial applica-
tions, especially those where there is a hydrocoil (chilled
Forced-air systems that also include heating have
or heated water) and outside air intakes, freezestats may
evolved even further by the use of a duct temperature
have manual resets. The manual reset allows a techni-
sensor that senses the air temperature in the supply
cian to inspect the system for damage before restarting.
plenum. Based on this temperature, the zone con-
When a zone control panel senses a freezestat signal, the
trol panel can control the furnace's heat production,
control either opens an electric bypass damper or de-
the cooling contactor, outside air intakes, and bypass
energizes the cooling contactor to shut off the compres-
dampers to ensure the correct airflow at the correct air
sor until the evaporator temperature rises.
temperature is moving into the supply ductwork to the
Most air-conditioning evaporators operate best at
rest of the building, Figure 36-52.
a coil temperature of 34°F to 36°F. Any colder than that
risks the chance of developing ice. Lower airflow rates . Due to more stringent energy codes, recently
can also cause the coils to freeze. Ice acts as an insulator. installed zoned systems require a zone control panel
that connects with an outside air temperature sensor.
Ice buildup will prevent heat from being absorbed from
This allows heating and cooling to adjust supply air
the airstream across the coil into the refrigerant inside the
temperature based on outdoor air. This adjustment
coil. Since heat from the air is not reaching the refriger-
allows multistage equipment to be staged based on the
ant, a frozen coil will worsen over time as the ice builds
true heating and cooling needs of the environment and
up across the openings in the fins. More ice means lower
building envelope. An example of this is how a day
airflow, which causes the formation of additional ice.
with an outside temperature of 50°F requires a lower
As an evaporator coil freezes, the boiling of the
Btu/hr output from the furnace than a 0°F day. The
refrigerant in the evaporator slows and eventually
furnace can change the temperature of its supply air
causes liquid refrigerant to flow to the compressor.
based on outdoor air temperature. This ability to con-
This can cause ice formation on the compressor and
trol the output of a system based on outdoor tempera-
compressor failure.
ture offers large energy cost and footprint savings.
A frozen evaporator coil reduces airflow to the spaces
needing cooling. Conditioned spaces will feel warm and
damp. Once a coil is frozen, the only way to defrost it is to 36.9.1 Zoned System Operational
cycle off cooling mode (tum off the compressor). Running
the blower fan speeds the defrost process. Sequence for Heating
If a major buildup of ice is on a coil that is installed The sequence of operation for most zoned systems
upstream of a gas, oil, or electric furnace, a technician in heat mode is as follows:
can turn the blower on, set all zones to heating, and 1. A thermostat calls for heating in a single or
allow the heat to run. multiple zones.
2. A switch closes across the Rand W contacts on the
Caution zone control panel.
Frozen Evaporator in a Heat Pump 3. Zone dampers close for any zones not requiring
If a frozen coil is on a heat pump, run the heat pump
heating.
in heating mode. However, be careful to make sure that 4. Once all dampers are in their appropriate
electric backup heat does not come on. Do this by either positions, the zone control panel closes R to W
disconnecting the W1 wire or by turning off the circuit contacts on the furnace control board.
breaker or electrical disconnect to the electric heating 5. The heat sequence initiates, and the furnace
elements. Airflow is restricted by the ice buildup. If the provides heating to the ductwork where open
electric heating elements were to turn on, they could and closed dampers route airflow to the zones
overheat and cause damage. required.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 973

Temperature
sensor

•• -- rn
LED FUNCTIONS
JACKSON SYSTEMS, LLC
24 V (ON with 24 Vac) Z-201 - HC ~ C
. 24V ~ R SINGLE STAGE
HEAT / COOL
~ 121 w w
...
W (ON with heating call) Ow ~ !QI y z y
THERMOSTAT

Y (On with cooling call) ~

• t-
0
G N G

.G
Q v
~ 121 DPC -
G (On with fan call) 121 DC DAMPER MOTOR
(2-WIRE OR 3-WIRE)
lg! PO -
LIMIT (ON when sensor
is connected - Blinks when Q UMIT ~
•• - - rn
C
out on High or Low limit)
ZD1 (ON when damper
is open)
Q zo1
D ~

~
~
R
~ IQ] w~
!QI
• t-
y z
0
y
SINGLE STAGE
~~~~g~~\

D
Q zo2 G N G
ZD2 (ON when damper ~ 121 DPC -
is open) 121 DC DAMPER MOTOR

D ll~
R
(2-WIRE OR 3-WIRE)
lg! PO -
111 w~
-
w
R
HVAC UNIT

i y ~ y
TERMINAL
STRIP

D -
ADJUSTABLE
HIGH LIMrr
G G Z-200-DAS
.,.:: ,:- LN!T
......... DISC HARGE
Dl]DAS

D mx
I AIR
OFF OFF 130 DAS SE NSOR
ON OFF 140

I
OFF ON 150
ON ON 160
H >
~ 24V 11 120V
-
120/24 Vac
TRANSFORMER

~ 4AMP
I ~ 4 AMP
11
HVAC EQUl'MENT ZONE SYSTEM
4 Af,I> UMP

/
4 Amp fuse protects
the relay contacts
4 Amp fuse protects
printed circuit board

B
Jackson Systems, LLC
Figure 36-52. A-Discharge air temperature sensor. B-A two-zone control panel wiring diagram showing a discharge air
sensor connection.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

974 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

6. As temperatures rise in each zone, their thermostats through the ductwork. In commercial buildings, this is
become satisfied and open the appropriate R to W especially important to allow outside air to be brought
contacts on the wne control panel. As the R to W into the building for outside air ventilation require-
contacts for a zone open, the zone damper for that ments and building pressurization.
wne closes, unless it is the last zone requiring heat.
7. Once the last zone is satisfied, the furnace begins
its cool-down sequence, and all zone dampers 36.9.3 Troubleshooting Zoned Systems
open to allow airflow to all zones. Troubleshooting zoned systems involves both air
8. The furnace shuts off the blower, and the system and electrical diagnostics. When beginning to trouble-
waits for its next call for heat or cooling with all shoot a zoned system, find out what is not happening
dampers in the open position. and why it is not happening. The experienced tech-
nician does not concentrate on the zone that the cus-
36.9.2 Zoned System Operational tomer reports as having a problem, but rather looks at
the system as a whole. While the following diagnostic
Sequence for Cooling procedure may need to be changed slightly based on
The operational sequence for cooling is almost iden- a given system, most often this procedure will help in
tical to heating with the exception of the need to monitor locating the problem, Figure 36-53.
evaporator coil temperature to prevent ice buildup: Troubleshooting zoned systems is best done by
1. A thermostat calls for cooling in a single or working from big to small. Begin with overall air-
multiple zones. flow and work down to individual zone dampers and
2. A switch closes across the R and Y contacts and modes. It is important to remember that the problem
also across the R and G contacts on the zone may not be with the area the customer is complaining
control panel. about as the entire system needs to work as a whole.
3. Zone dampers close for any zones not requiring
cooling.
4. Once all dampers are in their appropriate
positions, the zone control panel closes the R to Y
m
II
Troubleshooting a Zoned System
On arrival to the service call, introduce yourself
contacts and the R to G contacts on the air handler to the customer, get a summary of the problem, and
control board. ask the customer to show the locations of all the
5. The cooling sequence initiates, and the air handler thermostats on the forced-air system.
provides cooling to the ductwork where open and
closed dampers route airflow to the zones required. Initial Airflow Inspection
6. As the temperatures drop in each zone, their 1. As the customer identifies each thermostat,
thermostats become satisfied and open the adjust its setting. Change it to one of these
appropriate R to Y contacts and R to G contacts on the settings:
wne control panel. As the R to Y and R to G contacts • "Fan-On" (preferred).
for a zone open, the zone damper for that zone
• "Cooling" with the temperature m°F
closes, unless it is the last zone requiring cooling.
below set point.
7. Once the last zone is satisfied, the air handler
continues to run for a few minutes after the R • "Heat" with the temperature m°F above
to Y contacts have opened. This ensures that the set point for heating.
evaporator coil has a chance to defrost and drain Of these three options, the "Fan-On" setting is
properly. All zone dampers open to allow airflow preferable, as it will not lower the temperature
to all zones. of the building, and it provides more time to
8. The air handler shuts off the blower, and the troubleshoot before needing to change setting
system waits for its next call for heat or cooling due to discomfort. Adjust each of the thermo-
with all dampers in the open position. stats on the system to the same setting.
While this is the basic process, there are some 2. Go into each zone and verify that there is air-
variations of this depending on how the system is flow from each supply register in the space.
engineered. In commercial buildings and some high- This confirms that the system is working and
end residential installations, the blower does not com- that all zone dampers are open. If airflow is
pletely shut down at the end of the heating or cooling absent or reduced in a zone, check the zone
cycle. Rather, all dampers open, and the blower shifts damper as described in the Damper Inspection
to a low-speed operation to maintain a slight airflow

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 975

II ._,, ___.,.........
I
I

, ......,·,--
I
........ ARD OR ZD DAMPER

:_6 _J SPRING-OPEN
POWER-CLOSED

W#

I
1
WIRELESS
ADAPTER Io ~ o I
0
Honeywell, Inc.
Figure 36-53. A zone control panel wiring diagram for a four-zone heat pump system.

1
section that follows. Solve any airflow issues that each zone's damper has closed and air-
before continuing with the system evaluation. flow has stopped.
Dampers Closed Inspection 5. After checking the second-to-last zone, open
one of the other zones in order to test the final
1. Go to one thermostat and turn the thermostat damper sequence. This will prevent the sys-
off. If using the "Fan-On" function, switch the tem from shutting down when the final zone
thermostat back to "Fan-Auto." is turned off. System shutdown would return
2. Wait a few minutes for the damper to cycle dampers to their "normal" position, which
closed. may be open or closed.
3. Verify that the airflow has stopped, meaning 6. When testing the final zone, locate the baromet-
the zone damper has shut. If airflow continues, ric damper. Verify that this damper is opening
the damper has not closed. Check the zone to allow air to pass from the supply to the return.
damper as described in the Damper Inspection Verification is done by watching the weighted
section that follows. Solve the damper issue lever on the side of the damper. It should move
before continuing to check the other zones. as the pressures increase and decrease. If the
4. Repeat the three previous steps for each of the damper is not opening properly, try manu-
remaining zones except the last zone, ensuring ally moving the arm toward the open position.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

976 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

With a single zone calling, the damper should 5. After verifying that the zone panel is work-
move to an almost fully open position. When all ing correctly, check the damper motor in the
the zones are open, the bypass damper should ductwork. Take a meter reading to make sure
be closed, because maximum airflow is needed that the motor is getting the proper voltage.
to condition all the zones. If it is not, trace the wire between the zone
control panel and the motor and check all of
Damper Inspection its connections.
The following is a general procedure for
6. If the motor is getting the proper voltage, locate
troubleshooting a damper that is not opening or
the lever that is found on the damper motor.
closing at the proper time. The procedure uses
Cycle the damper by hand. If it does not move,
a "stuck-open" damper as an example, but the
remove the damper from the ductwork and find
same concepts would apply to a "stuck-closed"
out why the linkage is not moving. This could
damper. Always refer to manufacturer's product-
happen because of a broken linkage, the blades
specific service manual if available.
are binding, or something that is caught on the
1. Locate the wne control panel and find the zone blades is interfering with movement.
number for the wne that is not working properly.
7. If there is nothing binding the damper, check
2. Check to make sure the wires are connected the motor by measuring the resistance of its
to the proper terminals. winding. Perform the following steps:
3. Check to make sure that the indicator light • First, turn off the system.
for that zone shows that the zone is no longer
• Second, disconnect the wires from the
calling for fan, cooling, or heating. If it is still
damper motor to isolate the motor from
calling for an operation and the thermostat is
the circuit.
off, check the wiring or thermostat problems
as discussed earlier in this chapter. • Use an ohmmeter to ohm out the
winding (measure its resistance). If the
4. On the zone control panel, locate the open
motor shows a small resistance, it should
damper's motor connections. Verify what
be good. If the motor shows an OL or
type of damper it is. If there are two wires, is
infinite resistance, the damper's motor is
it normally open or normally closed? Measure
bad. Replace the motor.
the voltage readings on the two terminals.
• If the damper is normally open and the zone Cooling Check
is not calling for operation, there should 1. After testing all the zones for proper damper
be more than 24 Vac on the common and operation, adjust all zones to "cooling" mode
control terminals. and turn down the thermostat to 5°F under
• If the damper is normally closed and the room temperature. If this is a master-slave
zone is not calling for operation, there system, make sure the system switch is set to
should be OVac on the common and cooling mode.
control terminals. 2. Wait about five minutes and check that the
• If the zone has a power-opened/power- condenser contactor has energized and that
closed damper with three wires, take two the system is cooling. If the condenser con-
measurements. Across the common and tactor does not energize, measure whether
closed terminals, there should be 24 Vac. there is 24 Vac across the Y and C terminals
Across the common and open terminals, on the zone control panel output. If there is
there should be OVac. not 24 Vac, troubleshoot the zone control
If the readings are incorrect, further diagnose panel and find out if there is a blown fuse. In
the zone control panel by following manufac- addition, check whether there is 24 Vac across
turer directions. In most cases, by disconnecting the Y and C terminals on the thermostat side,
the thermostat wires from the zone panel, the 0 Vac across R and Y terminals, and 24 Vac
damper should go to its closed position and volt- across R and W terminals. Reading these
ages. If the thermostat terminals do not properly measurements confirms that the zone control
control the voltage output of the zone control panel and attached thermostats are working
panel, most likely it is a bad zone control panel. properly.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 977

3. If the condenser contactor is not energized, On the system side of the zone control panel,
find the condenser and take voltage measure- measure for 24 Vac across W and C, 0 Vac
ments at the following locations: across Y and C, and 24 Vac across Rand C. If
• 24 Vac across the condenser contactor coil. any of these are not correct, troubleshoot the
zone control panel according to manufactur-
• Llne voltage (230, 240, or 408 Vac) across the
er's directions.
power contacts on the condenser contactor.
3. If there is 24 Vac between W and C on the
• Llne voltage across the disconnect or top
system side of the zone control panel, begin
of the contactor.
to troubleshoot the furnace. If a gas-fired
• 24 Vac across the control terminals in furnace, check the following:
the condensing unit control box (same
• Ignition sequence.
terminals as were measured in the zone
control panel). • Proper gas flow.
• Any tripped safety devices.
Heating Check
• Pressure switches.
1. If the cooling mode of the system is fully
Gas furnace troubleshooting is described
operational, check operation in heating
in Chapter 41, Gas-Fired Heating Systems.
mode. Change all thermostats to heating and
Oil furnace troubleshooting is described in
increase their set point to about 5°F above
Chapter 42, Oil-Fired Heating Systems.
room temperature. If working on a master-
slave system, remember to change the system Service Call Wrap-Up
selector to heating mode. After verifying proper operation for fan
2. Once again, wait about five minutes and then only (airflow), cooling, and heating of the zones,
recheck all dampers. They should all be open explain all of your findings to your customer.
and the system should be heating. If the sys- Reset all thermostats to normal operation and
tem is not heating, verify that there is O Vac set points. Verify that all covers are back on the
across Rand W, 24 Vac across Rand Y, and motors and zone control panels and that all tools
24 Vac across R and C on the thermostat side. are removed.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
• Free cooling is the use of an air-side economizer.
Summary The economizer operates when outdoor air
• In basic terms, a thermostat is a sensing device temperature (and sometimes humidity) is low.
that reacts to temperature change. To the Duct dampers are adjusted so that the indoor
average person, a thermostat is the controller blower draws in outdoor air for cooling.
used to start, stop, or modulate the operation of • Wireless thermostats allow an HVAC system
a heating and cooling system. to be controlled from anywhere. These systems
• Common temperature-sensing devices used in still require one or more temperature sensors.
thermostats include thermistors and bimetal • When troubleshooting an HVAC system, begin
coils. A temperature-sensing device is used at the thermostat and determine whether the
with a switching device, such as a reed switch, problem is in the wiring, in the furnace or air
contacts and magnets, or a mercury switch. handler, or in the thermostat.
• Modern thermostats have numerous features • When troubleshooting a line-voltage thermostat,
and options, including various power sources, be mindful of electrical dangers and set a
different temperature-sensing and switching multimeter to read appropriate voltage levels.
devices, display options, service reminders, • Zoned systems are designed to heat or cool
programming options, and Internet/mobile different areas of a building to different
device communication capabilities. comfort, humidity, and ventilation standards.
• To prevent indoor temperature from moving Forced-air zoning operates using ductwork,
too far from set point, thermostats use dampers, sensors, and related controls. Often,
anticipators. A heat anticipator is a resistance a barometric damper controls a bypass duct
heating coil that produces just enough to handle some of the airflow when one or
heat to cycle off heat production so that air more zones are not calling for conditioning.
temperature does not overshoot set point Forced-air zoned systems may use a master-
beyond acceptable temperature swing. A slave thermostat arrangement or a zone control
cooling anticipator is a resistance heating coil panel communicating with different room
that produces just enough heat to cycle on thermostats.
cooling mode before air temperature rises to • A freezestat is a thermostat that opens when
cut-in set point. evaporator temperature drops to around 33°F.
• A multistage thermostat can control the This protects that evaporator from freezing over.
heating or cooling capacity of a system. These • When troubleshooting forced-air zoned
thermostats often have extra wiring terminals systems, observe system operation to determine
for heat stage (Wl, W2, etc.) and cooling stage what is not happening and then determine why
(Yl, Y2, etc.) operation. it is not happening. View the system as a whole.
• Line-voltage thermostats operate on line Work from big to small, beginning with overall
voltage: 120 Vac or 240 Vac. These thermostats airflow and working down to individual zone
can control high current loads, such as electric dampers.
heating elements.
• Low-voltage thermostats operate on 24 Vac
from a step-down transformer. Review Questions
• Millivolt thermostats operate on mere millivolts Answer the following questions using the information in
supplied by a thermocouple or thermopile. this chapter.
• When installing a thermostat, follow the
manufacturer's wiring diagrams. Set subbase 1. A sensing device that reacts to temperature
DIP switches according to the type of system change is a _ _.
that the thermostat will control. Test wiring A. humidistat
for proper connections and operation before B. pressurestat
programming the thermostat. C. sensostat
D. thermostat

978 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 979

2. A common temperature-sensing component 8. The devices used by mechanical cooling

that reacts to temperature change by thermostats to turn off early enough to
changing shape to actuate a reed switch or prevent system overshoot or temperatures
mercury switch is a _ _. below the thermostat set point are called
A. bimetal strip
B. diaphragm A. cooling anticipators
C. thermistor B. heat anticipators
D. thermocouple C. temperature limit switches
3. To reduce or eliminate electrical arcing in an D. zone controls
electrical control, use _ _. 9. A combination thermostat is used to control
A. a long bimetal strip coiled tightly a(n) _ _.
B. magnets to pull in electrical contacts A. combination lock
C. a mercury switch B. cooling contactor only
D. Any of the above. C. heating and cooling system
4. What is the condition called in which the D. indoor blower's operation only
residual heat blown through the ductwork 10. A gas furnace with a multistage thermostat
raises the temperature of the conditioned uses _ _ to control its heat capacity.
space above the thermostat set point after a A. a cooling anticipator
heating thermostat has shut off a furnace? B. multiple sets of electric resistance heating
A. Heat wave. coils
B. System lag. C. a reed switch
C. System overshoot. D. a two-stage or modulating gas valve
D. Temperature swing. 11. Line-voltage thermostats typically operate at
5. The total difference of the high and low
temperature in a room, including values A. 30 mVdc to 50 mVdc
below the cut-in temperature and above the B. 1 Vdc to 5 Vdc
cut-off temperature, is called _ _. C. 24 Vac to 30 Vac
A. contact point bounce D. 120 Vac to 240 Vac
B. system lag 12. Low-voltage thermostats typically operate at
C. system overshoot
D. temperature swing A. 30 mVdc to 50 mVdc
6. A condition in which a furnace turns on but B. 1 Vdc to 5 Vdc
the temperature of a room drops too low
before the heating effect is felt is called _ _.
A. chill wave
B. system lag
C. system overshoot
D. temperature droop
C. 24 Vac to 30 Vac
D. 120 Vac to 240 Vac
13. Low-voltage thermostats often use _ _ to
switch and control high current, line-voltage
devices, such as fans and compressors.
A expansion valves
I
7. The devices used by mechanical heating B. relays
thermostats to turn on early enough to C. solenoids
prevent temperature from dropping below its D. verbal commands
cut-in set point are called _ _. 14. The temperature-sensing component that
A. cooling anticipators reacts to temperature change by changing its
B. heat anticipators electrical resistance is a
C. temperature limit switches A. bimetal strip
D. zone controls B. diaphragm
C. thermistor
D. thermocouple

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

980 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

15. To calculate the amperage load that a low- 22. The thermostat wiring designation for power
voltage thermostat's step-down transformer from the step-down transformer is _ _.
can handle, perform the following AC
calculation: B. R
A. volt-amperes + resistance C. w
B. volt-amperes + volts (primary side) D. y
C. volt-amperes + volts (secondary side) 23. The thermostat wiring designation for
D. volt-amperes + watts heating is _ _.
16. A millivolt thermostat generates its own AC
electric current from heat applied to its _ _. B. R
A. bimetal coil C. w
B. Bourdon tube D. y
C. thermistor 24. The thermostat wiring designation for the fan
D. thermocouple relay is _ _.
lZ Millivolt thermostats can be used to control A. Aux/E
_ _ systems. B. C
A. central air conditioning C. G
B. centrifugal chiller D. 0/B
C. heatpump 25. The thermostat wiring designation for
D. standing-pilot light heating energizing a heat pump's reversing valve is
18. Being able to adjust conditioned space
temperature remotely using a tablet PC, A. Aux/E
smartphone, or laptop is specifically an B. C
advantage of a _ _ thermostat. C. G
A. multistage D. 0/B
B. millivolt 26. When installing a thermostat's subbase, some
C. power-stealing system settings may need to be managed
D. wireless using _ _ switches.
19. Tapping into a fan, cooling, or heating A. bellows
terminal and drawing a small milliamp B. diaphragm
current to recharge its internal battery is a C. DIP
feature of a thermostat. D. reed
A. multistage 2Z When outdoor air is low in temperature
B. millivolt and humidity, a forced-air system can
C. power-stealing provide free cooling by using the following
D. wireless components, except _ _.
20. A programmable thermostat uses a(n) _ _ A. a barometric damper for exhaust air
that functions as a clock and controls indoor B. duct dampers
climate for different blocks of time. C. the compressor
A. anticipator D. the indoor blower
B. mercury switch 28. A good location where a thermostat should
C. microprocessor be installed is
D. reed switch A. behind a door or in a tight corner
21. The thermostat wiring designation for B. in direct sunlight
cooling mode is _ _. C. on an inner wall
A. C D. on an uninsulated outer wall
B. R
C. w
D. y

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 36 Thermostats 981

29. When taking measurements on an energized

circuit for low-voltage thermostat diagnostics,
set a multimeter to the _ _ setting.
A. Hz
B. Vac
C. Vdc
D. Q
30. When taking measurements on an energized
circuit for low-voltage thermostat diagnostics,
a OV reading indicates a(n) _ _.
A. closed switch
C. good relay coil
B. open switch
D. All of the above.
31. In a forced-air system, zone controls
prominently use _ _ to regulate the
temperatures of the different zones.
A. duct dampers
B. exhaust venting
C. steam traps
D. water solenoid valves
32. In a forced-air zoned system, what device
operates to regulate airflow and compensate
for when one of several zone dampers closes?
A. Bypass damper.
B. Economizer damper.
C. Exhaust air damper.
D. Fresh air inlet damper.
33. When pressure from airflow is reduced, most
barometric dampers close due to _ _.
A. adjustable weights
B. power-dose motor
C. shaded-pole motor
D. spring tension
34. In a forced-air zoned system, a _ _ opens
when temperature right above the evaporator
coil drops to around 33°F.
A. condensate drain
I
B. freezestat
C. refrigerant relief valve
D. zone damper
35. After speaking with the customer, begin a
service call for troubleshooting a forced-air
zoned system by _ _.
A. checking overall airflow in the different
zones
B. dismantling each zone damper, looking
for mechanical problems
C. replacing the zone control panel
D. taking electrical measurements on each
room thermostat

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER37 Heating and Cooling
Loads

Learning Objectives
Chapter Outline Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• Understand the principles of heat loss and heat gain.
37.1 Heat Transfer
37.2 Heat Loads • Compare the sources of heat loads for heating and
37.2.1 Heat Loads for Heating heat loads for cooling.
37.2.2 Heat Loads for Cooling • Explain the relationship between a material's
37.3 Calculating Heat Leakage K-value, C-value, U-value, and R-value and the rate
37.3.1 Thermal Conductivity (K-Value) and Thermal at which heat is transferred through the material.
Conductance (C-Value) • Summarize the use of indoor and outdoor design
37.3.2 Thermal Resistance (R-Value) temperatures in calculating heat loads.
37.3.3 Thermal Transmittance (U-Value)
• Understand the relationship between surface area
37.3.4 Design Temperatures
and heat transfer rate.
37.3.5 Heat Transfer Multipliers (HTMs)
• Compare the techniques for finding a building
37.3.6 Heat Leakage Surface Areas
component's heat transfer rate using the
37.3.7 Heat Transfer Rate
component's C-values, K-values, U-value, and
37.3.8 Unit Conversions
37.4 Other Factors Affecting Heat Loads R-values.
37.4.1 Basement Heat Loss • Explain how heat load calculations differ depending
37.4.2 Slab-on-Grade Heat Loss on whether the building is built on a basement, a
37.4.3 Crawl Space Heat Loss slab, or a crawl space.
37.4.4 Infiltration and Exfiltration • Understand infiltration and exfiltration and explain
37.4.5 Sun Loads their effects on heat load.
37.4.6 Heat Sources in Buildings • Summarize the effect of sunlight on cooling loads
37.5 Heating and Cooling Load-Manual J Method and methods of reducing sun loads.
37.5.1 Local Conditions
• Understand heat lag and its effect on heat loads.
37.5.2 Glass Loads
37.5.3 Wall, Floor, Door, and Ceiling Loads • Identify miscellaneous smaller heat loads within a
37.5.4 Field Measurements building that affect the calculation of total heating or
37.5.5 Air Leakage cooling loads.
37.5.6 Ducts, Appliances, and Miscellaneous Loads • Use a worksheet or computer program to properly
37.5.7 Total Load calculate total heating and cooling loads for a
37.6 Software and Apps for Load Calculations building.
 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 983

Technical Terms • Indoor air conditions can be affected by sun loads,

heat sinks, and heat and humidity migration .
crawl space Manual J (Chapter 27)
emissivity outdoor design
heat gain temperature (ODT)
heat gain HTM sustainable design Introduction
heat lag thermal conductance
heat leakage (C-value) Heating and cooling systems must be properly
heat load thermal conductivity sized for the size and environmental conditions of the
heat loss (K-value) space being conditioned . The heating system should be
heat loss HTM thermal resistance capable of keeping the occupied space warm even on
heat transfer multiplier (R-value) the coldest winter days for the given location. In much
(HTM) thermal transmittance of the United States, typical heating systems are called
heat transfer rate (U-value) upon to maintain a 70° F (21 °C) inside temperature while
indoor design temperature total cooling load outside temperatures fall below 0° F (-18°C) with strong
(IDT) total heat loss winds. Air conditioning systems must be sized to provide
adequate cooling capacity for the warmest days in the
summer.
Review of Key Concepts As new buildings are constructed and existing build-
ings are renovated, architects and builders strive to incor-
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help porate sustainable design. Sustainable design is the use of
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter: materials and processes that lower energy costs, reduce
• Heat can be transferred through radiation, operating and maintenance costs, increase productivity,
conduction, convection, or a combination of any and decrease the amount of pollution that is generated.
of these three methods. Heat always flows from a All of a building's heating and cooling loads must
warmer substance to a cooler substance. (Chapter 4) be accurately accounted for in order to determine the
• Latent heat is heat absorbed or released as a specific needs for HVAC equipment. The calculation of
substance changes physical state (solid, liquid, the heating and cooling loads should be the first step in
gas). Latent heat has no effect on the temperature an energy audit of a building, which includes identify-
of a substance. Sensible heat is the heat energy ing sources of heat leakage and recommendations for
absorbed or released to change the temperature of a improvement.
substance. (Chapter 4)
Thinking Green
• The amount of heat energy required to raise the

I
temperature of one pound of a substance by 1° Green Building Construction
Fahrenheit or one kilogram of a substance by 1 Kelvin Guidelines for green building construction and
is the substance's specific heat capacity. (Chapter 4) equipment can be obtained from numerous sources:
• Air temperature can be expressed as a dry-bulb National Home Builders (NAHB); US Green Building
Council's Leadership in Energy Environmental Design
temperature or a wet-bulb temperature. A dry-bulb
(LEED) committee; and ASHRAE's GreenGuide.
temperature is a measurement of the air's temperature
without adjusting for the effect of humidity. Wet-bulb
temperature is a measurement of the air's temperature
that is adjusted for the effect of the air's humidity on
evaporative cooling. (Chapter 27)
984 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

37.1 Heat Transfer Code Alert

Heat always flows from hot to cold. This transfer Calculating Heating and Cooling Loads
of heat results in heat loss in the warmer object or space The method used to calculate heating and cool-
and heat gain in the cooler object or space. The trans- ing loads is typically identified in local building codes.
fer of heat continues until the two temperatures are For low-rise residential buildings, the load calcula-
equalized. tion method is typically based on ACCA Manual J-
In the context of HVAC, heat loss is transfer of heat Residential Load Calculation. For commercial buildings,
from inside to outside by means of conduction, convec- the method is typically based on ANSI/ASHRAE/ACCA
tion, and radiation through all surfaces of a house. In Standard 183.
the winter, a conditioned space must be heated with
enough heat energy (Btu) to compensate for the heat There are several major heat loads:
loss to the cold outside air. For heating purposes, it is • Heat that is transmitted through walls, ceilings,
desirable to reduce heat loss. and floors (conduction).
On the other hand, during the summer, enough • Heat added to or removed from the air to control
heat must be removed from the conditioned space to humidity.
cool it as heat enters from the warm outside air. In
the context of HVAC, heat gain is the increase of heat • Heat added or removed by the air entering the
within a given space as a result of direct heating by building due to infiltration or brought in for
solar radiation and of heat radiated by other sources, ventilation.
such as lights, equipment, or people. In summer condi- • Heat produced by the sun that enters the building
tions, it is desirable to minimize heat gain. In the win- directly through the windows or by heating the
ter, it is necessary to reduce the transfer of heat from surfaces it strikes.
inside the conditioned space to the outdoors. In the • Heat from powered devices such as light
summer, it is necessary to prevent heat transfer from fixtures, electric motors, electric or gas stoves,
the outdoors into the conditioned space. etc. People, too, release a considerable amount of
The amount of heat transfer from a building is heat.
determined by the building's design, construction In all cases, the heat load can be described as either
materials, and location. Buildings should be designed sensible heat load (temperature change) or latent heat
to reduce heat transfer. This is referred to as making the load (moisture evaporating or condensing).
building envelope tight. However, studies have shown
that making a building too tight may result in insuf-
ficient air changes within the building. In turn, this 37.2.1 Heat Loads for Heating
can lead to sick building syndrome. To prevent insuf-
During the heating season, all heat lost from a
ficient air changes in a building with a tight envelope,
building must be replaced in order to maintain the
it is important to bring in some fresh outside air and
desired temperature within the building. The heat
to maintain continuous air changes within a building.
loads for heating include the means by which a sig-
This is possible through mechanical ventilation, such
as fresh outside air inlets into the supply plenum or the nificant amount of heat will be lost from a building,
Figure 37-1.
use of HRVs/ERVs.
The major sources of heat loss appear in the fol-
lowing list:
37.2 Heat Loads • Heat lost by conduction through walls, windows,
ceilings, and floors.
The heat load is the amount of heat that must be
added or removed from a space in order to maintain • Heat lost due to warm air leaking out of the
the desired temperature in that space. For the purpose building (exfiltration) and cool air leaking into
of sizing an HVAC system, the maximum heat load is the building (infiltration) as a result of inadequate
determined for a period of one hour. Charts (found in sealing.
numerous manuals) are used to make the computation. • Heat lost due to combustion air from furnaces or
Heat load calculation manuals are available through fireplaces leaving the flue.
various sources. The Air Conditioning Contractors of Normally, all other heat losses are ignored when
America (ACCA) publish Manual ]-Residential Load calculating heat loads. They are too small to have a sig-
Calculation. They also publish Manual N-Commercial nificant effect on the size of heating system required to
Load Calculation. meet the heating demands.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 985

outside a conditioned space is warmer than the tem-

perature inside the space, heat leakage results in heat
gain. When the temperature outside a conditioned
space is lower than the temperature inside the space,
heat leakage results in heat loss.
To calculate the total heat leakage for a space, a
technician must first determine the types of materi-
als through which heat is leaking. Keep in mind that
many building components, such as walls, windows,
and doors, are constructed from several different
materials. In some cases, these composite components
are treated as a single entity. In other cases, the type
and thickness of each material in the component are
@ considered separately.
The second step in calculating how much heat is
leaking is to determine the rate at which heat transfers
through the various materials. These values have been
determined by building material manufacturers under
Wind
laboratory conditions and are expressed as C-values,
K-values, U-values, or R-values. These values can be
jaddingt/Shutterstock.com
looked up in charts and will be discussed in greater
Figure 37-1. Heating loads. Large heat losses occur during
detail in the sections that follow. The formulas used
heating season due to cold air entering into building and
warm air exiting out. 1-Heat loss through walls, doors, and
to calculate heat leakage vary slightly depending on
windows. 2-Heat loss through slab, basement, or crawl which of these values is used for the calculation.
space. 3-Heat loss through ceiling. 4-Cold air infiltration. After determining the types of materials through
which heat is leaking and the rate at which heat is
transferred through those materials, the third step is
37.2.2 Heat Loads for Cooling to determine the surface area of each type of material.
The greater the surface area, the more heat will leak
The first step in selecting the proper size for a cool- through the material over a given period of time.
ing system is to determine the heat load of the space The fourth step is to determine the temperature
that is to be cooled. The heat load is the sum of all of difference between the inside surface of the mate-
the heat added to a space. A large number of factors rial and the outside surface. The rate that heat is

I
can affect the heat load of a space, including the size,
design, and construction of the space; types of equip-
ment operating in the space, and the way the space is
used.
This heat must be removed to keep the tempera-
ture and relative humidity in the space at the values
desired. There are numerous sources of heat gain in
warm weather. Heat gain in warm weather is often
the result of heat conduction. This takes place through
the walls, ceilings, floors, windows, and doors of the
enclosure. Other common sources of heat gain include
hot air leaking into the building (infiltration), hot air
brought in for ventilation, sun load, heat from appli-
ances and lights, and heat from occupants and any
warm objects brought into the space. See Figure 37-2.

37.3 Calculating Heat Leakage

Figure 37-2. Cooling loads. 1-Sun load. 2-lnfiltration.
Heat leakage is the heat that is conducted through 3-Heat gain through walls, doors, and windows. 4-Heat
the walls, ceilings, and floors when there is a temperature gain from appliances and occupants. 5-Heat gain through
difference between spaces. When the temperature ceilings.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

986 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

transferred through a material is directly proportional technician may need to calculate the material's C-value
to the temperature difference between the two sides of based on the K-value and the thickness of the material.
the material.
With the preliminary data collected, the total
amount of heat that leaks through the material in a
37.3.2 Thermal Resistance (R-Value)
one hour period can be calculated. The formula used The thermal resistance, also known as the
to calculate heat leakage varies slightly, depending on R-value, of a material or building component is a mea-
whether the materials' C-values, K-values, U-values, or sure of its resistance to heat transfer. The R-value of a
R-values are used in the calculation. However, all of the homogenous material is the reciprocal of the material's
formulas for calculating heat leakage require that the K-value multiplied by the thickness of the material. A
technician know the types (and in some cases, the thick- reciprocal of a number is one divided by that number.
nesses) of materials through which heat is leaking, the
surface areas of those materials, and the temperature Formula for calculating thermal resistance (R-value)
difference from one side of the material to the other. using a K-value:
1
R=-xX
37.3.1 Thermal Conductivity (K-Value) K
and Thermal Conductance (C-Value) This equation can also be simplified into the
following:
A material's thermal conductivity, or K-value, is X
a measure of the amount of heat that will pass through R=-
K
one square foot of the material one inch thick, in
one hour, when there is a 1°P temperature difference K = thermal conductivity of the material
between the two sides of the material. The units used X = thickness of the material
with K-values are Btu-in/hr-ft2- F. Materials with high
0
A material's thermal resistance can also be
K-values transfer heat at a greater rate than those with described as the reciprocal of the material's C-value.
low K-values.
A K-value is typically used to describe the thermal Formula for calculating thermal resistance (R-value)
conductivity of a homogenous material, like insulation, using a C-value:
drywall, wood, or glass. When calculating the heat 1
transfer through a composite building component, like R=-
C
a framed wall or a foam-cored door, the K-values for
C = thermal conductance of the material
the individual materials in the component are divided
by the thickness of their respective materials. This cal- Building materials have been tested to determine
culation yields the thermal conductance (C-value) of the rate at which they will transfer heat. Those val-
individual materials. ues are recorded in numerous charts, which can be
K referenced when performing load calculations. These
C =__1 charts usually list the thermal resistance of materi-
1 x1
als and common building components. Occasionally,
K a technician will need to calculate the resistance of a
C = ---1.
z x2 composite building component (like a wall made from
K various materials) manually.
C = ----2 To manually calculate the thermal resistance of a
3 x3
composite building component, begin by finding the
K = thermal conductivity of the material
thermal resistance of the individual materials in the
X = thickness of the material in inches component. Next, the thermal resistances of the indi-
A material's thermal conductance, or C-value, is vidual materials are added together to find the total
a measure of the amount of heat that will pass through thermal resistance of the component.
one square foot of the component in one hour when
there is a temperature difference of 1°P between one Formula for calculating thermal resistance of a
side of the component and the other. Notice that the composite building component:
thermal conductance is not based on a 1" thickness, but
describes the thermal properties of the material based ~ = R1 + R2 + R3...
on its measured thickness. In most cases, a material's The higher a material or component's R-value, the
C-value can be looked up on a chart. In some cases, the slower the rate at which heat will transfer through that

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 987

material or component. For example, Figure 37-3 shows

how adding insulation (which has a high R-value) to a Recommended Thermal Insulation Values
wall slows down the rate of heat transfer through the Recommended
wall. As a result, less heat conducts through the wall Areas to be insulated values
over a given period of time. U-value R-value
With rising fuel and energy costs and a grow-
ing focus on conservation, energy management has Ceiling with unheated space .08 12
become a greater concern in recent years. Therefore, it above
is recommended that all homes and apartments have Exterior wall .07 14
adequate thermal insulation. The purpose of thermal Wall with unheated space .10 10
insulation is to slow down the transfer of heat through on one side
a wall, floor, or ceiling. The effectiveness of the insula-
Floor over unheated space .07 14
tion is directly related to its R-value. A higher R-value
indicates greater effectiveness in insulating. Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher

Many different types of insulation are used in Figure 37-4. Some recommended thermal insulation values
modern construction. From an HVAC technician's for homes and apartments.
perspective, the composition of the insulation is less
important than its overall effectiveness, or R-value. insulation's R-value. This means that a low U-value
Most insulation is made of fiberglass, but different corresponds to a high R-value, and vice versa.
types can be used. The type of insulation installed will
depend on the type of area to be insulated, the degree
of thermal resistance (R-value) required, and the space 37.3.3 Thermal Transmittance (U-Value)
available for the insulation. Different types of insula- The thermal transmittance, or U-value, of a
tion require different thicknesses to achieve the same building component is very similar to the compo-
level of effectiveness. nent's thermal conductance, or C-value, but it includes
The recommended R-values for common insula- an adjustment for boundary air films. A boundary air
tion applications are shown in Figure 37-4. Notice that film is a thin layer of air that is molecularly attracted to
the insulation's U-value, which will be explained in a surface. Because of this attraction, the boundary air
the following section, is inversely proportional to the film is not replaced as frequently as the surrounding air.

Wood sheathing

I
/ / Building paper Temperature of
interior wall
1/ , Siding

60

Stud space dew -+-1-------\--

point temperature
Outside air
101--------+-+---- temperature
Outside air
temperature
o~-----~~---
Uninsulated Wall Insulated Wall
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 37-3. This drawing compares the temperature change through an uninsulated wall and an insulated wall. Because heat
transfers through the uninsulated wall quicker, the temperature of the interior wall surface drops as low as 55°F (13°C). The
insulated wall maintains a temperature of 67°F (19°C) at the interior wall surface.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

988 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Every surface of a building has one of these thin lay- R1 through R3 = thermal resistances of the building
ers of air clinging to it. Because these air films have a components
slightly different temperature than the surrounding Rif = thermal resistance of the inside air film
air, they add a little extra insulation between the build-
ing component and the surrounding environment. See Like C-values, U-values are expressed in units of
Figure 37-5. Btu/ft2-°F-hr. However, unlike C-values or K-values,
which are measured in a laboratory with perfectly still
The U-value of a material or component is the
air, U-values assume a 15 mph wind on the outside
reciprocal of the total thermal resistance of the structure
surface and a 15 fps (1/6 mph) draft on the inside sur-
and the boundary air films associated with it. To find
face of the building component. Since the air in the real
the U-value, add together the thermal resistances of the
world is very rarely perfectly still, U-values are gener-
materials in the structure and the thermal resistances
ally slightly more accurate than K-values or C-values.
of the air films on the inside and outside surfaces. The
The U-value for most types of construction can
reciprocal of this sum is the U-value for the structure.
be obtained from reference books published by the
Formula for calculating U-value: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). Figure 37-6 is
1
U=--------- a condensed table that includes some of the more
(Ro1+ R1 + R2 + R3 + Rif) common constructions. Note that this table lists both
R 01 = thermal resistance of the outside air film the component's U-value and R-value.

Inside boundary
-
~
air film (R = .68)

3/4" insulation board

sheathing (R = 2.0)
1/2" gypsum
board (R = .5)

Building wrap
(R=0)
5 1/2" insulating
blanket (R = 19)
--- - 3/4" wood
siding (R = 1.0)

Vapor barrier
I\
(R=0)

,--- Outside boundary

air film (R = .17)

U-value = - - - - - - - - - - - -
.68+.5+0+19+2+0+1 +.17
1
23.35
= .043
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 37-5. Drawing of an external wall section showing the inside and outside boundary air films. The wall's U-value is the
reciprocal of all of the component R-values added together.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 989

Wood siding on 1" wood sheathing, studs, gypsum board 1/2" 0.23 4.40
Wood siding , sheathing , studs, gypsum board 1/2", 1" polystyrene 0.07 14.43
Wood siding , sheathing , studs, 1/2" flexible insulation, gypsum board 1/2" 0.15 6.70
Wood siding , sheathing , studs, rock wool fill , lath and plaster 0.072 13.9
Note: Frame walls with single exterior finish same as walls with wood siding
Stucco, wood siding, studs, gypsum board 0.30 3.32
Stucco on 25/32" rigid insulation, studs, 1/2" rigid insulation and plaster 0.20 5.00
Stucco on 1/2" rigid insulation, studs, rock wool fill , lath and plaster 0.074 13.50

4" thick concrete, no finish 0.65 1.54

4" concrete, suspended plaster ceiling 0.37 2.70
4" concrete, metal lath and plaster ceiling, hardwood floor on pine subflooring 0.23 4.35
4" concrete, hardwood and pine floor, no ceiling 0.31 3.23

Single glass 1.04 0.96

Single glass and storm window 0.56 1.79
Double glass, intermediate air space 1/2" 0.58 1.73
Hollow glass tile wall 6" x 6" x 4" blocks 0.60 1.67

Brick veneer, 1" wood siding, studs, gypsum board 1/2" 0.27 3.71
Rigid insulation, studs, gypsum board 1/2" 0.25 4.00
Brick veneer, 1" wood siding , studs, 1" polystyrene insulation, gypsum board 1/2" 0.07 14.43
Brick veneer, 1" wood siding, studs, rock wool fill, lath and plaster 0.074 13.5

Reprinted by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia
Figure 37-6. Table listing U- and A-values for walls, ceilings, floors, and partitions for various types of construction and for
various thicknesses. (continued)

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

990 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Note: In general for cooling computations, base the calculations for

heat gain from adjoining non-conditioned rooms on a differential
equal to 1/2 the differential to outside
Gypsum board 1/2" on both sides 0.31 3.23
Gypsum board 1/2" on both sides, foam insulation 0.08 13.26

Precast cement tile 0.81 1.23 0.43 2.33

Precast cement tile, 1" insulation 0.24 4.70 0.19 5.26
4" thick concrete 0.72 1.39 0.40 2.50
4" thick concrete, 1" insulation 0.23 4.35 0.18 5.55
2" wood 0.32 3.13 0.24 4.17
Flat metal roofs 0.95 1.05 0.46 2.18
Flat metal roofs, 1" insulation 0.25 4.00 0.19 5.26

Hardwood and pine flooring on joists, metal lath and plaster ceiling 0.23 4.37
Rough pine floor, wood lath and plaster ceiling 0.28 3.57
No floor, lath and plaster ceiling 0.62 1.61
No floor, metal lath and plaster ceiling, 3 5/8" rock wool fill 0.079 12.65
No floor, lath and plaster ceiling , 1" flexible insulation 0.17 5.9

Reprinted by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia
Figure 37-6. Continued.

37.3.4 Design Temperatures Code Alert

C-values, K-values, and U-values represent heat Climate Zones and Design Temperatures
leakage rates based on a 1°P temperature difference Local building codes typically specify a climate
between the inside and outside surfaces of a material zone and design temperatures to use for calculating
or building component. In other words, these values heating and cooling loads and other system design con-
are only accurate when the outside air is exactly 1°P siderations. Always use the design temperatures and
warmer or cooler than the inside air. In order to find climate zones specified by the local building code.
the heat leakage rate when the temperature difference
is not 1°P, the value must be multiplied by the actual Design Temperatures for Calculating Heating
temperature difference.
Loads
When heat leakage is being calculated as a step
The design temperatures used to calculate heat
in determining heat loads for sizing a heating or
loss are often referred to as winter design tempera-
cooling system, the temperature differences used
tures. The indoor design temperature (IDT) is the
must accurately represent the most extreme condi-
ideal indoor temperature, which the heating or cool-
tions under which the system will be expected to
ing system works to maintain. The indoor design tem-
perform.
perature is generally set to 70°P (21 °C) or 72°P (22°C).
The outdoor design temperature (ODT) represents
extremely cold conditions for the geographical

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 991

region where the heating system is installed. For If the indoor design temperature is 72°F (22°C),
actual values for outdoor design temperatures, the an outdoor design temperature of 0°F (-18°C) results
technician must contact the local weather bureau or in a 72°F (22°C) temperature difference (TD). The 99%
the local chapter of the American Society of Heating, outdoor design temperature of 4°F (-16°C) results in a
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers 68°F (38°C) temperature difference. The 97.5% outdoor
(ASHRAE). design temperature of 8°F (-13°C) results in a 64°F
The outdoor design temperature is never as low (35°C) temperature difference.
as the lowest temperature recorded for the area. This Since the temperature differences are used to cal-
is because such extreme low temperatures are usu- culate the required system size, using the 97.5% out-
ally of short duration. Residual heat in the building door design calculation rather than the 99% outdoor
usually enables the furnace to cope with the extreme design temperature will result in an 11% decrease in
low temperatures for a short period of time. Instead, the recommended size of the system. Reducing the size
the outdoor design temperature represents the lowest of the system will reduce the initial cost of the system
temperature that is expected to persist for an extended as well as operational costs. As long as the building
period of time. has a large thermal capacity and a small total window
ASHRAE lists outdoor design temperatures (ODT) area, the smaller system will still heat the building
by latitude and elevation. In addition, the ODT temper- adequately.
atures are adjusted periodically to account for gradual Be careful to use the proper outdoor design tem-
changes in climate and long-term weather patterns. perature (99.6%, 99%, or 97.5%) for the type of build-
When working with design temperatures, be sure to ing in which the system will be installed. If the proper
use values that are correct for the location and are up- design temperature is in doubt, always choose the
to-date. These are available from the local ASHRAE outdoor design temperatures (ODT) on the low side.
chapter. Heating plants that are overworked (undersized) can
ASHRAE charts give three different values for cause excessive stack and chimney temperatures and
each locality. The 99.6% temperature is used for resi- may cause fires. Oversized units will be less efficient
dences and small, poorly insulated office buildings. and waste energy.
The outdoor air in the geographical region covered by In many buildings, certain areas such as closets,
the chart only falls below this temperature 0.4% of the hallways, and attics are unheated. These spaces receive
time. In a typical year, the air temperature will only their heat from heat leakage through partitions, ceil-
drop below this level for a total of 35 hours. ings, and floors. These unheated areas are assumed
The next lowest temperature listed in the charts
is the 99% temperature. This temperature is used for
well-constructed and well-insulated buildings hav-
ing a standard number of windows. The outdoor air
in the region covered by the chart will fall below this
temperature only 1% of the time. In a typical year, the
to be halfway between the indoor design temperature
and the outdoor design temperature.

Design Temperatures for Calculating Cooling

Loads
The design temperatures used to calculate cooling
I
1
temperature will drop to this level for a total of only loads are often referred to as summertime design tem-
88hours. peratures. When calculating heat gain for the purpose
A 97.5% value, also given for each locality, means of sizing a cooling system, technicians typically use
that the outside temperature is above the value listed 75°F (24°C) at 50% relative humidity (rh) for the indoor
97.5% of the time. In a typical year, the temperature design temperature. The outdoor design temperatures
will only spend a total of 219 hours below this level. are looked up on a chart and selected according to geo-
The 97.5% temperatures are used in load calculations graphic region. Typically, multiple temperatures are
for large buildings with considerable thermal capacity given in the chart, including a design dry-bulb tem-
and small total window area. perature and either design humidity information or
For example, at one point in time, technicians a design wet-bulb temperature. The design dry-bulb
in the Detroit area used -10°F (-23°C) as the outdoor temperature is used for calculating the temperature
design temperatures for all buildings. Now, it is rec- difference, and the design humidity information is
ommended that 0°F (-18°C) (99.6% factor) be used for used to calculate the latent cooling load.
small, uninsulated buildings. For well-constructed,
insulated buildings with a standard window area, 4°F
(-16°C) (99% factor) is used. For large buildings with a
37.3.5 Heat Transfer Multipliers (HTMs)
standard number of windows, 8°F (-13°C) (97.5% fac- Depending on which worksheets or software a
tor) is used. technician uses to calculate a building's heat loss or

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992 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

heat gain, the technician may be required to enter a Formula for calculating the area of a circle:
heat transfer multiplier for a building component. The Area= 1tr2
term heat transfer multiplier (HTM) refers to a build-
ing component's U-value multiplied by a temperature US Customary Units for Area
difference. For heat loss HTMs, that temperature dif- The US Customary units used to measure area are
ference is simply the indoor design temperature minus square inches (in2), square feet (ft2), and square yards
the outdoor design temperature. For heat gain HTMs, (yd 2). The following are the conversion factors for con-
the temperature difference is calculated the same way, verting from one US Customary unit to another:
but then adjusted for factors such as sun exposure and 144 in 2 = 1 square foot
heat storage. Heat gain HTMs are generally looked up 9 ft2 = 1 square yard (yd2)
on a chart rather than calculated by the technician. The relationship between these units is shown in
Figure 37-8.

37.3.6 Heat Leakage Surface Areas SI Units for Area

The SI system uses units of square centimeter (cm2),
Regardless of how heat losses and heat gains are square decimeter (dm 2), and square meter (m 2) to
being calculated, the technician must know the area of measure area. The relationship between these units is
all surfaces through which heat is leaking. These must shown in Figure 37-9.
be entered into the computer program, spreadsheet, Occasionally it is necessary to convert from SI
or worksheet being used to calculate the heat losses or units to US Customary units. The following are con-
gains. version factors that are used:
1 square centimeter (cm 2) = 0.155 in 2
Calculating Rectangular Areas
Area is a measurement of two-dimensional space. 1 square decimeter (dm 2) = 15.5 in2
1 square meter (m 2) = 1550 in 2 = 10.76 ft 2
The area of a rectangular surface is found by multiply-
ing the surface's length by its width. Walls
The area and U-value of the building's walls, as
Formula for calculating the area of a rectangle: well as the temperature difference from one side of the
Area of a rectangle = Length x Width wall to the other, are required in order to calculate the
amount of heat that leaks through the walls.
Calculating Areas for Non-Rectangular Shapes
Some special formulas must be used when find- Formula for calculating heat leakage through walls:
ing the area of certain objects. For example, the area Wall heat leakage = U-value x wall area x
of a circle is found by using the formula A= 1tr2 • The temperature difference
symbol, 1t, is always 3.1416. The letter r represents the
radius of a circle, which is one-half of the circle's diam-
-------1 yd------.
eter. The area of a circle is shown in Figure 37-7.

I :=144 in 2

t--1 in

ft2
T
1 ft

1~ 1 ft --+-I
1
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher Figure 37-8. This illustration shows that 12 linear inches
Figure 37-7. The area of a circle is calculated using the equal 1 linear foot, and 144 square inches (144 in 2) equal
formula: Area= w. Diameter (D) is the width of the circle at its 1 square foot (1 ft2). Note that 3 linear feet equal 1 linear yard,
widest point, and the radius is 1/2 of that value. and 9 square feet (9 ft2) equal 1 square yard (1 yd 2).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 993

Meter
i-.------- (10 decimeters)-------
~

t
1dm2

T_._
a.
3
~
Q)
.... ai
a, E
Q) ·c:;
Q)
"O
0
::::..

100 cm 2

1cm -----I~
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 37-9. This illustration shows that 10 linear centimeters equal 1 linear decimeter, and 100 square centimeters (100 cm 2)
equal 1 square decimeter (1 dm 2). Therefore, 10 linear decimeters equal 1 linear meter, and 100 square decimeters (100 dm 2)
equal 1 square meter (1 m2).

To calculate the surface area of a building's exter- Total wall area = 112' x 8'

I
nal walls, the exterior dimensions of the building = 896 ft2
should be used. These dimensions result in slightly Next, the window and door areas must be sub-
higher heat leakage loads than if the inside dimen- tracted from the total wall area. The result is the prac-
sions are used. In other words, heat losses and gains tical surface area of the building's exterior walls. This
based on outside dimensions are more conservative value is often referred to as the net wall area.
than heat losses and gains based on interior dimen- I
sions would be. Pro Tip
For calculating the areas of the walls, begin by Vaulted Ceilings
measuring the perimeter of the house. This can be
If a home has vaulted ceilings, any area calcula-
accomplished by measuring the lengths of all of the tions of the exterior walls must include the total area
exterior walls and adding them together. The perim- exposed to outdoor conditions. In other words, the trian-
eter of the house is then multiplied by the interior ceil- gular area at the top of the walls must be added to the
ing height to determine the total surface area of the rectangular area of the lower portion of the wall.
building's exterior walls.

Formula for calculating total wall area: Windows

Total wall area = perimeter x ceiling height To calculate the area of a window, measure the width
and height of the window, as shown in Figure 37-11.
Example: Then, simply multiply the width by the height.
The house shown in Figure 37-10 has exterior Window construction varies considerably. Windows
dimensions of 24' x 32'. It has an 8' ceiling. The total exte- are commonly available as single-pane, double-pane
rior surface area of the house is calculated as follows: using a storm window, or permanent double-pane.
Perimeter = L + W + L + W Energy-efficient windows may even have three perma-
= 32' + 24' + 32' + 24' nent layers of glass. The permanent window (single-,
= 112' double-, or triple-pane) is called the primary window.

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994 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

I 8'

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 37-10. Drawing of a one-story home showing wall, window, and door areas. The building is 32' (9.8 m) long by 24' (7.3 m)
wide. The room height is 8' (2.44 m). Five windows are 4' (1.22 m) high by 2' (0.61 m) wide. The two doors are each 7' (2.13 m)
high by 3' (0.914 m) wide. The large window in the back of the house is 4' (1.22 m) high by 6' (1.83 m) wide.

Two or three panes of glass with sealed air spaces

between panes provide excellent insulation. These air
spaces are dehydrated, evacuated, and then filled with
nitrogen, argon, krypton, or some other dry gas to pre-
vent sweating (condensation), Figure 37-12.
Windows are installed in a variety of ways. Some
possibilities include:
H
• Fixed (picture windows).
• Single- or double-hung (where either one or both
sashes move up and down).
• Sliding horizontal or casement (hinged on one
side and open out with a crank mechanism).
---w--- The frame around windows may be made of
Goodheart-Wil/cox Publisher
wood or metal. Vinyl-clad aluminum frames are used
Figure 37-11. A typical double-hung window. The window's to minimize frosting, as they add an additional layer of
width is measured from the outside edge of one side of the sealing. The R- and U-values of window pane assem-
frame to the outside edge of the other side of the frame. The blies are shown in Figure 37-13.
height of the window is measured from the top of the frame to
the bottom of the windowsill. Doors
Doors are constructed in a variety of designs.
They may be made of solid wood or of wood veneers
An additional framed pane of glass may be attached to over foam cores. Many energy efficient doors are con-
the outside of the window to provide additional insula- structed of a metal shell filled with insulation. Some
tion. This is called a storm window or storm sash. doors have windows as part of their design. Large slid-
The most energy-efficient type of window con- ing glass doors are often called patio doors. They are
struction is the permanent double-pane or triple-pane. responsible for as much as 20% of solar heating and

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 995

R- and U-Values of Windows

Type Window u R
Single-glazed 1.04 0.96
Air space
Double-pane insulating glass 0.49 2.00
Triple-glazed 0.32 3.10
Andersen Corp.
Figure 37-13. The thermal resistance (R) and heat transfer
coefficient (U) of various windowpane assemblies are
specified.

heat leakage in some homes. The area used to calculate

heat leakage for a door is the height of the door open-
ing times the width of the door opening.

Calculating Net Wall Area

To compute the wall heat leakage area, add the
area of the doors in the outside walls to the area of the
windows. Then, subtract this amount from the total
wall area.

Formula for calculating net wall area:

Net wall area = total wall area - combined area
A
of windows and doors

Example:
Air spaces Back in Figure 37-10, there are five windows mea-
suring 2' x 4', two doors measuring 3' x 7', and one win-
dow measuring 6' x 4'.
Area of windows= [(2' x 4') x 5] + ((J x 4')
= 64ft2
Area of doors = (3' x 7') x 2
= 21 ft2 X 2
=42ft2
Combined area of windows and doors = 106 ft2
The total wall area of the building shown
Figure 37-10 is 896 ft2. The net wall area is calculated
by subtracting the door and window areas from the
total wall area:
Net wall area = total wall area - combined area
of windows and doors
= 896 ft2 - 106 ft 2 = 790 ft2
The area of each window and door, as well as the
net wall area, will be used later to find the building
heat load.
B
stocksolutions/Shutterstock.com; stocksolutions/Shutterstock.com Ceilings
Figure 37-12. Window construction. A-Dry air fills Ceilings generally are made by fastening drywall
the air space between panes in a sealed double-pane to the ceiling joists. Figure 37-14 shows several typical
window. B-There are two air pockets in a sealed triple-pane ceiling constructions. Heat leakage will be consider-
window.
able if the joists do not have a floor over them. It will

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996 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

E
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 37-14. Ceiling construction. A-No floor or insulation. B-No floor, 2" insulation. C-No floor, 4" insulation. D-Double
floor, no insulation. E-Floor, 6" insulation.

also be considerable if there is no insulation between

Pro Tip
the joists. See Figure 37-6 for U-values for ceilings.
Ceilings
Formula for calculating area of ceiling: Most homes have an 8' (2.4 m) ceiling height. A
Ceiling area = width of ceiling x length of ceiling low ceiling helps to keep warm air closer to the occupied
space, where it helps to keep conditions comfortable.
Example: However, some homes have 9' (2.7 m) or 10' (3.0 m) first
Using the sample house in Figure 37-10, the ceil- floor ceilings. ACCA's Manual J lists different values for
ing area is calculated as follows: different types and heights of ceilings.

Ceiling area= 24' x 32' = 768 ft2

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 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 997

37.3.7 Heat Transfer Rate Example:

For example, the R-values for the materials in a
The heat transfer rate is the amount of heat con-
typical brick veneer wall are as follows:
ducted through a structure for a given unit of time. It
is usually represented by the letter Q and expressed Building Material R-value
in Btu/hr. The heat transfer rate can be calculated Outside air film 0.17
using the U-values or the R-values of the building Face brick veneer (3" thick) 0.39
components. Wood siding and building paper 0.86
Air space 0.97
Using U-Values to Calculate Heat Transfer Rate 3/8" gypsum wallboard 0.32
If the U-values of a component, the surface area Inside air film ~
of the component, and the temperature difference Total R = 3.39
between the inside surface and outside surface of the Once the thermal resistances of the individual
component are known, the amount of heat transferred materials are totaled, the reciprocal of the total yields
through the component over a given period can be cal- the U-value for the wall:
culated using the following formula:
U=_l_
Formula for calculating heat transfer rate using
R Total
U-values: 1
Q = (U x area) x (T0 - T) 3.39
Q = heat transfer rate in Btu/hr = 0.295 Btu/ft2-°F-hr
U = U-value of component
Then, the U-value can be used to calculate the heat
T0 = outside temperature in °F
transfer rate for the wall:
I; = inside temperature in °F
Q = (U x Area) x (T 0
- T)
Example:
If the surface area of the wall is 790 ft2 and the tem-
A structure has 790 ft2 of wall surface. The temper-
perature difference is 70°F, as in previous examples,
ature difference is 70°F. The wall is brick veneer with
the heat transfer rate would be calculated as follows:
no insulation. It has a U-value of 0.25.
Q = (0.295 Btu/ft2-°F-hr X 790 ft2) X 70°F
Solution:
= 233.05 Btu/°F-hr x 70°F
This U-value means that 0.25 Btu will transfer
= 16,313 Btu/hr
through each square foot of wall for each one degree
Fahrenheit temperature difference in one hour.
Q = (0.25 Btu/ft2-°F-hr X 790 ft2) X (70°F - 0°F)

I
A-Values of Building Materials
= 197.5 Btu/°F-hr x 70°F
Construction (R) Resistance Value
= 13,825 Btu/hr
Surface (still air) 0.68
Using A-Values to Calculate Heat Transfer Rate Air space 0.97
In some cases, the construction of a wall may be Gypsum wallboard 3/8" 0.32
unusual or customized, and a U-value for the complete
Outside surface (15 mph wind) 0.17
component may not be available in reference charts. In
these cases, it is possible to use the R-values or C-values Face brick 0.39
of the building materials to calculate a U-value for the Concrete block 4" 1.11
component. Then, the U-value can be used to find the Urethane insulation 9.1
heat transfer rate. Siding (wood) 1/2" x 8" 0.85
For a composite wall, the individual R-values for a Building paper 0.06
composite wall can be totaled. The U-value will equal
Wood sheathing 0.98
the reciprocal of the sum of the materials' resistances.
Wood floor 1" 0.98
Linoleum or tile 0.05
Asphalt shingles or plywood 0.95
Reprinted by permission of the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia
The R-values can be looked up in a table like the Figure 37-15. This table lists typical thermal resistance (R)
one shown in Figure 37-15. values for various parts of a building.

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998 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Using C-Values or K-Values to Calculate Heat = 1

Transfer Rate 3.39
In some cases, the R-values for some, or all, of the = 0.295 Btu/hr.ft2-°F
materials that compose the wall (or other building The final step in calculating heat transfer rate through
components) may not be listed on available charts. If a the wall is to multiple the wall's U-value times the surface
material's C-value or K-value is known, it can be used area of the wall and the temperature difference from one
to determine the R-value. If the K-value is known, the side of the wall to the other. For the purpose of this dem-
R-value equals the reciprocal of the K-value multiplied onstration, we will use the familiar surface area of 790 ft2
by the thickness of the material: and temperature difference of 70°F:

R i)
= ( x thickness
Q = (U x area) x (T - T) 1

= (0.295 Btu/hr.f°t2-°F X 790 ft2) X 70°F

If a material's C-value is known, the R-value for = (233.05 Btu/hr-°F) x 70°F
the material is simply the reciprocal of the C-value: = 16,313.5 Btu/hr
1 As you can see, the heat transfer rate that is cal-
R=- culated using the mix of R-values, a C-value, and a
C
K-value is identical to the heat transfer rate calculated
For a composite wall (a typical building), the total
using just R-values. As long as you are aware of the
R-value equals the sum of the individual reciprocals of
relationships between these values, you can easily con-
the C-values of the materials used to construct the wall
vert one type of a value to another type as needed.
and the boundary air films:
1 1 1 1 1 1
R =-+-+-+-+-+- 37.3.8 Unit Conversions
Tota1 Cl C2 C3 C4 CS C6
To this point, all of the calculations in the chapter
Example: have been based on US Customary units. Specifically,
Going back to the composite wall that was described thermal characteristics have been described using
earlier, imagine that you are given the following values units of Btus, hours, feet, and degrees Fahrenheit. Watts
for the materials that make up the wall: are another type of US Customary (and SI) unit that
are commonly used to measure and describe thermal
Building Material Values characteristics. Figure 37-16 shows typical heat leakage
Outside air film R1 = 0.17 (found on chart) listed in watts per square foot (W/ft2), rather than the
Face brick veneer (3" thick) c2 = 2.56 (provided by more familiar Btu/hr-ft2 unit. To obtain the watt load
manufacturer) per degree Fahrenheit, divide the "35" column by 35.
Wood siding and building R3 = 0.86 (found on chart) To convert watts to Btu/hr, multiply watts by 3.414368.
paper Technicians should be aware that they may also
Air space R4 = 0.97 (found on chart) encounter SI units from time to time, possibly in refer-
3/8" gypsum wallboard Cs = 3.125 (provided by ence to the thermal characteristics of building materi-
manufacturer) als or the airflow output of blowers. Technicians must
Inside air film R 6 = 0.68 (found on chart) be able to convert units as needed. A comparison of US
Customary and SI values follows:
The first step in calculating the heat transfer rate
is to convert the different types of values into R-values Characteristic being
measured Units
and add them together:
US Customary SI
~otal = Rl + (~J + R3 + R4 + (~J + R6 Specific heat at
constant pressure
Btu/lb-°F kj/kg-K

1 1 Heat conductance Btu/hr.ft2-°F

= 0.17 + (--) + 0.86 + 0.97 + ( --) + 0.68 (C- and U-values)
2.56 3.125
Heat conductivity Btu-in/hr-ft2-°F W/m-K
= 0.17 + 0.39 + 0.86 + 0.97 + 0.32 + 0.68 = 3.39 (K-values)
Heat transfer rate Btu/hr, J/sec, kcal/
The next step is to find the U-value for the com-
watts (W) hr, watts (W)
plete wall. The wall's U-value is simply the reciprocal Thermal resistance hr-ft2-°F/Btu m 2 -K/W
of the combined R-values for the wall: (R-value)
1 Velocity ft/min m/s
U=R
Total

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 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 999

Masonry (8" concrete block) 3.60 4.63 5.66 6.68 7.71 8.74 9.77 10.80
Masonry (8" concrete block;
1/2" gypsum board)
with R-7 (2 1/4") Fiberglass 1.05 1.35 1.65 1.95 2.25 2.55 2.85 3.15

Brick Veneer (1/2" gypsum sheathing ,

1/2" gypsum board)
with R-11 (3 1/2") fiberglass 0.75 0.97 1.18 1.39 1.61 1.82 2.04 2.25
with R-13 (3 5/8") fiberglass 0.65 0.83 1.02 1.20 1.39 1.57 1.76 1.94
Frame (woodrock siding, 1/2" gypsum
sheathing , 1/2" gypsum board)
with R-11 (3 1/2") fiberglass 0.85 1.09 1.33 1.58 1.82 2.06 2.30 2.54

with R-13 (3 5/8") fiberglass 0.75 0.97 1.18 1.39 1.61 1.82 2.04 2.25
Frame (wood clapboard or shingles,
plywood or wood fiber sheathing, 1/2"
gypsum board)
with R-11 (3 1/2") fiberglass 0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.10
with R-13 (3 5/8") fiberglass 0.60 0.77 0.94 1.11 1.28 1.45 1.62 1.79

Windows
Single light 12.65 16.19 19.73 23.28 27.07 30.61 34.41 37.95
Double glazed 6.80 8.70 10.61 12.51 14.55 16.46 18.50 20.40
Single with storms 5.80 7.42 9.05 10.67 12.41 14.04 15.78 17.40

Concrete slab no insulation

with R-7 (1 " ) Zer-O-Cel urethane
8.30
2.40
10.67
3.08
13.04
3.77
15.41
4.45
17.78
5.14
20.15
5.82
22.52
6.51
24.89
7.19
I
perimeter (watts/linear ft/
exposed edge)
Wood (5/8" plywood) over vented space
with R-13 (3 5/8") fiberglass 0.65 0.83 1.02 1.20 1.39 1.57 1.76 1.94

with R-19 (6") fiberglass 0.50 0.64 0.78 0.93 1.07 1.21 1.35 1.49
Over unheated basement
with R-7 (2 1/4") fiberglass 0.95 1.22 1.49 1.76 2.03 2.30 2.57 2.84
with R-11 (3 1/2") fiberglass 0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.10

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 37-16. Table listing heat leakage values in watts per square foot. The design temperature difference (DTD) is listed from
35°F (19°C) to 105°F (58°C). Note that every value in the last column is three times as much as the corresponding value in the
first column. (Continued)

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1000 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Note: The below grade portion of a heated basement must be calculated separately since heat loss relates to ground or ground water temperature rather than air
temperature. The U-value of 0.10 represents typical concrete construction with insulation and a furred finish wall. Add above-grade figure to below-grade figure for
total basement heat loss.

*Below Grade
Heat Loss, Watts/Ft 2 (U=0.10, 70°F basement)
Ground Water Temperature, °F Floor Wall
40 0.879 1.758
50 0.586 1.172
60 0.293 0.586

Ground water temperature is available from the local weather bureau .

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 37-16. Continued.

Heat leakage is calculated the same way whether 37.4.1 Basement Heat Loss
SI or US Customary units are used in the calculations.
Joules/second, kilocalories/hour, and watts are all Heat losses or gains for basements vary widely.
common SI units used to express heat transfer. These Figure 37-17 shows the construction of a basement
values are used with square meter or square centime- built five feet into the ground. The deeper the base-
ter units of area in order to express heat transfer rates ment, the less the heat loss. It is usually assumed that
per unit of area. The watt unit is the most popular SI a basement is at 60°F (16°C). Leakage through the base-
unit used to express heat transfer rates. The watt unit is ment floor is usually not calculated. It is assumed that
included in both the US Customary and SI measuring the basement is not a conditioned space. The heat leak-
systems. It can be easily applied to heating and cooling age to the outside walls is minimal.
unit capacities. However, if the basement is to be used as a living
To convert heat conductance values from US space, the overall area should be considered in sizing the
Customary to SI units, multiply the value given in heat load. The heat leakage load is calculated through the
Btu/hr-ft2-°F by 5.674 to obtain an equivalent value in first floor of the above-ground structure (the basement ceil-
units of W/m 2K To change SI units to US Customary ing). For basement living spaces, heat loss is calculated by
units, multiply the value given in W/m 2-K units by 0.1762 using the appropriate U-value for the concrete floors and
to obtain an equivalent value in Btu/hr-ft2-°F units. walls (this is usually around 0.10). The ground tempera-
ture is found from the local weather bureau and is often
known as ground water temperatures. The total basement
37.4 Other Factors Affecting heat loss is the concrete and insulation U-values times the
temperature difference between the basement and the
Heat Loads ground times the area of basement floor and walls.
In addition to the heat transferred through the walls, Basement walls are often tarred on the exterior and a
doors, and windows of a building, there are other factors layer of plastic sheeting is then applied to seal the walls from
that can affect a building's heating and cooling loads. The the soil. The plastic sheeting is known as a vapor barrier.
following sections explain other factors that must be con- Refer to the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
sidered when calculating heating or cooling loads. and Air-Conditioning Engineers' recommendations for

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 1001

additional data. The addition of vapor barrier provides a

waterproof seal between the soil and the basement walls.
It has negligible effect on the heat load but helps to seal the
wall from moisture.

37.4.2 Slab-on-Grade Heat Loss

Buildings built on a concrete slab have differ-
Outdoor temperature ent heat losses than those built with a basement. See
0°F
Figure 37-18. Ice and frost may form around the out-
(-18°C)
side of a slab building. Ice and frost formation at the
base of the walls can act as a heat sink, which can
speed up heat loss through the walls.
One method for minimizing frost and ice buildup
is to install a rigid slab of urethane insulation parallel to
the foundation walls. The insulation provides an extra
thermal barrier, which helps the walls retain heat. This
trapped heat prevents ice and frost from forming. The
40°F (4°C) urethane slab should be at least 2" thick and installed 2' to
4' in the ground. Figure 37-19 shows a typical installation.
Frost line For a building on a slab, heat loss above ground
is calculated as previously described. Heat losses due
specifically to the slab construction are usually calcu-
lated as follows:
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher 1. The perimeter of the building is determined.
Figure 37-17. The temperature conditions and construction of 2. The total length of the perimeter is multiplied by
a building with a basement. The depth of the frost line will vary 18 Btu/hr for each foot of length (for an outdoor
depending on the local climate. design temperature of 0°F [-18°C]).

Outdoor
Indoor temperature
temperature

I
70°F
0°F
(21°c)
(-18°C)

Insulation and
vapor barrier

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 37-18. Temperature conditions and construction of a building built on a concrete slab.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1002 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Outdoor temperature
Indoor temperature
0°F
70°F
(-18°C)
(21°C)

Insulation
slab

. .
.;:..:::- :: :- .:::-. :: :- .=.:.
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 37-19. A method is shown for preventing ice and frost from forming around perimeter of building built on slab. Rigid
urethane insulation is installed as close to building as possible.

3. The heat losses due to slab construction are then inside and outside air pressure. If the air pressure
added to the above ground heat losses. inside the building is lower than the air pressure out-
side the building, air will leak in, which is known as
air infiltration. If the air pressure inside the building
37.4.3 Crawl Space Heat Loss is greater than the air pressure outside the building,
Another popular type of foundation leaves just the air will leak out, which is known as air exfiltration.
enough space between the floor and the ground to The air pressure difference is usually caused by wind.
allow access. This is referred to as a crawl space. The Parts of the building that the wind presses against are
earth floor of a crawl space should have a vapor bar- those through which air enters. The remaining areas
rier on it. This could be plastic sheeting, roofing paper, are those through which the air escapes, Figure 37-20.
or other materials that prevent moisture from passing During the heating season, any cold air that enters
through. In addition, the floor can be insulated from a building must be heated. Air that leaks out repre-
underneath to provide maximum thermal protection. sents lost heat. During the cooling season, warm air
A crawl space must have sufficient venting to mini- that enters a building must be cooled. Cooled air that
mize moisture problems in the summer. The venting leaks out is a heat gain (some cooling effect is lost). If
also minimizes the amount of cold air entering in the the building can be sealed, infiltration and exfiltra-
winter. Vents with dampers are installed to serve this tion can be minimized. However, care must be taken
dual purpose. The heat loss through a floor above a to provide enough fresh air for proper ventilation and
crawl space is calculated the same as that of an exterior operation of fuel-burning appliances (such as gas- or
wall, as the floor is exposed to outside air. oil-fired furnaces, stovetops, water heaters, etc.).
One method for reducing infiltration and exfiltra-
tion is to wrap the entire structure in a thin protec-
37.4.4 Infiltration and Exfiltration
tive sheet. This eliminates the normal gaps between
Buildings are not airtight, and air will leak building materials that occur during construction.
through openings if there is any difference between Figure 37-21 shows a typical building wrap product.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 1003

Infiltration calculations can be based on the

total volume of the building, or they can be based on
the length and size of all the cracks in the building.
Figure 37-22 provides rough estimates for the num-
ber of air changes in a space based on the percentage
of wall area exposed to the outside environment. An
exposed wall is any wall with an outside surface that
serves as the building's exterior. The percentage of
exposed wall in the room can be calculated by measur-
ing the length of each wall in the room. The combined
length of all of the exposed walls is then divided by the
combined lengths of all of the walls in the room, both
interior walls and exposed walls.

Caution
Air Change Tables
The table in Figure 37-22 is for rough estimates
only. ACCA Manual J has tables with greater detail,
Plan View including different entries for different size spaces. The
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher tables in Manual J also list different values for calculat-
Figure 37-20. Diagram showing how wind direction affects ing heating and cooling loads, based on the seasonal
air leakage into and out of a house. Blue arrows indicate changes in average wind strength. All final load calcu-
infiltration and red arrows indicate exfiltration. lations should be performed in accordance with local
codes.

To find the volume of air replaced in an hour, mul-

tiply the number of air changes by the volume of the
room. For example, a room with a volume of 1920 ft 3,
will typically have at least 1920 ft 3 of fresh air infiltra-
tion per hour if one quarter of the room's wall area is

I
exposed to the outside environment. If half of the wall
area is exposed to the outside environment, the rate of
air exchange increases to 2880 ft 3 /hr. If three quarters
or more of the wall area is exposed, the air exchange
rate increases to 3840 ft3 /hr.
I

Estimated Air Changes-Loose

Construction
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Types of Space (Percentage
Figure 37-21. Building wrap can be used to reduce infiltration
of Wall Area Exposed Air Changes/Hr
and exfiltration. The thin material is wrapped around exterior
to Outdoor Conditions)
walls prior to applying the final siding of the building.
25% of wall area exposed 1
50% of wall area exposed 1 1/2
75% of wall area exposed 2
Pro Tip >75% of wall area exposed 2
Preventing Infiltration with Positive Pressure Entrances 2-3
One way to prevent unwanted infiltration is to main-
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
tain a positive air pressure within the building. The pres-
surized air will escape through cracks and openings in Figure 37-22. Chart listing the approximate number of air
the building. With this practice, a special fresh air intake changes that typically take place per hour for various room
exposures. The values are based on loose construction and
is needed. Incoming air can be conditioned before it is
can be reduced if the building has vapor barriers and better
admitted to the building's conditioned space.
weather-stripping.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1004 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Once the volume of air infiltration is known, the Thinking Green

actual heat loss or gain can be calculated. The amount
of heat lost or gained is dependent on the temperature Reducing Infiltration
and humidity of the infiltrating air and the indoor The air change rate is reduced considerably if
design conditions. The temperature difference results the building is constructed with vapor barriers. Fitting
in a loss or gain of sensible heat, and the difference all doors and windows with weather-stripping will also
in humidity results in loss or gain in latent heat. For reduce the air change rate. Thermal (infrared) scans
of a building's exterior will show areas of heat leakage.
heating load calculations, only the sensible heat loss is
Infiltration can be reduced by improving the insulation or
considered. weather stripping in these areas.

Formula for sensible heat loss or gain due to

infiltration:
37.4.5 Sun Loads
Qs = 0.018 x CFHx TD
Heat energy from the sun adds considerable heat
where load during the summer. In the northern hemisphere,
Q5 = sensible heat gain in Btu/hr the sun's rays shine on the east, south, and west walls.
CFH = air exchange rate in ft3 /hr They also shine on those roof sections that are exposed
TD = difference between outdoor and indoor to the sun. This is shown in Figure 37-23.
design temperatures in °F

Example:
A room with a 150 ft2 floor plan and 8' ceiling has
a volume of 1200 ft3. Two sides are exposed, resulting
in an estimated 1.5 air changes per hour. The indoor
design temperature is 70°F (21°C) and the outdoor
s
design temperature is 0°F (-18°C). The sensible heat
loss due to infiltration is calculated as follows:
Q5 = 0.018 X 1800 ft3 /hr X 70°F
= 2268 Btu/hr
When cooling loads are calculated, both the latent
and sensible heat gains due to infiltration must be
considered.
6pm 12 pm 6am
Formula for latent heat gain due to infiltration:
QI = 0.01133 x CFH x !:l.W
where
Q1 = sensible heat gain in Btu/hr
CFH = air exchange rate in ft3 /hr
!:l.W= difference in humidity of outdoor and indoor
air in grains/lb

Example:
A room with a 150 ft2 floor plan and 8' ceiling has
a volume of 1200 ft3. Two sides are exposed, resulting
in an estimated 1.5 air changes per hour. The design N

difference in grains of water to maintain 50% relative

humidity is 49 grains/lb. The latent heat gain due to
infiltration is calculated as follows:
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Q1 = 0.01133 x 1800 ft/hr x 49 grains/lb Figure 37-23. The direction of the sun's rays and their impact
= 999.3 Btu/hr on the walls of a building changes during each day. The sun's
position over a 12-hour period is shown here.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 1005

When computing total heat load, heat from the sun Effect of Sun on Windows
must be considered based on the following conditions:
Exposure Heat Absorption Btu/hr-ft
• On the east wall in the morning.
Southwest 110
• On the south wall all day long. West 100
• On the west wall in the afternoon. South 75
In the northern hemisphere, a building's south
East 55
wall receives sunlight the entire day. The east and west
walls receive sunlight for a smaller period of time. Single skylights 110
However, during the periods of direct exposure, the Double skylights 60
east and west walls receive more sunlight than the North 1
south wall. In the morning, when the sun is in the east, Northeast 2
a maximum amount of sunlight strikes the east wall. Northwest 3
As the sun goes down, a maximum amount of sun-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
light strikes the west wall. As the sun rises in the east,
passes overhead, and sets in the west, a relatively small Figure 37-24. Chart showing the heat absorbed during sunny
conditions by windows that face different directions.
amount of direct sunlight strikes the south wall at a
highly acute angle.
From the middle of winter to the middle of sum-
mer, the sun's path gradually shifts to the north, and where the solar load may be extreme. Consider the
the days get longer. From the middle part of summer changing position of the sun relative to the surfaces of
to the middle part of winter, the sun's path gradually the building when determining solar loads. Also con-
shifts to the south and the days get shorter. sider the time lag required for this heat to reach the
The sun releases different amounts of heat to building's interior.
surfaces, depending on the geographical region
where the building is located. The approximate Reducing Window Heat Load for Cooling
maximum heat gain from the sun is 330 Btu per There is considerable heat flow through ordinary
hr per ft 2 (97 watts/ff [1040 W/m 2]). This is for a window glass. It is approximately three times as great
black surface at right angles to the sun's rays, near as flow through ordinary residential roofs and ceil-
the equator (tropic). Any other color surface at an ings. Therefore, air conditioning areas containing a
angle to the sun's rays will receive less heat. At the large amount of ordinary glass can become a problem.
42nd parallel (a line going through New York City, To reduce the heat conductivity through glass, a storm
Cleveland, and Salt Lake City), the maximum heat sash is used. To reduce the solar heat through glass,
from the sun's rays is about 315 Btu per hr per ft2 special types of glass with high heat-reflecting quali- .
(92 watts/ft 2 [993 W/m 2]). ties can be used.
Much of the heat from the sun is reflected back Special heat-absorbing glass can reduce the solar I
into the atmosphere. Figure 37-24 indicates the win- heat load by as much as 30%. A bluish gray tint can
dow heat gain for windows facing different directions. also reduce the amount of light passing through the
This is heat passing through the window in addition to glass, thereby reducing the cooling load. The ability
the heat leakage through the window due to the tem- for light rays to pass through is known as emissivity.
perature difference between the indoor and outdoor Windows with special coatings on the glass reduce
temperatures. In the summertime, this heat gain must the amount of solar radiation that passes through the
be removed with air conditioning. window. Energy efficient, low-emissivity (low e) win-
Unless windows are protected with awnings, use dows block much of the infrared and near-infrared
a temperature of 15°F (8°C) higher than outside ambi- light striking the glass, but allow visible light to pass.
ent temperature when calculating the cooling load on Since infrared and near-infrared light is deflected off
a wall or window that faces south. The south facing the glass, it does not heat the interior of the building.
windows and walls receive more direct sunlight dur- Energy Star rated windows also may use double-
ing the day than the other three walls. pane and triple-pane glass with an inert gas such as
Approximate values obtained by using the 15°F (8°C) argon between the layers of glass. One popular type
temperature correction generally are usable. However, of energy efficient windows is the triple-pane argon
there are many special cases that require careful study, gas filled window. The gas between the panes creates
such as buildings with a significant amount of win- a thermal barrier that reduces heat transfer through
dows and walls facing south in southern latitudes the window.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1006 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

OF
Safety Note 120
Low-Emissivity Windows 110
Since a low-emissivity window reflects infrared radia-
tion, it can redirect radiant heat onto nearby objects. Care 100
must be taken to ensure that low-emissivity windows do 90
not inadvertently focus heat on neighboring structures that
80
could be damaged or negatively affected.
70
Double-glazed windows reduce solar heat absorp-
tion by 15%. Roof extensions over a window will 6 9 12 2 10 12 3 5 3 6 8
reduce the area exposed to the sun. Roof extensions or A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. P.M.
awnings that shade windows from direct exposure to East Wall South Wall WestWall
the sun can reduce the heat load by 55%.
I -- Outer wall -----· Inner wall I
Thinking Green Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Figure 37-25. These temperature/time graphs show the heat
Design (LEED) lag in various wall temperatures following exposure to the sun.
The US Green Building Council developed the
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design rating
system to evaluate the environmental sustainability of
buildings. The USGBC also certifies building trades work-
37.4.6 Heat Sources in Buildings
ers based on their knowledge of the LEED rating criteria. Heat sources may or may not be a benefit, depend-
ing on whether it is summer or winter. There are sev-
Heat Lag eral sources of heat besides infiltration and sun load.
Heat lag refers to the time it takes for heat to travel All sources must be considered when figuring the
through a substance heated on one side. When the sun comfort cooling load.
heats the outside wall of a building, several hours pass During the heating season, the heating system
before the heat reaches the inner wall. In normal build- is aided by these other sources. Much of the energy
ings, this time varies between three and four hours. expended in a building becomes heat. Yet, these sources
With well-insulated or thick walls, the sun may have are usually ignored when figuring heating loads of
already set by the time the heat "soaks" through. small buildings. These are small amounts compared to
In the southwest, adobe walls are made quite thick. the total heat load in temperate zones.
The heat from sunlight passes into the wall as the sun However, when figuring cooling loads, all heat
shines. However, the wall is thick enough to prevent energy sources must be considered. This includes
the heat from reaching the interior during the daylight heat released by people, stoves, lights, and electric
hours. During the night, when outdoor temperatures motors. Figure 37-26 lists some of these heat sources.
fall below those inside, some of the heat flow reverses Notice that the two types of heat gain (sensible heat
itself and travels outward through the wall. If the room and latent heat) are itemized. Latent heat raises
is cooler than the wall, heat from the wall is also trans- the relative humidity, while sensible heat raises
ferred into the room. This heat lag helps keep the rooms temperature.
warm even after the sun goes below the horizon and the During the cooling season, the heat released by
outdoor temperature drops. See Figure 37-25. people must be taken into account. The sensible heat
released by one person weighing about 150 lb (68 kg)
Thinking Green is roughly 110 W (370 Btu/hr) when that person is at
Heat Lag rest. It is about 440 W (1,500 Btu/hr) when that same
Because of the effect of heat lag, it is more efficient person is working. An additional 40 W (140 Btu/hr) of
to keep a building cool all day and run the air condi- latent heat is released from a person due to moisture
tioning in the morning than to wait until midafternoon, evaporation from their respiratory system and skin.
when the thermal mass of the building has heated up. The total heat load of a person is a combination of the
For split systems with an outdoor condensing unit, this sensible heat and latent heat. For a person at rest, the
also takes advantage of cooler outdoor temperatures total heat load is approximately 150 W (510 Btu/hr). For
that allow more heat to be rejected more easily than in a person at work, the total heat load is approximately
the hotter midday and afternoon temperatures. 480 W (1,640 Btu/hr).

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 1007

Miscellaneous Heat Loads

Heat
Energy
Device Notes Sensible Latent
Source
Btu/hr Watts Btu/hr Watts
Electric Lights per kw of output 3415 1000
Electric motors per hp of output inside
conditioned space:
• Up to 1/2 hp 4200 1230
• Up to 3 hp 3700 1080
• Up to 20 hp 2950 860
Electric motors per hp of output outside
conditioned space:
• Up to 1/2 hp 1700 500
• Up to 3 hp 1150 340
• Up to 20 hp 400 120
Electric stoves per kw of output 3415 1000
Natural gas appliance per cubic foot of gas 1100 320 300 90
Gas
burned
Artificial gas appliance per cubic foot of gas 550 160 675 200
burned
General Heat from meals per meal 36 10
Steam table per square foot of table 400 120 800 230
surface
People Sitting 370 110 140 40
Working 700-1500 200-440 140 40
Exercising strenuously 2000 590 140 40
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 37-26. Technicians use charts similar to this one to look up the heat released by various energy sources within a building.

37.5 Heating and Cooling Load- for calculating heating and cooling loads of buildings . •
The two basic ACCA workbooks for calculating heat 1
Manual J Method loads are Manual J (residential) and Manual N (com-
Total heat load calculations are usually set up in mercial buildings). Manual Jincludes reference tables
table form. Figure 37-27 shows an example of calculat- with U-values and R-values for various building mate-
ing heat loss due to thermal conduction for a 30' x 60', rials and construction methods. The building load may
1,800 ft2 (9.14 m x 18.28 m, 167 m 2) house. The individ- be calculated by hand on a paper spreadsheet, entered
ual heat loads are calculated and then added together into an electronic spreadsheet, or input into a smart-
to determine the total heat load. phone app. ACCA offers detailed training and certifi-
cation in use of Manual J and Manual N procedures.
Pro Tip Manual J software requires looking up data in ref-
erence tables and inputting the specific building infor-
ACCA Manual J and N
mation into tabs in the spreadsheet for glass, doors,
Most national and local building codes require the walls, ceilings, and floors. U-value is a measure of the
use of the ACCA Manual J (residential) or Manual N
amount of heat that will transfer through a specific
(commercial) procedure for calculating building loads.
material per degree of temperature difference. The
This provides a common process so that heating and
cooling loads are comparable from one building to
heat transfer multiplier (HTM) is used to calculate heat
another, Figure 37-28. transfer across a specific temperature difference:
U = Btu/hr/°F
The Air Conditioning Contractors of America HTM = U x Ll (temperature difference)
(ACCA) publishes standardized forms and software HTM = Btu/hr

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1008 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Heat Loss by Conduction

Heat Leakage
Surface Area R u Temp. Diff °F
Btu/hr
Wall Gross 1440 0.73 1.38
Window 240 0.89 1.13 70 18984
Wall Net 1200 4.00 0.25 70 21000
Ceiling 1800 1.61 0.62 35 39060
Floor 1800 2.94 0.34 25 15300
Total Heat Loss by Conduction 94344

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 37-27. Typical heat load calculation for 30' x 60' home having an 8' ceiling height.

The U and HTM values for building materials

are found in tables and appendices in the Manual J.
Manual J includes the following tables:
• Tables lA and lB-outdoor design conditions for
the United States and Canada.
• Table 2A-U-values for glass, windows, and
skylights.
• Table 2B-U-values for energy efficient windows,
doors, and skylights.
• Tables 3A through 31-U-values for glass.
• Tables 4A through 4C-F-values for walls, doors,
floors, and ceilings.
• Tables SA through SE-infiltration (air leakage).
The data input into each tab automatically calcu-
lates an HTM, which is shown on the summary sheet.
The total load is added from each worksheet to pro-
vide the overall heat load for the building. Figure 37-29
shows the ACCA Manual J summary sheet. These
spreadsheets can serve as a template for the HVACR
technician during the gathering of information
required to make an accurate heating and cooling load
estimate of a building.

37.5.1 Local Conditions

ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency
Association Manual J has many base assumptions such as
Figure 37-28. ACCA Manual J contains procedures for type of building and climate. The first step in using
determining HVAC equipment sizing loads for single-family Manual J is to populate the Jl spreadsheet to adjust to
detached homes, small multiunit structures, condominiums, local conditions, such as location humidity, altitude,
town houses, and manufactured homes. and climate. This information is looked up in Table lA
and 1B and input into Manual J Form Jl. The outdoor
conditions are input at the top of the spreadsheet for
both heating and cooling seasons. These numbers gen-
erate an HTD (heating temperature difference) and a
CTD (cooling temperature difference), Figure 37-30.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 1009

MANUAL J8Ae • SUMMARY REPORT

Mfg. Equipment Sensible Heat Ratio 0.75 ACCA

Project Long Residence
Manual Overide Entry for Design CFM Manual D
CFM
Room Name HEAT LOSS HTGCFM HEAT GAIN CLGCFM
Dining 3295 81 895 54 81
Living 4274 106 2780 166 166
Front Hall 1497 37 565 34 37
Bed Room 1 4246 105 2269 136 136
Bath 2 805 20 278 17 20
Bed Room 2 3559 88 1783 107 107
Bed Room 3 2044 51 1518 91 91
Bath 1 1421 35 686 41 41
Kitchen 1780 44 1934 116 116
Laundry 2184 54 1102 66 66
Hall & Closets 606 15 424 25 25
Rec Room 8253 204 1986 119 204
Work Shop 3408 84 244 15 84
Utility 3080 76 245 15 76

Room Envelope Totals 40453 1000 16708 1000

Total Area Construction Components HEAT LOSS HEAT GAIN

185 Windows & Glass Doors 8314 20.55% 5962 33.11%
Skylights
38 Wood & Metal Doors 998 2.47% 346 1.92%
1537 Above Grade Walls 12320 30.46% 1730 9.61%
232 Partition Walls 557 1.38%
800 Below Grade Walls 4290 10.60%
1479 Ceilings 5435 13.44% 3624 20.13%
Partition Ceilings

1479
Passive Floors
Exposed Floors
Slab Floors
Basement Floors
Partition Floors
Infiltration
2440

6099
6.03%

15.08% 569 3.16%

I
Internal Gains 3320 18.44%
Duct Loss & Gain 747 4.15%
Ventilation
Blower Heat Gain 1707 9.48%

Total Sensible 40453 100.00% 18004 100.00%

Total Latent 1805

Total Cooling Load 1 19809
I
Total heating load 1
Total cooling load
ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency Association
Figure 37-29. ACCA Manual J summary sheet.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1010 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Load conditions from

Tables 1A and 1B HTDand CTD
~ I
FORM J1..........- ABRIDGEU'Vl;.RSION of MANUAL J, 8TH EDITION I
Project Long Residence,,---.., ~ Design Stata & Cit,- - Iowa Cedar Rapids AP A ~
Indoor Design Heating db I 10 \ 0 Outdoor (Winter) 99% db 7 -5 \ HTD { 75 ' ~
I \ I
~
Indoor Design Cooling db 75 0 Outdoor (Summer) 1% db 89 \ CTD \ 14 /
Indoor Design Cooling RH \ 50% I Grains Difference l 40 I DsliyRenge Metti(fm

Gle88
Latitude

Direction
\ 41
-
/ Elevetlon

Construction Detsll
-
\ 863 /
Heating
HTM
ACF
Cooling
HTM
0.978
Net
Aras
Block load
Heating
BTUH
Cooling
BTUH
6A Windows N 1 E-cw,Clear, Double Pane, Fixed Sash, Wood 42 .00 13.00 20 840 260
&Gless E/W 1 D-cw, Clear, Double Pane, Operable,Wood 42.75 38.70 11 470 426
Doors E/W 1 D-cw, Clear, Double Pane, Operable,Wood t-- 42 .75 38.70 8 342 310

~
ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency Association
Figure 37-30. Manual J spreadsheet showing heating temperature difference (HTD) and cooling temperature difference (CTD).

37.5.2 Glass Loads Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) as to their ability

to allow light transfer.
Windows, skylights, and doors are a significant Table 2A is used to gather U-value heat loss for win-
source of heat loss and heat gain. Construction of each dows, skylights, and glass door walls. The type of win-
window, number of panes, type of glazing, and frame dow (fixed or sliding sash, single or double pane, bay or
construction all contribute to the heat loss and heat garden, low-e) is used to find the U-value specific for each
gain of a door or window. Any opening in a building window or glass door. The U-values from Tables 2A and
is known as fenestration. Manual J refers to windows 2B are then multiplied by the temperature difference to
as such. Windows and doors are rated by the National calculate the HTM for each piece of glass, Figure 37-31.

Table 2A/3A- Construction Numbers 1 through 7 & 10 - Vertical Glass Heat Loss Heating Cooling HTM
Enter Construction Number, Glass Type, # Panes, Sash Type, Frame Tvoe, Shading U-Value N NE/NW E/W SE/SW s
1E-cw,Clear, Double Pane, Fixed Sash , Wood 0.560 13 30 43 37 21
10-cw, Clear, Double Pane , Operable,Wood 0.570 13 30 43 37 21
1C-cm ,Clear, Single Pane / Storm, Operable, Metal No Break 0.870 13 30 43 37 21
1C-cm ,Clear, Single Pane / Storm, Operable, Metal No Break 0.870

Table 2A/3A - Construction Numbers 8 & 9 - Skylight Heat Loss Heating Cooling HTM
Enter Construction Number, Glass Tvoe, # Panes, Sash Tvoe U-Value N NE/NW E/W SE/SW s

Population Instructions for Windows, Glass Doors and Skylights

1) Input values are entered in the white cells (as requested by column headings; notes provide additional guidance).
2) Input values for windows and glass doors are extracted from Table 2A and Table 3A in the printed MJ8ae book; Table 3C applies to skylights.
3) Begin with Table 2A (the construction number applies to heating and cooling, the U-value applies to heating).
• Construction attributes are extracted from plans or by site inspection.
• The construction number and U-value are extracted from Table 2A.
• Input values from Table 2A or Appendix 10 of the unabridged version of Manual J are valid entries.
• You can enter up to 8 different vertical glass types for heat loss
• For example
Construction Number; Glass TVDA; Number of Panes; Tvoe of Sash; Tvoe of Frame U-Value
1C-cm , Clear, Single Pane / Storm , Operable, Metal no Break 0.870
• You can enter up to 5 different skylight types for heat loss
• For example
Construction Number; Glass Tvoe; Number of Panes; Type of Sash U-Value
8Bc-4, Flat Clear, Double Pane, Wood 0.940

~
4) Refer to Table 3A for cooling HTM values for windows and glass doors.

ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency Association

Figure 37-31. Manual J Table 2A provides U-values for glass.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 1011

Tables 3A through 31 include HTM values for win- 37.5.3 Wall, Floor, Door, and Ceiling
dows, skylights, and glass door walls and take into
consideration the amount of shading that the glass
Loads
receives. Table 3A assumes no shade on the window. Walls, doors, floors and ceilings are all non-
See Figure 37-32. Table 3B assumes that there is some fenestration parts of a building. Sunlight does not pass
type of overhang or awning that shelters the window through them. Figure 37-33 shows Table 4A, which
from direct sunlight. has U-values for various types of doors and walls.

Table 3A
Default Cooling HTM for Generic Windows and Glass Doors
No External Sun Screen, Clear Glass

=HTM x Reference Area

Cooling Load (Btuh) Recommended Adjustments
Bay Window HTM =1.15 x Table HTM 1) Full outdoor insect screen= 0.80 x Table HTM
Garden Window HTM =2.00 x Table HTM Half outdoor insect screen =0. 90 x Table HTM
French Door HTM =0.70 x Table HTM Full indoor insect screen= 0.90 x Table HTM
Use Single Pane, Clear Glass for Jalousie Window Half indoor insect screen= 0.95 x Table HTM
2) Shade by external overhang (See Table 3E-1)

Optional Adjustments
Default indoor design temperature= 75°F.
Outdoor design temperature provided by Table 1. 1) See Table 3E-3 for foreground reflectance adjustment.
Load area appears above HTM values. 2) 400 North latitude, see Table 3E-2 for latitude adjustment.
Table note 2 (after Table 3E-5) specifies the order of 3) Medium color blind, drape or roller shade. See Table 3E-4 for
application of the HTM adjustment procedures. light or dark color adjustment.

Table 3A-1 - Clear Glass

No Internal Shade

I
Default Sinale Pane Double Pane Triole Pane or Double Pane Low-e
Assembly U-Value SC SHGC U-Value SC SHGC U-Value SC SHGC
Performance
0.98 0.85 0.74 0.56 0.75 0.65 0.42 0.70 0.61
Desian CTD 10 15 20 25 30 35 10 15 20 25 30 35 10 15 20 25 30 35
Exposure HTM for Rough Opening HTM for Rough Opening HTM for Rough Opening
North 24 29 34 39 44 49 18 21 24 27 29 32 16 18 20 22 24 26
NE or NW 56 61 66 70 75 80 46 49 52 55 57 60 42 44 46 48 50 53
East or West 80 84 89 94 99 104 67 70 73 76 78 81 62 64 66 68 70 72
SE or SW 68 73 78 83 88 93 57 60 63 65 68 71 52 54 56 59 61 63
South 40 45 50 55 60 65 32 35 38 41 44 46 29 31 33 36 38 40
Vertical or Horizontal Blinds with Slats At 45 Decrees
Default Single Pane Double Pane Triple Pane or Double Pane Low-e
Assembly U-Value SC SHGC U-Value SC SHGC U-Value SC SHGC
Performance
0.98 0.60 0.52 0.56 0.50 0.44 0.42 0.45 0.39
Design CTD 10 15 20 25 30 35 10 15 20 25 30 35 10 15 20 25 30 35
Exoosure HTM for Rouah Ooenina HTM for Rouah Ooenina HTM for Rouah Ooenina
North 16 21 26 31 35 40 11 13 16 19 22 25 9 11 13 15 17 19
NE or NW 36 41 46 50 55 60 27 30 33 36 38 41 24 26 28 30 32 34
East or West 51 56 61 66 71 76 40 43 46 49 51 54 35 37 40 42 44 46
SE or SW 44 49 54 59 64 68 34 37 40 42 45 48 30 32 34 36 38 40
South 25 30 35 40 45 49 18 21 24 27 29 32 16 18 20 22 24 26
l
'f
ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency Association
Figure 37-32. Manual J Table 3A provides HTM values for glass with shading.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1012 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Table 4A
Heating and Cooling Performance for Opaque Panels
U-Values and Group Numbers or CL TD Values

Heating Application
Heating Load HTM = U-Value x (Indoor Design Temperature - Outdoor Design Temperature)
Heating Load (Btuh) = HTM x Reference Area
Default indoor design temperature = 70 °F.
Outdoor design temperature provided by Table 1.
Reference area provided with Construction Number.

Cooling Application
Cooling HTM = U-Value x Table 4B CL TD Value
Cooling Load (Btuh) = HTM x Reference Area
Default indoor design temperature= 75 °F.
Outdoor design temperature and daily range provided by Table 1.
Design Temperature Difference = Outdoor Design Temperature - Indoor Design Temperature
Use the CLTD provided by Table 4A or use the Table 4A group number and the Table 4B CLTD.
Reference area provided with Construction Number.

Construction Number 11
Wood and Metal Doors
Reference Area = Area of Rough Opening (SqFt)
Wood Door U-Value CLTD Values
Medium Color Wood or Metal Doors
A. Hollow Core 0.47
B. Hollow Core with Wood Storm 0.30
C. Hollow Core with Metal Storm 0.32 10 15 20 25 30 35
D. Solid Core 0.39 L I M L I M I H L I M I H M I H H H
E. Solid Core with Wood Storm 0.26 25.o I 21.0 3o.o I 26.0 I 21.0 35.o I 31.0 I 26.0 36.o I 31.0 36.0 41.0
F. Solid Core with Metal Storm 0.28
G. Panel 0.54
H. Panel with Wood Storm 0.32
I. Panel with Metal Storm 0.36
Metal Door U-Value

J. Fiberglass Core 0.60

K. Fiberglass Core with Storm 0.36 Wood and metal doors do not have a group number.
L. Paper Honeycomb Core 0.56
M. Paper Honeycomb Core, with Storm 0.34
N. Polystyrene Core 0.35
0. Polystyrene Core with Storm 0.21
P. Polyurethane Core 0.29
Q. Polyurethane Core with Storm 0.17

ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency Association

Figure 37-33. Manual J Table 4A provides U-values for doors and walls.

Doors are categorized by type of outside construc- 37.5.4 Field Measurements

tion (metal or wood) and their type of core (such
as fiberglass, solid, hollow, or paper). The U-values The next step is to review the blueprints of the
for each door, wall, ceiling, and floor are input into residence (if available) or to field measure each room
Manual Jl and the HTM is calculated as shown in of the house, noting the location of each door, win-
Figure 37-34. dow, and type of construction. Each room is given a
name, such as living room or dining room. The area of
doors, windows, walls, and ceilings are input into the
Jl spreadsheet. See Figure 37-35.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 1013

Type of door, wall,

ceiling, or floor Calculated HTMs
I I
FORM J1AE • ABRIDGED VER sroN of MANUAL J, 8TH EDITIOfil
Project I Design State & 1 hv
~
Long Residence Iowa CedagR, pids AP
Indoor Design Heating db 70 O Outdoor (Winter) 911 db -5 I HTD 75 ~

~
Indoor Design Cooling db 75 O Outdoor (Summer) 1 db 89 I CTD 14
Indoor Dealgn Cooling RH 50% Grelns Dlffe1 ince 40 J)allyl iange Medium
Latitude 41 Ele~ auon 863 I ACF 0.978 Block Load

7 Wood&
I Glass
Direction
e
Const~on
11 N, Metal, Polystyrene Core
o.Ji
I
~g/

26.25/
CoCl Ing
H1M
9. 0
Net
Area
17
Heating
BTUH
446
Cooling
BTUH
155
Metal b 11 N, Metal , Polystyrene Core I 26.2$ 9. 0 21 551 191
Doore C J, J.
8 Above Grede Walls a 12B-0bw, Frame, R11 , wood sheathing , brick 7.28 1.23' 1077 7835 1327
b 15A-6sfoc, open Core Block, R6 boad 9.75 1.73 233 2272 403
C 15A-6sfoc, open Core Block, R6 boad 9.75 1.73 227 2213
d
e
Partition Walls f 12A-0sw, frame , RO, Wood Sheathing 2.40 232 557
g
9 Below Grede Walls a 15A-6sfoc5, Open Core block, R6 Board , 5 ft. Below Grade 5.36 800 4290
b
10 Celllngs a 16B-19ad;FHA Vented Attic; R-19; Asphalt Shi~les; Dark 3.68 2.45 1479 5435 3624

~
ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency Association
Figure 37-34. Manual J Sheet J1 calculation of HTM from U-values derived from Table 4A for doors, walls, ceilings, and floors.

Each room
is listed

Room-> Bed Room 1 Room-> Bath 2 Room-> Bed Room 2 Room-> Bed Room 3
Net BTUH Net BTUH Net BTUH Net BTUH

I
Area Heating Cooling Area Heating Cooling Area Heating Cooling Area Heating Cooling
-

22 941 851
- 17 727 658
11 470 208 11 470 208
8 342 151

""- ~
17 727 658
' \ ' \ ~

-- Each row 1s a different Area of

\ ~
Heating and cooling
~

type of window, door, window loads based on window

or wall construction specification and area
and orientation found
in the residence
ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency Association
Figure 37-35. Room descriptions, net area of glass, walls, ceilings, floors are input in rows corresponding to the type of window,
wall, or door.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1014 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

37.5.5 Air Leakage 37.5.7 Total Load

Air leakage through a building causes the The Manual J summary sheet as shown in
volume of air within a house to change over time. Figure 37-37 includes several totals:
Unintentional air leakage is known as infiltration. • Total heat loss.
One air change occurs when the entire volume of
• Sensible heat gain.
air contained within a residence is replaced by fresh
outside air. Infiltration is measured in air changes • Latent heat gain.
per hour (ACH). Air changes assume that wind • Total cooling load.
blowing by the building and leaks in the construc- The total heat loss is the amount of heat required
tion of the house allow the air inside the house to to be added to the building in Btu/hr for cold weather
escape to the outdoors. It is usually higher in the heating. The total cooling load is a combination of
winter as there is a greater temperature difference sensible and latent heat gain required to be removed
between the inside and outside of the house and from a building for hot weather cooling. These num-
higher winds in the winter. Tables SA through SE bers are used to size the equipment to be installed or
contain estimated air changes per hour for typical retrofit into an existing house.
types of construction.
Tables SA and SB are the simplest form for basic Thinking Green
designs and are suitable for most residential load Efficient Sizing of Equipment
calculations. Figure 37-36 shows Table SA, which The past practice of "ballpark" sizing of HVACR
rates buildings as tight, semi-tight, average, semi- equipment is inaccurate and inefficient. When select-
loose, or loose. Most quality constructed buildings ing new or replacement equipment, elect to use a two-
can be rated as average. If the house was built with stage furnace, variable-speed compressor, and an air
building wrap and good caulking around all open- handler with a blower that uses an ECM. These newer
ings, it could be rated as tight. A leaky house would technologies provide energy efficiencies over older
be an older construction where minimal effort had equipment that was traditionally oversized. The accu-
been made to seal the residence to outside air. The rate assessment of heating and cooling loads allow the
infiltration loss is then multiplied by total building HVACR technician to select equipment that meets the
duty cycle of a residence for maximum comfort.
area and temperature difference to yield an infiltra-
tion load in Btu/hr.
37.6 Software and Apps for Load
37.5.6 Ducts, Appliances, and
Miscellaneous Loads Calculations
As stated earlier, many municipal codes require
In addition to heat losses due to fenestration and
the use of an ACCA Manual J method of calculat-
infiltration, there are significant sources of heat gain
ing heating and cooling loads. This means that the
and loss inside a building. If a supply duct is located
Manual J methodology should be followed. However,
in an unconditioned space, such as many attics, it
the HVACR technician is not required to use the spe-
will gain heat during the summer and lose heat dur-
cific ACCA programs.
ing the winter. If return ducts are located on an out-
ACCA has a list of approved software compa-
side wall, it will increase the heat load for the HVAC
nies that utilize the Manual J method. There are
system.
companies that provide load calculation services.
For residential heat load calculations, the basic
The HVACR contractor provides the detailed build-
items mentioned above are usually sufficient to calcu-
ing information to the company. The company gen-
late the heating and cooling loads for an average house.
erates a report that includes duct sizing, layout, and
However, appliances, occupants, and lighting all con-
equipment selection.
tribute to the total heating and cooling loads. There are
Many HVACR technicians seldom do in-depth
a number of additional tables and spreadsheets used
load calculations. This is usually performed by a tech-
to account for these loads. For example, if a residence
nician or contractor who performs this service full
has more than two people living in each room, these
time. However, the use of ACCA programs and mobile
people should be accounted for. If the home has a sig-
device apps has made performing load calculations
nificant amount of lights or heavy use of appliances, it
much easier. Some apps require minimal input from
may require further study.
the user to produce a load calculation report.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 1015

Table SA
Infiltration Air Change Values for Three or Four Exposures

Default Air Change Values for Single Story Construction

Construction Air Changes per Hour - Heating Infiltration 1
Cfm for One
Floor Area of Heated Space (SqFt)
Fireplace
900 Or Less 901 to 1500 1501 to 2000 2001 to 3000 3001 or More

Tight 0.21 0.16 0.14 0.11 0.10 0

Semi-Tight 0.41 0.31 0.26 0.22 0.19 13
Average 0.61 0.45 0.38 0.32 0.28 20
Semi-Loose 0.95 0.70 0.59 0.49 0.43 27
Loose 1.29 0.94 0.80 0.66 0.58 33
1) For one additional fireplace, add 7 CFM to the above fireplace values. For two or more additional fireplaces, add 10 CFM (total} to the above.

Construction Air Changes per Hour - Cooling Fireplace

Infiltration
Floor Area of Air Conditioned Space (SqFt)
Cfm
900 Or Less 901 to 1500 1501 to 2000 2001 to 3000 More than 3000

Tight 0.11 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05

Semi-Tight 0.22 0.16 0.14 0.11 0.10
Average 0.32 0.23 0.20 0.16 0.15 0
Semi-Loose 0.50 0.36 0.31 0.25 0.23
Loose 0.67 0.49 0.42 0.34 0.30

Default Air Change Values for Two Story Construction

Construction Air Changes per Hour - Heating Infiltration 1
Cfm for One
Floor Area of Heated Space (SqFt)
Fireplace

I
900 Or Less 901 to 1500 1501 to 2000 2001 to 3000 3001 or More

Tight 0.27 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.13 0

Semi-Tight 0.53 0.39 0.34 0.28 0.25 13
Average 0.79 0.58 0.50 0.41 0.37 20
Semi-Loose 1.23 0.90 0.77 0.63 0.56 27
Loose 1.67 1.22 1.04 0.85 0.75 33
1) For one additional fireplace, add 7 CFM to the above fireplace values. For two or more additional fireplaces, add 10 CFM (total} to the above.

Construction Air Changes per Hour - Cooling Fireplace

Infiltration
Floor Area of Air Conditioned Space (SqFt)
Cfm
900 Or Less 901 to 1500 1501 to 2000 2001 to 3000 More than 3000

Tight 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.07

Semi-Tight 0.28 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.13
Average 0.41 0.30 0.26 0.21 0.19 0
Semi-Loose 0.64 0.47 0.40 0.33 0.29
Loose 0.87 0.64 0.54 0.44 0.39

ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency Association

Figure 37-36. Manual J Table 5A shows values for air changes per hour for heating and cooling seasons.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1016 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Total Area Construction Components HEAT LOSS HEAT GAIN

185 Windows & Glass Doors 8314 20.55% 5962 33.11%
Skylights
38 Wood & Metal Doors 998 2.47% 346 1.92%
1537 Above Grade Walls 12320 30.46% 1730 9.61%
232 Partition Walls 557 1.38%
800 Below Grade Walls 4290 10.60%
1479 Ceilings 5435 13.44% 3624 20.13%
Partition Ceilings
Passive Floors
Exposed Floors
Slab Floors
1479 Basement Floors 2440 6.03%
Partition Floors
Infiltration 6099 15.08% 569 3.16%
Internal Gains 3320 18.44%
Duct Loss & Gain 747 4.15%
Ventilation
Blower Heat Gain 1707 9.48%
Total Sensible , 40453 100.00% 18004 100.00%

Total Latent
Total Cooling Load / /
/ 1805~
19809 ~
/ \ ~
Total heat loss Sensible Total Latent
heat gain cooling load heat gain
ACCA - The Indoor Environment & Energy Efficiency Association
Figure 37-37. Manual J summary showing various total values.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • Heat loss through basement walls is only
considered if the basement is used as living
• In summer, heat from outdoors enters a space. Heat loss through a slab on grade is
building. This is referred to as heat gain. In the determined based on the perimeter of the slab.
winter, heat from indoors transfers to outdoors. Heat loss and gain through a floor above a
This is referred to as heat loss. crawl space is calculated the same way as heat
loss through a wall.
• A building's heat loads include heat transferred
through walls, ceilings, floors, and windows; • Infiltration refers to outdoor air entering a
latent heat in water vapor; heat gains and building through gaps in the construction.
losses due to infiltration and ventilation; heat Exfiltration refers to air leaving a building
from sunshine; and heat from appliances and through gaps in the construction. The amount
occupants. of heat lost or gained due to infiltration and
exfiltration is dependent on the tightness
• Heat loads considered for calculating heating of the building's construction, the amount
loads include heat lost through conduction of exposure to outdoor conditions, and the
through walls, ceilings, and floors; heat lost temperature and moisture content of the indoor
due to exfiltration and infiltration; and heat lost and outdoor air.
due to combustion air being drawn from the
conditioned space. • Regarding heat loss due to infiltration, only
sensible heat loss (not latent heat loss) is
• Cooling loads include all of the heat loads considered for calculating heating loads.
used to calculate heating loads, plus additional For calculating cooling loads, both sensible
miscellaneous heat loads. These miscellaneous and latent heat gains due to infiltration are
heat loads include heat from the sun, heat included.
from appliances and lights, and heat from the
building's occupants. • As the sun moves across the sky, it shines on
different areas of a building at different angles,
• Heat leakage refers to heat conducted through heating them up. The areas affected by the sun
walls, ceilings, and floors due to a temperature load vary with the season and time of day. The
difference between indoor and outdoor air. heat added by the sun load must be included in
• A material's K-value is a measure of its thermal cooling load calculations, but is not included in

I
conductivity. It indicates how much heat will heating load calculations.
transfer through one square foot of the material • Heat lag refers to the time it takes for heat to
one inch thick in one hour when there is a be conducted through a substance. Because of
1°F temperature difference between the two
heat lag, a wall that is heated by the sun can
sides of the material. A material's thermal continue to release heat into the conditioned
conductance, or C-value, is similar to its 1
space after the sun has gone down. With no sun
K-value, but is not dependent on the thickness and lower temperature outdoors than indoors,
of the material. heat transfer can reverse direction.
• A material's R-value is a measure of its thermal • People, lights, and appliances all release heat
resistance. It is the reciprocal of the material's into a conditioned space. In the case of people
K-value. The higher the material's R-value, the and animals, both sensible and latent heat are
slower heat will transfer through the material. released. These miscellaneous heat loads must
• The U-value of a building component is a be included in cooling load calculations.
measure of its thermal transmittance. It is • Many local authorities and building codes
similar to a component's C-value, but it takes require the use of the Manual J method to
into account the insulating effect of boundary calculate a residential building's heating and
air films. cooling loads. For commercial buildings,
• The temperature difference between indoor Manual N is used. These manuals take into
design temperature and outdoor design tem- account local weather conditions, building
perature is used to calculate the rate of heat materials, building layout, and numerous
transfer by conduction through walls, ceilings, aspects of construction. Numerous tables and
and floors. The greater the difference, the values are compiled to calculate a building's
higher the rate of heat transfer. heating and cooling needs.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017 1017

1018 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

• Total heat loads are the sum of the individual 5. Which of the following heat loads would be
heat loads. Heating and cooling load software considered only when cooling loads are being
is available for personal computers, tablets, calculated?
and smartphones. Use of this software greatly A. Heat transferred by conduction through
speeds up the process of determining the walls, doors, and windows.
heating and cooling loads and properly sizing B. Heat transferred due to infiltration and
the equipment. exfiltration.
C. Sun load.
D. None of the above.
Review Questions 6. A material's indicates how much heat
will transfer through one square foot of the
Answer the following questions using the information in material one inch thick in one hour when
this chapter. there is a 1°F temperature difference between
1. The term "heat loss" refers to the two sides of the material.
A. a reduction in the heating capacity of the A. C-value
furnace B. K-value
B. a reduction in the rate at which heat is C. R-value
transferred through a material D. U-value
C. a transfer of heat from inside a building to 7. Which of the following accounts for the
outside a building insulating effect of boundary air films?
D. a transfer of heat from outside a building A. C-value
to the inside of a building B. K-value
2. Most local building codes require that heat C. U-value
loads for residential buildings be performed D. All of the above.
in compliance with the ACCA _ _ 8. The rate at which heat is transferred through
specification. a wall by conduction is dependent on the
A. Manual D materials the wall is made of, the area of the
B. ManualJ wall, and _ _.
C. ManualN A. the pressure on each side of the wall
D. ManualR B. the temperature difference between sides
3. Most local building codes require that heat of the wall
loads for commercial buildings be performed C. the volume of space enclosed by the wall
in compliance with the ACCA _ _ D. All of the above.
specification. 9. For a heating load calculation, heat transfer
A. Manual D through basement walls is only considered if
B. ManualJ the basement
C. ManualN A. is more than 6' deep
D. ManualR B. is used as a living space
4. Which of the following heat loads is not C. walls are less than 12" thick
considered when calculating heating loads D. walls are uninsulated
for a building? 10. Heat loss due to construction of a concrete
A. Heat from appliances and occupants. slab on grade is calculated based on _ _.
B. Heat transferred by exfiltration and A. the area of the slab
infiltration. B. the perimeter of the slab
C. Heat transferred through ceilings. C. the volume of the slab
D. Heat transferred through floors. D. None of the above.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 37 Heating and Cooling Loads 1019

11. Because a vented crawl space is exposed to

outdoor air, heat loss through a floor over a
crawl space is calculated the same as that of
a(n) _ _.
A. basement
B. exterior wall
C. insulated ceiling
D. unvented attic
12. Adding weather-stripping to all doors and
windows, using building wrap and plenty
of insulation during construction, and using
a fresh air intake for positive pressure in a
building are effective methods of reducing

A. design temperatures
B. exfiltration
C. infiltration
D. sun load
13. Heat loss or gain due to infiltration and
exfiltration is dependent on _ _.
A. the tightness of a building's construction
B. the amount of wall area exposed to
outdoor conditions
C. the temperature difference between the
indoor and outdoor air
D. All of the above.
14. The relative ability of a surface to allow light
rays to pass through describes _ _.
A. emissivity
B. heat leakage
C. heat loss
D. luminescent transmittance
15. Total heat load is calculated by _ _.
A. adding together the individual heat loads
B. dividing the individual heat loads by the
area to which they apply
C. multiplying the individual heat loads by
the volume of the space to which they
apply
I
D. rough estimate

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER38 Forced-Air Heating
Fundatnentals

Learning Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
Identify the basic components of a forced-air heating
Chapter Outline system and explain their functions.
• Understand the difference between a condensing
38.1 Basic Components
and a noncondensing furnace.
38.1.1 Heat Sources
38.1.2 Heat Exchangers • Describe the different types of indoor blower and
38.1.3 Indoor Blowers combustion blower arrangements.
38.1.4 Combustion Blowers • Compare and contrast upflow, downflow, and
38.2 Furnace Types and Construction horizontal furnaces.
38.2.1 Upflow Furnace • Summarize the operation of two-stage furnaces and
38.2.2 Downflow Furnace modulating furnaces.
38.2.3 Horizontal Furnace
• Explain how makeup air units improve system
38.2.4 Two-Stage Furnace
efficiency and prevent negative pressure from
38.2.5 Modulating Furnace
developing in a house.
38.3 Forced-Air Duct Arrangements
38.4 Makeup Air Units • Understand how blower function can be controlled
38.5 Blower Controls using time-delay controls and thermostatic controls.
38.6 Unit Heaters • Summarize the design and purpose of unit heaters.
 Chapter 38 Forced-Air Heating Fundamentals 1021

Technical Terms Introduction

blower lowboy furnace Heating systems can be classified in a number of
combustion blower makeup air unit ways. Two common ways of classifying heating systems
condensing furnace modulating furnace are by heat source and by heat distribution method.
downflow furnace multipoise furnace Common heat sources include oil, gas, electricity, geo-
forced-air heating system noncondensing furnace thermal energy, and air. Methods of heat distribution
gravity heating system primary heat exchanger include forced-air, hydronic, and radiant distribution.
heat exchanger secondary heat exchanger Forced air and hydronic are the types of heating systems
highboy furnace two-stage furnace most commonly used in homes and offices. Radiant
horizontal furnace unit heater heating systems are often used in large, open commer-
indoor blower upflow furnace cial environments, such as warehouses and workshops.
A complete heating system combines one or more
heat sources with one or more methods of heat distribu-
Review of Key Concepts tion. Gas, oil, and electric heating systems can all transfer
heat through forced-air, hydronic, or radiant distribution.
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
This chapter provides an overview of heating systems that
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
distribute heat using the forced-air method. Later chap-
• Heated air moves from a furnace to the rooms of a
ters in this section will address hydronic and radiant dis-
house through convection, which is the movement
tribution and provide more detailed information about
of heat from one place to another by way of a liquid
the various methods of generating heat.
or gas. (Chapter 4)
• Heated or cooled air from an air handler is forced by
a blower into conditioned space through a network
of fixed ducts. (Chapter 32)
• Fuel-burning furnaces need air for proper and
complete combustion. If the combustion air is drawn
from inside the house, the combustion exhaust
leaving through the flue or vent creates a slightly
negative pressure inside the house. (Chapter 29)
• Many HVAC systems provide continual replacement
of air by slowly bringing in fresh air from outside to
be heated or cooled. This fresh air is called makeup
air. (Chapter 27)
• Sensing bulbs and bi metal devices are two common
types of temperature sensors used as thermostatic
controls. (Chapter 16)

I
1022 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

38.1 Basic Components gases from mixing with the air that will be circulated
through the conditioned space. In addition to provid-
The majority of heat pumps and heating systems that ing heat to the circulating air, a heat exchanger carries
use gas, oil, or electricity to produce heat use forced air combustion (flue) gases to the exhaust flue or vent where
to distribute that heat. In a forced-air heating system, a they are released outdoors. Heat exchangers are also
motor-driven fan, called a blower, circulates air. By circu- used in hydronic heating systems to transfer the heat
lating heated air through ducts to conditioned space and from combustion gases to water in a boiler. Hydronic
drawing cool air from those conditioned spaces, forced- systems are covered in Chapter 39, Hydronic Heating
air heating systems produce an evenly conditioned space. Fundamentals.
Before forced-air heating systems were devel- Heat exchangers are categorized as either primary
oped, heating systems relied on natural convection to or secondary. A primary heat exchanger is connected
distribute heated air. These are called gravity heating directly to the combustion chamber and transfers sen-
systems. Since heated air is lighter than cool air, grav- sible heat from its surface to the air circulated through
ity heating systems function on the principle that hot the conditioned space. The combustion chamber is
air rises and cool air drops. With the furnace or heat often indistinguishable from the heat exchanger and is
source in the lower part of a building, the heated air just the first part of the heat exchanger itself. Primary
in a gravity heating system naturally rises into the rest heat exchangers can be constructed from a variety of
of the building, and the cool air drops back to the fur- materials to provide different rates of heat transfer.
nace, where it is reheated. This method of heat distri- High-efficiency furnaces are also equipped with a
bution is inefficient and has largely been replaced by secondary heat exchanger. A secondary heat exchanger
forced-air heating systems. is attached at the outlet of the primary heat exchanger and
Oil and gas furnaces contain the following basic transfers both sensible and latent heat from the combus-
components: tion gases to the circulating air, Figure 38-1.
• Combustion chamber. Traditional furnaces quickly exhaust combus-
• Fuel delivery method and burning device (burner). tion gases, losing some of the heat potential from the
fuel combustion process. Condensing furnaces are
• Flue or outlet.
high-efficiency furnaces with annual fuel utilization
• Heat exchanger. efficiency (AFUE) ratings above 90%. Condensing
The combustion chamber must be leakproof and pro- furnaces differ from traditional furnaces in that they
vide efficient heat transfer. The basic components of a gas- use both primary and secondary heat exchangers to
fired or oil-fired, forced-air furnace are the same whether extract additional heat from the combustion process.
the furnace is a high-efficiency model or a lower-efficiency In a condensing furnace, heat is extracted for a longer
model, with the exception that an extra heat exchanger is period until the combustion gases give up enough heat
added to high-efficiency models. Typical forced-air fur- to condense, hence the name condensing furnaces.
naces are equipped with a burner, a combustion blower Combustion gases pass through the primary heat
to move combustion gases, one or more heat exchangers, exchanger and then into the secondary heat exchanger.
and an indoor blower to circulate air through the duct- In a condensing furnace's heat exchanger, the air cir-
work. Electric heating systems consist of one or more culated from conditioned space travels in the oppo-
electric resistance heating elements with a fan and duct site direction as the combustion gases. Circulating air
system circulating air across them. traveling through a furnace passes the secondary heat
exchanger and then passes the primary heat exchanger.
38.1.1 Heat Sources Since the circulating air passes over the secondary
Every forced-air heating system requires a heat heat exchanger first, it is able to absorb the maximum
source. The heat source may consist of a gas flame, an amount of heat possible, including the latent heat
oil flame, the indoor coil of a heat pump, or an electric released by the combustion gases as they condense.
resistance heating element. The circulating air in the The prewarmed circulating air then passes over the
forced-air system is warmed by the heat source and primary heat exchanger where it absorbs additional
then circulated to the spaces where heat is needed. heat. See Figure 38-2.
Heat is removed from the combustion gases in
the secondary heat exchanger until condensate (con-
38.1.2 Heat Exchangers densed gas) drips out. Because condensing furnaces
A furnace's heat exchanger is a chamber where the have lower temperature exhaust fumes, the combus-
heat of combustion is transferred to the surrounding air. tion gases can be routed through a PVC or CPVC pipe
A heat exchanger is sealed to prevent the combustion instead of a chimney or metal flue.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 38 Forced-Air Heating Fundamentals 1023

Code Alert Primary heat Combustion

exchanger chamber
Chimneys and Vents

-
Proper combustion venting is absolutely critical
for equipment efficiency and for the health and safety
of building occupants. Local building codes specify
acceptable designs, approved materials, and any spe-
cial considerations for the venting of combustion gases.

Most condensing furnaces are gas-fired furnaces.

However, some oil-fired condensing furnaces are avail-
able. Because the condensate generated in a secondary Secondary
heat exchanger can be somewhat corrosive, secondary heat
heat exchangers are typically made of stainless steel and exchanger
include a drain to remove accumulated condensate. If
an acceptable drain is not readily available, a condensate
pump may be used to redirect the condensate.

Secondary heat Primary heat

exchanger exchanger Vent

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 38-2. In a condensing furnace, circulating air passes
over the secondary heat exchanger before it passes over the
primary heat exchanger. This counterflow of combustion gas
to circulating air allows for the maximum exchange of heat.

Noncondensing furnaces have lower-efficiency

with an AFUE rating between 80% and 90%. In these
furnaces, a single heat exchanger transfers heat from
the combustion gases to air circulated to the condi-
tioned space. The combustion gases are vented to
I
a flue or chimney with a flue liner. Since up to 20%
of the heat produced goes up the chimney, the com-
bustion gas flows outside without condensing. See
Figure 38-3.

Safety Note
Heat Exchanger Cracks
Before each cold season begins, heat exchangers
should be checked for cracks. Deadly gas (such as car-
bon monoxide, CO) can seep through cracks and into
Rheem Manufacturing Campany
conditioned spaces. This can result in illness and even
Figure 38-1. Cutaway of a high-efficiency gas furnace death.
showing the primary and secondary heat exchangers.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1024 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Blower fan wheel

Flue (vent)

Heat exchanger

-
-
Direct-Drive Blower

Combustion
chamber Blower fan
wheel
Blower housing (inside housing)

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 38-3. In a noncondensing furnace, circulating air
passes over a single heat exchanger.

Pulleys
38.1.3 Indoor Blowers
A furnace's indoor blower creates airflow through
the heat exchanger and ductwork to deliver warm
air to the conditioned space and draw cool air into
the furnace to be heated. These blowers are typically
equipped with electric motors with up to 3/4 hp. Two
Motor V-belt
basic types of blower setups are commonly used in res-
idential systems: belt-driven blowers and direct-drive Belt-Driven Blower
blowers, Figure 38-4. Photo courtesy of A. 0. Smith; ClimateMaster
Belt-driven blowers are mostly found on older oil- Figure 38-4. A direct-drive blower's fan is attached directly to
fired furnaces and large commercial units. On a belt- the motor shaft, while a belt-driven blower's fan is connected
driven blower, the blower motor is separate from the to a motor using a pulley and belt arrangement.
blower fan. A standard V-belt connects a pulley on the
motor to a pulley on the blower fan. The pulleys can be
different sizes. The larger the pulley on the motor, the
faster the blower fan turns. The larger the pulley on
the fan, the slower it turns. A variable-pitch pulley is

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 38 Forced-Air Heating Fundamentals 1025

available that can open and close to differing diame-

Heat exchanger-----------..._
ters. By varying the diameters of the motor pulley and
fan pulley, a technician can make the blower fan turn
faster or slower. However, belt-driven blowers are less
efficient than direct-drive blowers due to belt and bear-
ing energy losses.
Combustion blower
~ --
Pro Tip
Belt Width
A V-belt must have the same width as the grooves
in the motor and fan pulleys in which it rides. Inspect this
Forced-Draft Combustion Blower
-
on service calls when applicable.
Combustion blower
In direct-drive blowers, the shaft of the blower
motor is connected directly to the blower fan. Since
Heat exchanger _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
they are directly connected, the blower and motor turn
at the same speed (RPM). Blower motors with vari- ~
able frequency drives can vary their speed as needed
to meet the conditioned area's heating requirements.
Solid-state controls can be used to constantly monitor
a furnace's heat output, firing rate, and blower speed. -
Belt-driven blowers and large, heavy direct-drive
blowers demand the high starting torque of a split- -
phase, capacitor-start, or three-phase motor. In both
direct-drive and belt-driven blower arrangements, the
blower fan must be clean, and the blades should not be
bent or broken. Bent or broken blades will place the fan
-
Induced-Draft Combustion Blower
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
off balance and result in vibration, which will shorten
Figure 38-5. A combustion blower is categorized as a forced-
the life of the motor.
draft or an induced-draft blower depending on its position
relative to the heat exchanger.
38.1.4 Combustion Blowers
A combustion blower is a motor-driven fan
that brings fresh air into the combustion chamber The insulation also serves as a noise barrier. Furnaces

I
and expels combustion gases out through the heat also require return air ductwork. This ductwork sup-
exchanger and flue. There are two types of combustion plies the furnace with air to be reheated (or recooled
blowers: induced-draft blowers and forced-draft blow- by a central air-conditioning evaporator during the
ers. Induced-draft blowers are located downstream cooling season). There are three common furnace
from the heat exchanger and pull combustion gases designs: upflow, downflow, and horizontal. A fourth
through the heat exchanger. Forced-draft blowers are type of furnace, called a multipoise furnace, can be
located upstream from the heat exchanger and push configured as an upflow, downflow, or horizontal
combustion gases through the heat exchanger. See furnace.
Figure 38-5. In addition to the classifications based on air-
flow, furnaces can also be categorized by the shape of
their cabinets. A highboy furnace is typically taller
38.2 Furnace Types and than it is wide or long. These types of furnaces are
installed in basements or in utility rooms where verti-
Construction cal space is not an issue. The internal components of a
Furnace design is based on several factors. These lowboy furnace are arranged in a way that minimizes
include the fuel used, the space available, and the heat- the height of the cabinet. A lowboy furnace is much
transfer medium. Common heat-transfer mediums shorter than a highboy furnace of comparable capacity.
include air, water, and steam. However, the lowboy furnace may be longer or wider.
Most furnaces are made of steel. Blower compart- Lowboy furnaces are installed in spaces where there is
ments are lined with insulation to reduce heat loss. limited vertical clearance.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1026 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Code Alert 38.2.2 Downflow Furnace

Forced-Air Furnaces A downflow furnace takes in return air from the
Local building codes specify the types of furnaces top and forces it downward around the heat exchanger.
that can be installed, restrictions on the placement of Downflow furnaces are also referred to as counterflow
furnaces, and minimum duct requirements. Codes also furnaces. These types of furnaces are commonly used if
address special considerations and restrictions associ- the ductwork runs below the level of the furnace. For
ated with the installation of a furnace. Codes may even example, if a house is built on a crawlspace and the
regulate the installation of burners to convert furnaces ductwork is located under the floor, a downflow fur-
from fuel oil to gas. nace is used. Supply air is delivered from the bottom
of the furnace to the duct system below it, Figure 38-7.
38.2.1 Upflow Furnace
An upflow furnace takes in return air from the
38.2.3 Horizontal Furnace
bottom and forces it upward around the heat exchanger Horizontal furnaces are placed on their side. In
and into the supply plenum. Upflow furnaces are the a horizontal furnace, return air flows in a horizontal
most common type of furnace installed in basements path through one end of the furnace, across the heat
and utility rooms, where the ductwork runs above exchanger, and out through the opposite end of the
the level of the furnace. In upflow systems, the sup- furnace. Horizontal furnaces are typically installed
ply (warm) air is delivered upward, from the top of the in tight spaces, such as in attics or in crawlspaces,
furnace into an overhead duct system, Figure 38-6. Figure 38-8.

Return airflow

Heat Heat exchanger

exchangers compartment

Supply airflow
Carrier Corporation, Subsidiary of United Technologies Corp. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 38-6. Return air enters at the bottom of an upflow Figure 38-7. Return air enters a downflow furnace from
furnace and exits at the top after flowing past the heat the top and exits at the bottom after flowing past the heat
exchangers. exchanger.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 38 Forced-Air Heating Fundamentals 1027

Blower Heat exchanger

compartment compartment
Thinking Green
Variable Speed Blower Motors
Variable speed blower motors adjust speed auto-
matically to meet the temperature requirements set on
the thermostat, creating a more comfortable environ-
ment and increasing efficiency. They also keep air cir-
culating at a low speed between cycles, thereby limiting
energy waste significantly. The consistent airflow also
allows the air filter to trap more pollutants, providing bet-
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
ter indoor air quality.
Figure 38-8. Return air enters a horizontal furnace from one
side and exits through the other side after flowing past the
heat exchanger.
38.2.5 Modulating Furnace
A modulating furnace is a furnace that can vary
its heat output. In some models, heat output can be
Safety Note controlled from 40% to 100% of their total capacity.
Interlocks and Access Panels Solid-state integrated controls act as the "brain" of the
furnace. After receiving a call for heat from the ther-
A safety interlock switch is often provided inside a
mostat, the controls initiate and manage a sequence
furnace's blower access door (panel). When the door or
panel is opened or removed, this switch turns off electri-
of events directing the furnace so that it supplies heat
cal power to all components and eliminates the possibil- to the building efficiently. Some furnaces can auto-
ity of personal injury due to moving parts. matically choose the most efficient indoor blower
speed when continuous air circulation is desired. An
induced-draft combustion blower quietly provides air
38.2.4 Two-Stage Furnace for combustion and vents the products of combustion
from the heat exchanger to the outdoors.
A standard furnace has only one heat level-high.
It waits until the temperature in the conditioned space
drops, then it starts up and runs at one constant output 38.3 Forced-Air Duct Arrangements
when it receives a call for heat. A two-stage furnace
can produce two different levels of heat, allowing it to A forced-air heating system uses a motor-driven
adjust heat output to meet demand. The flame can be fan called an indoor blower to circulate heated air.
on high, low, or off. When less heat is required, a two- With this heating arrangement, a system of ducts,
stage furnace operates on the first stage, which uses a referred to as supply air ducts, delivers warm air to the
lower percentage of its capacity to produce sufficient conditioned spaces. Another system of ducts, referred
heat. This stage consumes less energy, thereby increas- to as return air ducts, brings air back to the furnace for
ing efficiency and cost-effectiveness. In addition, two- reheating. Both supply and return air ducts should be
stage furnaces are much quieter than single-stage carefully sized to provide the correct amount of air- .
furnaces. flow to each room, Figure 38-9.
On colder days, the furnace functions on the sec- Forced-air duct systems usually include an air
ond stage to provide high heat. This allows the unit filter in the return air duct to the furnace. A humidi-
to meet the demands for more extreme temperatures. fier is often installed in the supply airflow to provide
The blower motor speed increases when the furnace the desired relative humidity conditions. Duct sys-
switches to the second stage. By producing more or tems often include numerous dampers, grilles, diffus-
less heat for a given amount of time, a two-stage fur- ers, and registers to manage airflow. To review these
nace adjusts to changing heat loads. This adaptabil- components or for information about duct sizing, see
ity helps to maintain a consistent temperature in the Chapter 29, Air Distribution.
conditioned area by reducing the temperature fluc-
tuation caused by excessive heat being distributed too
quickly. In addition, the blower fan slowly increases or 38.4 Makeup Air Units
decreases speed during start-up and shutdown, elim- Negative pressure problems are often caused by
inating the sound of rushing air as it enters or exits forced-air heating systems, which require oxygen and
ducts. fresh air if they use combustion in the furnace (gas-fired

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1028 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Extended supply Return plenum

plenum

Supply branches Horizontal furnace

Hi-Velocity Systems
Figure 38-9. This SDHV (small duct, high-velocity) system uses a horizontal furnace installed in an attic.

or oil-fired). If a dedicated fresh air supply is not avail- Outside air flows into the return air duct as long as the
able for the furnace, a home that is sealed and insulated blower remains on. Outside air regulated by this type of
well can result in negative pressure developing due makeup air unit is immediately filtered and conditioned
to the furnace's need for fresh air. Rather than allow- as it flows from outside into the air handler.
ing this negative pressure to cause infiltration around Figure 38-10B shows a makeup air unit that delivers
doors, windows, or wherever an unintended opening makeup air into a building's furnace room or mechani-
might be, a technician can install a makeup air unit. cal room. This makeup air unit is installed on or very
A makeup air unit is a device that controls and near the air handler. Outside air flows in through a
regulates the necessary intake of fresh air into a build- screened opening installed on the outside of the build-
ing. Current codes and regulations in many states ing and through ductwork that connects to the makeup
require the use of makeup air units to prevent negative air unit. The unit operates based on positive and nega-
pressure from developing in a house. In a single-family tive pressure. When the indoor air pressure is reduced,
residence, a makeup air unit is usually an automatic, outside air flows through the makeup air unit and into
passive device with few controls. Makeup air units for the furnace or mechanical room to equalize indoor and
larger installations and commercial applications are outdoor air pressures. Outside air may also flow in to
often automatic, active devices with more controls. provide oxygen for combustion in a furnace that draws
Although variety exists in manufacturing, there are its combustion air from within the building.
two common places where makeup air is deposited in a
building: directly into the return air duct or into the fur-
Thinking Green
nace room. Figure 38-l0A shows a makeup air unit that
deposits makeup air into the return air duct. One part is Makeup Air Units and Combustion
installed along an exterior wall, where outside fresh air In addition to causing unwanted air infiltration,
can enter it, and the other part is installed on the return air another side effect of negative pressure is that a gas-
duct. A run of duct connects the two parts. The part con- fired or oil-fired furnace can become starved for air. A
nected to the return air duct has a weighted arm attached lack of air negatively affects combustion, reducing a
system's efficiency. Since makeup air units bring in a
to a damper. When the indoor blower runs, it creates a low
supply of fresh air from the outside, ample air is avail-
pressure in the return air duct. This allows the outside air,
able for combustion, maintaining high furnace efficiency.
which has a higher pressure, to push open the damper.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 38 Forced-Air Heating Fundamentals 1029

Installed on
Pro Tip
outside of building
Installed on
return air duct
Makeup Air Unit Location

I Refer to manufacturer instructions for makeup

air unit installation details. Outside air inlets typically
must be installed a certain distance away from appli-
ance exhaust outlets. Also, some makeup air units
must be installed within a certain distance of the
furnace.

38.5 Blower Controls

There are several different devices that engage
or disengage a forced-air heating system's blower fan.
These overlapping controls are used for normal opera-
A tion and for preventing personal harm and property
damage in case of malfunction. Normally, a forced-air
heating system turns on the blower fan automatically.
Connected to
.-L outside air inlet This is initiated when the thermostat calls for heat.
When and how the blower turns on varies for gas, oil,
and electric heating systems.
Blower controls generally use measurements
of time or temperature to regulate when to turn on
or turn off a blower fan. When a furnace responds
to a thermostat's call for heat, the blower turns on in
response to a time-delay control or thermostatic con-
Fresh air Fresh air trol. For gas and oil systems, the time delay allows air
in the plenum to warm up before circulating, which
prevents or minimizes an initial blast of cold air from
the supply registers.
A time-delay control may come in a variety of
forms. Time-delay controls may be simple electrome-
chanical devices with a switch that changes after a set

I
amount of time. In other cases, time-delay control may
be built into a circuit board or other electronic control
unit. These electronic controls can often be adjusted
by toggling dual in-line package (DIP) switches or by
changing jumper terminals mounted directly on the
circuit board. See Figure 38-11.
B A thermostatic blower control turns on the
Skuttle IAQ Products blower after the plenum has reached a specific tem-
Figure 38-10. Two types of makeup air units. A-The perature, typically around 140°F (60°C). Once the
screened opening installed on the outside of the building thermostat has ended its call for heat, the burner
allows fresh air to pass inside. Ductwork connects each part. shuts down, but the blower continues to operate. As
The part attached to the return air duct uses a weighted arm the blower continues to circulate air, the temperature
on a damper to control airflow. B-Outside air flows through
in the plenum gradually drops. When the tempera-
a screened opening, a length of duct, and the makeup air
unit into a building's mechanical room to equalize inside and ture has dropped enough, usually around 90°F (32°C),
outside air pressure. the thermostatic control opens its contact points to
stop blower operation. Thermostatic blower controls
are often adjustable. These devices vary in form but
generally consist of an electric switch operated by a
bimetal disc, a bimetal helix, or a fluid-filled sensing
bulb, Figure 38-12.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1030 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Fan delay jumper setting

___
IB0®Cr11~
Wh"t

_
· ..
~~gers.
MODEL 50M56-843
........
: :. .. :
M • - =-

Fan control DIP switch

DIP switches settings

A B
White-Rodgers Division, Emerson Climate Technologies; York International Corp.
Figure 38-11. Types of time-delay controls. A-Control module with DIP switches used to control blower fan operation when the
thermostat is in heating mode. These different switches select the stage of heating operation and set the blower delay time for
each stage of operation. B-Control board with jumpers used to set the blower fan delay time.

Fluid-filled Set point Temperature

tube adjustment scale

Temperature Set point Set point

scale adjustment indicator

Adjustable Bimetal Disc Nonadjustable Bimetal Disc Adjustable Sensing Bulb

Emerson Climate Technologies
Figure 38-12. Types of thermostatic controls.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 38 Forced-Air Heating Fundamentals 1031

Finned heat
exchanger tubes

CCI Thermal Technologies Inc.

Figure 38-13. A unit heater can be used to offset heat loss through an open door.

Pro Tip Pro Tip

The Term "Thermostat" Fan Switch or Limit Switch
Specific industries, such as HVACR, develop Many fan switches are designed by manufacturers
their own jargon. As a result, when an industry person to have adjustable controls and a broad range of opera-
and a non-industry person use the word thermostat, tion. When a device has an adjustable set point, it can
each person may not mean the same thing. To most be set to function as either a fan switch or a limit switch.
non-HVACR people, the thermostat is the device they
operate to change the temperature in their building. To
HVACR people, a thermostat may be any kind of switch 38.6 Unit Heaters
that automatically responds to a change in temperature,
such as a bi metal disc. Many HVACR parts manufactur- A unit heater is a ductless, forced-air heating unit
ers list bimetal switches as thermostats. Be mindful of that is designed to heat a large, open area or to be used

I
the word thermostat and what that term may mean to in a specific heating application. These units may be
the person using it. gas-fired, oil-fired, or electric. In a unit heater, an elec-
tric blower moves air across the heating element and
In some cases, a blower control is in the same into the space to be heated. See Figure 38-13.
casing as a limit control. In a heating system, a limit Many stores, commercial buildings, and factories
control is a temperature-sensing switch that remains use unit heaters to heat rooms or spaces that cannot
closed as long as the plenum temperature remains be effectively or efficiently heated using a centralized
below its set point. If the temperature in the plenum forced-air system. For instance, unit heaters may be
reaches the limit control's set point, the control opens installed above doorways to direct a high-velocity flow
its switch to shut down the burner or heating ele- (about 2500 fpm) of warm air over large door openings,
ments. This action stops heat production in the fur- such as shipping and receiving doors to businesses and
nace. The limit control's high set point temperature warehouses. This helps to warm any cold air that enters
indicates a system malfunction, such as the blower from the outside. Unit heaters are mounted about 3'
fan no longer operating or a lack of airflow, both of above and 4' away from the opening. Operation is con-
which allow excessive heat to build up in the furnace. trolled by a door switch and a thermostat connected in
To avoid furnace damage from overheating, the limit parallel. Doors less than 8' high and 10' wide are typi-
control switches off the system to stop the production cally not protected by unit heaters. With a unit heater's
of heat. heating element switched off, the fan may be turned on
in summer to help keep out dust and insects. In this
way, a unit heater can operate as an air curtain.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • A two-stage furnace is capable of running
at a high output during periods of high heat
• In a forced-air HVAC system, a motor-driven demand and at a lower heat output during
fan, called a blower, circulates air. Before the periods of low heat demand. Modulating
development of forced-air heating systems, furnaces can vary their heat output over a wide
heated air was distributed by natural range to meet changing demands for heat.
convection and cool air was returned to the • Makeup air units deliver fresh air to the
furnace by gravity. furnace or building when needed. This
• Oil-fired and gas-fired forced-air furnaces additional air from the outside prevents a
consist of a combustion chamber, a fuel negative pressure from developing in the
delivery method and burning device (burner), building.
a flue or exhaust outlet, one or two heat • Forced-air heating systems typically have a
exchangers, an indoor blower, and often a time-delay control or thermostatic control that
combustion blower. turns on the indoor blower a short time after
• Condensing furnaces have a primary heat the furnace turns on. A time-delay control
exchanger that transfers sensible heat from allows air in the plenum to warm up before
the combustion gases to the circulating air or turning on the blower to circulate the air. A
water (in a hydronic system). A secondary heat thermostatic control monitors the temperature
exchanger transfers additional sensible heat in the plenum and turns the blower on and off
and latent heat to the circulating air or water, at specific plenum temperatures.
causing the combustion gases to condense. • Unit heaters are ductless, forced-air heating
• Noncondensing furnaces have a single units. They can be gas-fired, oil-fired, or
heat exchanger that transfers heat from the electric. Unit heaters are commonly installed in
combustion gases to the circulating fluid. Since large open areas or above large doorways, such
noncondensing furnaces are less efficient than as those in loading docks, to offset heat lost
condensing furnaces, the combustion gases through the open doorway.
do not lose enough heat to condense before
reaching the outside.
• Indoor blowers create airflow through the heat Review Questions
exchanger and ductwork by drawing cool air Answer the following questions using the information in
into the furnace from the return air ducts and this chapter.
pushing heated air into conditioned space
through the supply air ducts. Combustion 1. Which of the following heat distribution
blowers bring fresh air into a furnace's methods relies on only natural convection to
combustion chamber and expel combustion distribute heated air?
gases out through the flue. A. Forced air.
• In an upflow furnace, return air is drawn in B. Gravity.
through the bottom of the furnace and heated C. Hydronic.
supply air is discharged from the top of the D. All of the above.
furnace. In a downflow furnace, return air is 2. Which of the following is not a basic
taken in through the top of the furnace, and the component of a gas-fired furnace?
heated supply air exits through the bottom of A. Blower motor.
the furnace. A horizontal furnace is a furnace B. Electric resistance heating element.
placed on its side, so the return air flows in a C. Flue.
horizontal path from one end of the furnace to D. Heat exchanger.
the other. 3. In a condensing furnace, circulating air
passes over the _ _ before passing over the
primary heat exchanger.
A. burner
B. combustion blower
C. flue
D. secondary heat exchanger

1032 Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 38 Forced-Air Heating Fundamentals 1033

4. Secondary heat exchangers are frequently 10. If a house is built with the furnace in the
made of stainless steel because they _ _ basement and the ductwork running above
other metals. the furnace, a(n) _ _ furnace would most
A. are exposed to temperatures that would likely be installed.
melt most A. upflow
B. are less likely to warp than heat B. downflow
exchangers made from C. horizontal
C. can transfer heat much more rapidly than D. sideflow
heat exchangers made from 11. Which of the following statements regarding
D. can withstand corrosive condensate much two-stage furnaces is not true?
better than heat exchangers made from A. Blower speed increases when the furnace
5. Unlike a noncondensing furnace, a switches to the second stage to provide
condensing furnace can use _ _ for its high heat.
exhaust flue. B. Two-stage furnaces are much quieter than
A. a chimney single-stage furnaces.
B. galvanized steel C. Two-stage furnaces are more efficient than
C. PVC or CPVC single-stage furnaces.
D. stainless steel D. Two-stage furnaces produce less
6. Noncondensing furnaces typically have an consistent room temperatures than single-
AFUE rating between _ _. stage furnaces.
A. 10% and 25% 12. The purpose of a(n) _ _ is to control and
B. 40% and 60% regulate the necessary intake of fresh air into
C. 80% and 90% a building.
D. 90% and 100% A. diffuser
7. Which of the following statements regarding B. forced-draft blower
direct-drive blowers is true? C. induced-draft blower
A. The blower fan spins at the same speed as D. makeup air unit
the blower motor. 13. A _ _ furnace can control its heat output
B. The blower fan spins faster if it is from 40% to 100% of their total capacity.
equipped with a larger pulley. A. high-boy
C. The blower fan spins faster if it is B. modulating
equipped with a smaller pulley. C. multipoise
D. The blower fan speed is adjusted by D. thermovariable

I
varying pressure on the fan clutch. 14. When a furnace responds to a call for heat,
8. Which of the following best describes the there is usually a brief delay before the
function of a combustion blower? blower activates that
A. It atomizes the fuel as it enters the A. may be based on either elapsed time or a
combustion chamber. temperature set point
B. It brings fresh air into the combustion B. minimizes the blast of cold air leaving the
chamber and expels combustion gases. ducts when the blower turns on
C. It compresses the fuel mixture as it enters C. provides time for the plenum to heat up
the combustion chamber. D. All of the above.
D. It reduces draft in the flue. 15. Which of the following statements about unit
9. The two types of combustion blowers are heaters is not true?
blowers. A. Unit heaters are ductless.
A. primary and auxiliary B. Unit heaters are primarily used in
B. downdraft and updraft residences.
C. forced-draft and induced-draft C. Unit heaters can be gas-fired, oil-fired, or
D. pre-combustion and post-combustion electric.
D. Unit heaters may be mounted above
warehouse receiving door openings.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

CHAPTER39 Hydronic Heating
Fundatnentals

Chapter Outline
39.1 Hydronic System Components
39.1.1 Boilers
39.1.2 Circulating Pumps
39.1.3 Expansion Tanks
39.1.4 Valves
39.1.5 Terminal Units
39.1.6 Air-Removal Components
39.2 Hydronic System Designs
39.2.1 Series Loop Systems
39.2.2 One-Pipe Systems
39.2.3 Two-Pipe Systems
39.2.4 Zoned Systems
39.2.5 Radiant Hydronic Systems
39.2.6 Combined Heating and Cooling Systems Learning Objectives
39.2.7 Steam Heating Systems
39.2.8 Oil-Fired Boilers Information in this chapter will enable you to:
39.2.9 Gas-Fired Boilers • List the basic components of a hydronic system and
39.3 Hydronic System Controls explain their functions.
::
39.3.1 Low-Water Cutoff = • Explain the purpose of hydronic system water
39.3.2 Flow Switch 5 treatment.
39.3.3 Aquastat §= • Describe the different types of hydronic system
39.3.4 Zone Controls
ii designs.
39.3.5 Outdoor Reset Control
39.3.6 Indoor Reset Control • Summarize the different methods for installing
39.3.7 Hydronic System Operating Sequences radiant heating systems.
39.4 Hydronic System Installation • Identify various controls used in hydronic systems
39.4.1 Preparing a System for Initial Start-Up and explain their functions.
39.4.2 Balancing a Hydronic System • Explain how to balance a hydronic system and
39.4.3 Steam Heating System Installation prepare it for initial start-up.
39.5 Troubleshooting and Servicing Hydronic Systems • Troubleshoot boiler and water circulation problems
39.5.1 Boiler Problems in a hydronic system.
39.5.2 Water Circulation Problems
• List the steps required to purge series loop systems,
39.5.3 Bleeding a Hydronic System
one-pipe systems, and zoned systems.
39.5.4 Purging a Hydronic System
39.5.5 Expansion Tank Problems • Perform regular maintenance and service on a steam
39.5.6 Other Hydronic System Problems heating system.
39.5.7 Servicing a Steam Heating System • Inspect a boiler and prepare it for the heating
39.6 Preparing a Boiler for the Heating Season season.
 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1035

Technical Terms • Gas-fired and oil-fired heating systems can transfer

heat through forced-air, hydronic, or radiant
air-bound flow switch distribution. (Chapter 38)
air scoop free air • Thermostats are wall-mounted devices that use
air separator high-limit control contact points or a circuit to control the operation of
air vent hydronic system heating units. (Chapter 36)
aquastat impeller
backflow preventer indoor reset control
balanced pressure steam kickspace fan convector Introduction
trap low-water cutoff (LWCO)
balancing valve mixing valve Hydronic systems distribute conditioned water or
bimetal steam trap motorized mixing valve steam to occupied spaces in order to heat or cool those
boiler one-pipe hydronic system spaces. Since this section of the textbook deals with heat-
cavitation outdoor reset control ing, this chapter focuses on hydronic heating systems
circulating pump pressure-reducing valve rather than hydronic cooling systems, which utilize chill-
condensing boiler (PRV) ers. Compared to forced-air heating systems, hydronic
conventional boiler radiant hydronic system heating systems offer the following benefits:
corrosion radiator • More consistent temperature levels. Even when a
deaeration reverse return hydronic hydronic system's pump is not circulating water, the
direct return hydronic system piping still contains heated water that continues to
system series loop hydronic radiate heat. For this reason, temperatures remain
dissolved air system steady for longer periods of time in hydronic systems
dry-base boiler steam heating system than in forced-air systems.
dry underfloor radiant terminal unit • Increased heat transfer efficiency.
heating system thermostatic mixing valve
• Hydronic tubing requires less room than standard air
eccentric reducer fitting (TMV) ducts in forced-air systems.
embrittlement two-pipe hydronic system
• Less moisture removed from indoor air than in
entrained air wet-base boiler
forced-air systems.
expansion steam trap wet-rotor centrifugal pump
expansion tank wet underfloor radiant • Do not introduce any dust, allergens, or mold into
fan convector heating system the conditioned space.
flow-control valve zone valve Hydronic systems are used in some single-family
homes and apartment buildings. The boilers that are
used to heat water for hydronic systems may also be
Review of Key Concepts used for domestic water heating. Although hydronic
systems can be designed to distribute either water or
Reviewing these concepts from earlier chapters will help
steam, water is now more commonly used than steam.
you understand new concepts presented in this chapter:
• Boilers use heat exchangers to transfer heat from This choice allows the system to be more easily modi- ·
fied to provide comfort cooling with chilled water. Using
combustion gases to water in hydronic systems.
hot water instead of steam also allows the user to adjust
(Chapter 38)
the temperature of the circulating water based on heating
• Adding heat causes most substances to expand, and demand, which is not possible with steam. The ability to
removing heat causes them to contract. (Chapter 4) reduce the circulating water's temperature during periods
of low demand makes hot-water hydronic systems more
efficient than their steam counterparts.
1036 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

In some older hydronic systems, steam circulates condensing, combustion gases become highly cor-
upward through the system piping by thermal convection rosive. The corrosive condensate that forms inside a
and returns to the boiler through the same piping due conventional boiler reduces its operational life and can
to gravity. These older systems typically use radiators. result in damage to the flue as well. If a hydronic sys-
Because these systems are unable to control the flow of tem is equipped with a conventional, noncondensing
steam or deliver high rates of heat, they are no longer boiler, it must include thermostatic controls to ensure
used. Systems are now designed for individual zone con- that the return water temperature stays above 140°F
trols. Radiators for single rooms or zones connect to a (60°C), Figure 39-1.
main pipe supplied by the boiler. These individual zones
each have a control valve that allows the temperature of Thinking Green
one zone to be adjusted independent of another zone. Instantaneous Boilers
Instantaneous boilers are similar to instantaneous,
tankless water heaters. In fact, some instantaneous
39.1 Hydronic System Components boilers are designed to also provide for domestic hot
Although a wide variety of hydronic system water needs. These boilers have no tank and heat
designs are in use, the same basic components are used water only when heat is called for. Because there are
in all designs. These basic components include a boiler, no standby heat losses, these types of boilers are much
more energy efficient than conventional boilers and may
piping, and terminal units (heat emitters). The boiler
be suitable in certain applications.
heats the water or steam, the piping carries the hot water
or steam to the area in need of heating, and the terminal
units release the heat into the conditioned space.
In addition to these essential components,
hydronic systems require other components in order
to function properly. These additional components
include a pump to circulate the water through the
boiler, piping, and terminal units. A variety of valves
are used to control the flow of water or steam through
Combustion
various parts of the system. An expansion tank pro- exhaust
vides extra room for water as it is heated and expands.
The expansion tank also helps maintain a consistent
pressure in the system as the water expands and con-
tracts. Finally, special components may be installed in
the system to eliminate excessive amounts of air in the
circulating water.

39.1.1 Boilers
A boiler is a closed vessel that heats water for cir-
culation through a hydronic system. Hydronic boilers
often burn fuel to heat or boil water. Some boilers use
electric heating elements to boil the water. Boilers can
operate with water temperatures ranging from 90°F to
200°F (32°C to 93°C). Boilers can be classified in sev-
eral ways. One way of classifying boilers is based on
operational water temperatures. This method has two
classes of boilers: conventional and condensing. Combustion
air intake
Conventional Boilers
Conventional boilers operate at water tempera-
tures above 140°F (60°C). This high operating tempera-
ture prevents combustion gases from condensing. If the
water in the boiler drops below 140°F (60°C), it absorbs PB Heat, LLC
so much heat that the combustion gases produced by Figure 39-1. Oil -fired conventional boiler with metal pipe for
the boiler begin to condense back into a liquid. Upon air intake and exhaust.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1037

Condensing Boilers Stainless steel

Condensing boilers are designed to condense plates
combustion gases and drain away the condensate.
Threaded studs
Corrosion caused by condensate is not a problem in for mounting
condensing boilers because these boilers are designed
to withstand the corrosive condensate and drain it
away, Figure 39-2.
Condensing boilers are equipped with special sec-
ondary heat exchangers that remove additional heat
from combustion gases, Figure 39-3. These secondary
heat exchangers must be made of a material that can
withstand the corrosive nature of the combustion con-
densate. These heat exchangers are primarily made of
stainless steel. When additional heat is removed in the
secondary heat exchanger, the combustion gases con-
dense and release latent heat into the circulating water,
further increasing the boiler's efficiency. Condensing
boilers are over 90% efficient.
Xylem Inc.
Figure 39-3. Cutaway of a plate heat exchanger made of
stainless steel. The corrugated plates provide highly efficient
Exhaust vent
heat transfer.

Condensing boilers may be gas-fired or oil-fired.

Because condensing boilers are more efficient than con-
ventional boilers, there is less unburned fuel in the
exhaust. As a result, the condensate formed in a condens-
ing boiler is less corrosive than any condensate that may
form in a conventional boiler. Condensing boilers can be
vented through a wall, roof, or unused chimney and are
equipped with a drain connection for condensate removal.

Thinking Green

I
Condensing Boilers
Condensing boilers are more efficient than conven-
tional boilers. For every pound of combustion gas that
is condensed, a condensing boiler produces 970 Btu
more heat than a conventional boiler using the same
amount of fuel.

Water return Boiler Classifications

(inlet) A boiler's heat exchanger is typically made of one
of three types of material: cast iron, steel, or copper.
Boilers are also classified as either wet base or dry
Water supply base. In dry-base boilers, the area under the combus-
(outlet) tion chamber is dry. The boiler water is contained in an
area above the burner. In wet-base boilers, the water
surrounds the combustion area. See Figure 39-4.
Cast-iron boilers are frequently used in residential
PB Heat, LLC and light-commercial applications and usually hold
Figure 39-2. Gas-fired condensing boiler with a 93% 15 to 30 gallons of water. Although they require addi-
efficiency rating. Note the plastic pipe connections for the tional time to heat, they are able to maintain heat for
exhaust vent. extended periods of time.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1038 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Flue boilers are classified as low-mass, low-volume boilers

because they are much lighter than both cast-iron and
t t t steel boilers and typically contain only a few gallons
of water.

Code Alert
Boiler Installation
t t t The type of boiler that can be installed and the
proper placement and work clearance of a boiler are
dictated by local building codes. Building codes also
Water address such issues as proper boiler connections, instal-
lation of safety and pressure-relief valves, and selection
and installation of expansion tanks. The guidelines pro-
vided by the International Mechanical Code (IMC) are
often required for commercial construction.
Combustion
gases
Water Treatment
Burner Certain substances are often added to water in
Dry-Base Boiler hydronic systems to lower the water's freezing point
and raise its boiling point. Glycol is a common additive
Flue used to protect against water freezing within a system.
There are two types of glycol: propylene and ethylene.
The use of ethylene glycol often requires a special per-
mit because it is toxic to humans and less environmen-
tally friendly than propylene glycol.
Water To figure out how much glycol to add to a hydronic
system, determine the system's lowest ambient water
temperature and then follow the glycol manufacturer's
instructions based on that temperature. In general,
a 50% mixture of propylene glycol protects against
Combustion freezing down to -30°F (-34°C), but also reduces the
gases
system's heating capacity to around 90% of its normal
Gas valve
heating capacity. Never use glycol intended for auto-
mobile cooling systems or in hydronic systems with
galvanized piping.
Since tap water has impurities that may cause scale,
corrosion, or embrittlement, additional substances
may also be added to prevent the formation of deposits
Burner in a system. Scale forms when salts in the water settle
Wet-Base Boiler
on metal surfaces as the water undergoes temperature
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher changes. The salts that can be formed include calcium
Figure 39-4. The water in a dry-base boiler is contained in an carbonate, magnesium sulfate, sodium hydroxide, sil-
area above the combustion area, whereas the water in a wet- ica oxide, and many more. Iron and manganese may
base boiler surrounds the combustion area.
also form deposits in the boiler. See Figure 39-5. These
impurities must be removed before the water enters
the boiler. Chemicals can be added to form a sludge
In steel boilers, water flows around a bundle of with these salts, and boilers are equipped with valves
steel tubes containing combustion gases. Baffles inside that can be used to purge the sludge from the system.
the tubes increase heat transfer and slow combustion Corrosion is a chemical degradation of metal. This
gases. This allows additional heat to be removed from can occur inside a hydronic system when the water is
the gases, increasing efficiency. too acidic or when certain gases are dissolved in the
Copper-tube boilers use finned copper tubes as water. Water can be contaminated by organic matter,
heat exchangers. Copper is a good heat conductor, oil, and dissolved gases, such as hydrogen sulfide,
which means these units heat quickly. Copper-tube carbon dioxide, and oxygen. Corrosion resulting from

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1039

Maximum Allowable Impurities Water supply

(outlet)
in Boiler Water
Chemical Parts per
Chemical Name
Symbol Million (ppm)
Sodium sulfite Na 2S0 3 1.0
Sodium chloride NaCl 10.0
Sodium phosphate Na 3 P0 4 25.0
Sodium sulfate Na 2S04 25.0
Silica oxide Si02 0.2
Total dissolved solids 50.0

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 39-5- Maximum levels of certain impurities in boiler
water, listed in parts per million (ppm).

these contaminants can be reduced by neutralizing

the acidic water with an alkali or by removing the
gases through deaeration. Deaeration is the release Terminal box Motor Impeller
of gases dissolved in a liquid. Chemical scavengers Xylem Inc.

and corrosion inhibitors can also be added to the Figure 39-6. Cross section of a circulating pump used in a
water to help prevent corrosion. Chemical scavengers residential hydronic system.
are chemicals that interact chemically with the con-
taminants, rendering them inert. Corrosion inhibitors
are chemicals that form a protective coating on the sur- of the pump that spins and forces water through the
face of the metal. Both types of additives are widely system. Circulating pumps are often wet-rotor centrif-
available at contracting supply houses, and some com- ugal pumps. A wet-rotor centrifugal pump has bear-
panies even specialize in the treatment of boiler water. ings that are lubricated by the circulating water in the
Long-term corrosion can cause embrittlement of hydronic system rather than a petroleum-based lubri-
system parts. Embrittlement is a weakening of the cant. The wet-rotor design eliminates the need for a
metal, which can cause structural failure along seams, shaft seal and reduces noise and maintenance require-
under rivets, and at tube ends. Water may flash to ments. Many types of circulating pumps are used in
hydronic systems, and some systems have more than

I
steam through small leaks in these highly stressed
areas. This allows any sodium hydroxide in the water one pump.
to concentrate, which in turn speeds up further corro-
sion. Embrittlement can be slowed by maintaining a low
acidity in the water, repairing leaks, and adding special
39.1.3 Expansion Tanks
inhibiting agents to the water. The water in a hydronic To cope with the heat-related expansion of water,
system should have a pH level between 7 and 10. hydronic systems include an expansion tank, some-
times referred to as a compression tank. In an expansion
tank, one side of the tank is filled with water and con-
39.1.2 Circulating Pumps nected to the hydronic system piping. The other side of
Although some older hydronic systems circulate the tank is filled with air, Figure 39-7.
hot water through natural convection, the majority The two sides of the tank may be separated by a
of systems use a circulating pump to circulate heated rubber diaphragm, or the water may be contained in a
water throughout the system. A circulating pump is a rubber bladder inside the tank and the air stored in the
motor-driven pump that controls water flow through space between the bladder and the shell of the tank. As
hydronic system piping, Figure 39-6. the water in the system heats up and expands, excess
Circulating pumps consist of a motor section water is forced into the expansion tank, where it applies
(containing the rotor, motor windings, and terminal pressure to the diaphragm or bladder and compresses
box) and a pump housing (containing the impeller, the air. When the temperature of the water drops, the
seal ring, and water passages). An impeller is the part water contracts. This allows the air surrounding the

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1040 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Water Diaphragm

Connected to
makeup
water line
Diaphragm Expansion Tank

Bladder

preventer
t

-----"'Air
Expansion tank
Bladder Expansion Tank
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 39-8. An expansion tank provides room for the
expansion of circulating water as the system heats up. As the
© 2012 Galetti North America, Inc. water cools down again, air pressure forces the water back
Figure 39-7. Expansion tank kit that combines multiple boiler into the system.
components into a single package.

In older expansion tank designs, there is no physi-

cal barrier between the water and the air. These older
bladder or on the other side of the diaphragm to exert
expansion tanks are horizontally oriented to provide
pressure to expel some of the water back into the sys-
a larger air space above the water reservoir. They are
tem. See Figure 39-8. In this way, an expansion tank
also considerably larger than diaphragm or bladder
~elps to maintain a stable system pressure under vary-
expansion tanks. The older-style expansion tanks are
mg operating conditions.
always mounted above the boiler, such as in the attic
Many bladder and diaphragm expansion tanks
or between floor joists, Figure 39-9.
are equipped with an air fitting that can be used to
Older expansion tanks are typically equipped
pump air into the tank to adjust the system pressure.
with a combination valve at the bottom of the tank. The
Others are precharged to 12 psi at the factory and can-
not be recharged or adjusted. combination valve allows water to be drained from the
tank and allows air to enter the tank at the same time.
Caution An expansion tank can be mounted on either the
supply or the return side of the system. However, it
Charging an Expansion Tank is vitally important that the circulating pump circu-
Extreme care should be used if air is added to a lates water away from the expansion tank rather than
diaphragm or bladder expansion tank. Excessive air toward the tank. See Figure 39-10.
pressure can rupture the diaphragm or bladder. Never
use an air compressor or compressed air tank to add
air to an expansion tank. Use only a bicycle pump and 39.1.4 Valves
check the pressure in the expansion tank frequently
A hydronic system requires numerous valves to
during the procedure.
function properly. These valves control the flow of

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1041

Water supply
t t

Pressure-
reducing
Connected valve
to makeup
makeup water line water line

~----1---------
Pressure-relief
valve
'
Diaphragm
expansion
tank

Boiler
Xylem Inc.
Figure 39-10. Circulating pumps must pump away from
an expansion tank located on the supply side of the boiler.
Water Expansion tanks can also be located on the return side.
return

Supply water
inlet
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher l
Figure 39-9. An older-style, horizontal expansion tank
mounted above a boiler.

water through the system. Some of the valves com-

monly found in hydronic systems include mixing
valves, flow control valves, pressure-reducing valves,
Outlet
and backflow preventers.

Mixing Valves
A mixing valve is a valve that blends hot water
...
(to boiler)

from one inlet with cooler water from another inlet so

that the water leaving the valve is at the desired tem- © 2012 Galetti North America, Inc.
perature. See Figure 39-11. Figure 39-11. Mixing valves may be used to ensure that water
Mixing valves can be used to adjust the water is returned to the boiler at the proper temperature.
temperature in a hydronic system. The valve reacts to
changes in the temperature of the water by opening
and closing its internal passages, which changes the Most mixing valves are thermostatically or electroni-
ratio of hot water and cold water flowing through the cally operated. A thermostatic mixing valve (TMV)
valve. This constant adjustment ensures that the water has a built-in thermostatic element that reacts mechan-
leaving the valve is the correct temperature. ically to changes in the temperature at the valve outlet,

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1042 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

adjusting the mixture ratio as needed to maintain the Indicates Output

desired temperature, Figure 39-12. valve Interval temperature
A motorized mixing valve accomplishes the same position adjustment adjustment
task, but has an electronic sensor that monitors the
water temperature and a built-in electric motor that
adjusts the valve as needed based on sensor feedback.
Some mixing valves are rotary valves that have
handles for manually adjusting the mixture of hot and
cold water. A motor actuator can also be used to adjust
the valve position. The motor actuator is mounted on
the manually operated rotary valve so that the valve's
shaft engages a drive sleeve on the actuator. When the Rotary Mixing Valve Motor Actuator
actuator receives a signal to adjust the valve, the motor Dantass

and drive sleeve rotate, which in turn operates the Figure 39-13. A rotary mixing valve and motor actuator
valve shaft, Figure 39-13. designed for use with the valve. A sensor placed downstream
triggers the actuator to open or close the valve in response to
Mixing valves can be installed at the boiler inlet
variations in water temperature.
to monitor the return water temperature or at the
boiler outlet to monitor the supply water temperature.
Mixing valves are typically used with conventional
the temperature of the return water above the combus-
boilers to keep the return water above a certain tem-
tion gas condensing point.
perature to prevent combustion gases from condens-
For a supply water installation, if the water leaving
ing, Figure 39-14.
the boiler is not yet hot enough to flow through the lines
For a return water installation, if the water return-
and maintain a temperature above the combustion gas
ing to the boiler is below the set temperature, the
condensing temperature, the mixing valve recirculates
mixing valve will allow some of the hot supply water
the water through the boiler. When the supply water is
leaving the boiler to flow with the return water. Mixing
above the set temperature, the mixing valve allows it to
the hot supply water with the cool return water raises
flow through the system. Some common settings for mix-
ing valves are 140°F (60°C) for return water installations
and 160°F (71°C) for supply water installations.
Internal thermostat
adjustment
Balancing Valves
Spring Thermostat A hydronic system may deliver hot water to more
than one terminal unit. If there are two or more terminal
units, the water flow must be balanced to help distribute
the heat equally through the system. Otherwise, the ter-
minal units closest to the circulating pump will "steal"
most of the heat, and those farther away will not receive
their designed quantity of heated water. To address this
problem, balancing valves are installed in the system.

i
Return water l i
Supply water 0-ring Valve seat
These valves adjust the water flow to each terminal unit
or zone in the system so that heat is evenly distributed
throughout the system, Figure 39-15.
(cool) inlet (hot) inlet Balancing valves are commonly built using globe
Mixed water
valves or ball valves. Which type of valve is used may
outlet depend on system capacity, size, and other factors. A
A B flow indication device may be used to observe balanc-
ing of the flow, Figure 39-16.
Dantass
Figure 39-12. Three-way thermostatic mixing valves (TMVs).
Pressure-Reducing Valves
A-The hot and cold water supplied at the valve's inlets are
mixed inside the valve to provide a steady flow of water at
Proper operating pressure must be maintained
the desired temperature. B-Cutaway showing the internal in a hydronic system. If a system starts to run low on
construction of a TMV. As the temperature of the water in the water, makeup water is supplied by a connection to a
valve changes, the thermostatic element opens and closes the water main. The pressure in the water main is typically
valve, changing the ratio of return water to supply water. much higher than is required for the hydronic system.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1043

Mixing
valve

]======::::--~---_-_-_-_---,.. ., ..
To terminal
units

Balancing Balancing
valve valve

--Boiler

--Boiler Mixing

____________,_ .,
From terminal
units
valve
_______, .,
From terminal
units

Supply Water Installation Return Water Installation

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 39-14. Mixing valves can be mounted in either the return line to the boiler or the supply line from the boiler.

Turn screw to Visual flow Install valve with

adjust flow rate indicator arrows pointing
downstream
Xylem Inc.
Figure 39-16. A flow indication device that may be used with

I
a balancing valve in a hydronic system.

A pressure-reducing valve (PRV) is installed in the

makeup water line to the boiler to reduce the pressure
of the water supplied by the water main to the operating
pressure needed by the hydronic system. It acts as a feed
valve and also reduces pressure as needed, Figure 39-17.

Pro Tip
Xylem Inc.
Valve Names
Figure 39-15. With a balancing valve installed in a hydronic
system, the system can be balanced so that heated water Like the rest of the HVACR industry, the hydronic
flows evenly to every terminal unit. This balancing valve industry can have multiple names for a single sys-
has two access ports that allow a technician to measure the tem component. The phrase pressure-reducing valve
valve's pressure drop. describes the action that the valve has on incoming
water. However, since that is only part of its purpose,
it may also be known as a boiler feed valve, a boiler fill
valve, and other names. Always clarify what you mean
and ask others for clarification.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1044 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Arrows indicate
direction of flow
through valve

Xylem Inc.
Arrow indicates direction Figure 39-18. A flow-control valve prevents gravity circulation
of flow through valve in a hydronic system, which occurs when heated water
migrates to higher points in the system, causing rooms or
Xylem Inc. zones located at those higher points to become overheated.
Figure 39-17. A pressure-reducing valve helps a hydronic
system maintain a preset pressure by allowing makeup water
from a water main into the system as needed. Some valves water main. This can occur if the pressure in the water
have a handle that facilitates fast filling when a substantial main drops below the pressure in the hydronic system.
amount of water must be added to a system. Since fluids flow from a higher pressure to a lower pres-
sure, water will try to flow out of the higher-pressure
hydronic system into the lower-pressure water main.
Flow-Control Valves and Backflow Preventers In addition to backflow preventers, many pressure-
A typical hydronic system includes a variety of reducing valves, which are also installed in the makeup
flow-control valves to ensure that water flows in the water line, contain a check valve that prevents water
proper direction through the system. When the circu- from flowing back into the water main.
lating pump quits operating, hot water tends to migrate
to higher points in the system, and cold water tends to
fall to lower points in the system. Flow-control valves 39.1.5 Terminal Units
prevent this from happening. Flow-control valves are Terminal units, also referred to as heat emitters, are
essentially weighted check valves. Some flow-control the heat exchangers that transfer heat from the circu-
valves have a bypass knob or lever on the valve that lating water in a hydronic system to the air in the con-
can be used to open the valve to allow gravity circula- ditioned spaces. A variety of terminal units are used
tion in an emergency, Figure 39-18. in hydronic systems. The terminal units that transfer
heat through a combination of conduction and convec-
Pro Tip tion are covered in this section. Hydronic systems can
Flow-Control Valve Sizing also transfer heat through a combination of conduction
Usually flow-control valves are matched to pip- and radiation. These systems are referred to as radiant
ing size. However, if a system is equipped with a boiler heating systems and are discussed later in this chapter.
that heats up very quickly, it may be necessary to use Convection-based terminal units all work the
oversized flow-control valves to compensate for thermal same way. The hot water inside the hydronic system
expansion. transfers some of its heat to air passing over the heating
element within the terminal unit. This warmed air cir-
A backflow preventer is a specialized check valve culates throughout the conditioned space, raising the
installed in the makeup water line to prevent water temperature in the space. Convection heating elements
in the hydronic system from flowing back into the are generally constructed of materials with a high

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1045

thermal conductivity, such as copper and aluminum. Pro Tip

A typical heating element consists of copper tubing to
which aluminum cooling fins have been attached. The Radiator Selection
cooling fins increase the surface area over which the Radiators that are designed specifically for hot-
heat transfer takes place. water hydronic systems typically cannot be used in a
steam system. However, most radiators designed for
Radiators steam systems can also be used in hot-water systems.
In hydronic systems, a radiator is a heat exchanger
that hot water or steam flows through. The radiator Fan Convectors
absorbs heat from the water or steam and then trans- Another option for effective and economical
fers that heat to the conditioned space. Despite its name, hydronic heating is the fan convector. A fan convector
this type of terminal unit provides the majority of its is very similar to a radiator. However, it is equipped
heat to the conditioned space through natural convec- with a fan that blows air across the surface of the heat-
tion rather than radiation. Radiators are available for ing element, which increases the rate of heat transfer
both steam and hot-water hydronic systems and come and improves convection. Because of the high volume
in a variety of shapes and sizes. See Figure 39-19. of air that passes over its surface, a fan convector is able

Panel Radiator

Column Radiator Baseboard Radiator

Runtal North America; Bosch Thermotechnology Corp.; Runtal North America
Figure 39-19. Radiators are available in many configurations, such as column, panel, and baseboard.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1046 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

to extract heat from lower-temperature water than a Outside Inlet

radiator, which relies on natural convection. makeup air damper
Fan convectors are available in many sizes and
shapes. Kickspace fan convectors are designed to fit
into very tight places, such as in the small space under
kitchen and bathroom cabinets, in stair risers, and in
between floor joists. Kickspace fan convectors work
well in zoned applications and in combination with
radiant heating systems, Figure 39-20.
Fan convectors may also be used in some forced-
air applications. For instance, a fan convector can use
hot water from a hydronic system to preheat makeup
air before it is drawn in and heated by a forced-air fur-
nace, Figure 39-21. Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 39-21. A hydronic system can feed hot water to a fan
convector to preheat makeup air before it is circulated through
39.1.6 Air-Removal Components a forced-air furnace.
Air must be removed from the circulating water in
a hydronic system. If it is not removed, air in the sys-
tem can result in noisy operation or prevent the proper is trapped between molecules of the circulating water.
flow of water through the piping. Also, oxygen in the Air scoops or air separators can be installed to reduce
air can cause corrosion within the piping and other the amount of dissolved air in a system.
parts of the hydronic system. Corrosion can block The third type of air that can be trapped is called
pipes or valves and clog pumps, rendering the system entrained air, which consists of small air bubbles that
inefficient or even inoperative. travel along with the circulating water. Entrained air
The air in a hydronic system falls into three cat- can be removed with air scoops and air separators as
egories. The first type is called free air. Free air con- well.
sists of bubbles of air that collect at the high points in Water's ability to hold dissolved oxygen is inversely
a hydronic system. One-way valves called air vents are proportional to its temperature and directly propor-
used to release any free air trapped in a system. tional to its pressure. In other words, water at a colder
The second type of air that can be trapped in a temperature or a higher pressure can hold more dis-
hydronic system is called dissolved air. This is air that solved oxygen than water at a warmer temperature or

Finned copper
tubing
Mounting box
placed in a wall

-
--
-- -
-
- -
-
-
-----
-- - --
------
--
. =---- ..-.. -
--·- .
- ----
-:: =-- - -
·-
=== ===
~====
== == ==
===
Centrifugal
fan

Kickspace Fan Convector Grille

King Electrical Mtg. Co.
Figure 39-20. A kickspace fan convector is typically mounted in a wall just above floor level and covered with a grille to look like
a regular vent.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1047

lower pressure. As the temperature of water is increased flow and deflect it upward to the top of the chamber.
or as the water pressure is reduced, dissolved oxygen See Figure 39-23.
in the water bubbles out and becomes free or entrained Air separators work on essentially the same prin-
air. Air separators and air scoops are typically placed ciple as air scoops. Air separators typically contain a
downstream from the boiler and upstream from the wire mesh element, which creates a swirling motion
circulating pump. At this location, the circulating in the circulating water. This agitation causes oxygen
water has a relatively high temperature and low pres- in the water to form tiny bubbles, which cling to the
sure, improving the ability of an air separator or air wire mesh. As more bubbles are collected, they merge
scoop to remove dissolved oxygen. together and form larger bubbles, which break free of
Air vents are float-operated valves that allow air the mesh and rise to the top of the chamber, where
to escape from a system while preventing water from they are vented. See Figure 39-24.
leaking out and outside air from coming in. As air col- When air is removed from a hydronic system,
lects in the float chamber, the float drops, opening the makeup water is added to the system to fill the space.
valve and allowing air to escape out of the system. As This water contains dissolved oxygen plus some cor-
the air escapes, water refills the float chamber, closing rosive chemicals. Most hydronic systems are set up so
the valve. See Figure 39-22. that the makeup water passes through an air separator
Air vents are installed at high points in a hydronic before it is circulated through the system.
system where large pockets of air are likely to form,
such as at the top of vertical piping. They are also
installed on top of air scoops and air separators to vent 39.2 Hydronic System Designs
the air separated by those devices. Hydronic systems can be designed in a variety
Air scoops have a series of deflectors that cre- of ways to meet specific heating needs. A system can
ate turbulence in the flow of water. This turbulence use heated water or steam as the convection medium,
causes oxygen in the water to form tiny bubbles, and boilers can be operated using gas or oil as the heat
which adhere to the deflectors. As more and more source. In addition, hydronic systems can vary in the
bubbles are formed, they begin to merge, forming way piping is configured. Most hydronic systems are
larger bubbles that rise to the top of the chamber. The closed loops, meaning that water in the system flows
deflectors also catch any entrained air in the water from the boiler, through the terminal units, and back
to the boiler through a loop of piping that is completely
sealed from atmospheric pressure. If the system is open
Cover to atmospheric pressure at any point, it is considered
assembly an open-loop system.

O-ring
Vent
lever Connection for
air vent

..
From
boiler
.. ITo
circulating
pump

Connected
Connection for
to system
expansion tank
Air Vent Air Vent Cutaway Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
© 2012 Galetti North America, Inc.; Honeywell, Inc. Figure 39-23. The series of deflectors in an air scoop create
Figure 39-22. An air vent releases air from a hydronic system turbulence that causes oxygen in the water to form into tiny
by using a float to open the valve outlet when the water level bubbles.
drops inside the valve.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1048 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Connection for air vent Terminal units

.. Circulating
pump

Terminal units
To circulating
pump

Xylem Inc.
Figure 39-24. An air separator uses a wire mesh to create
turbulence that causes oxygen in the water to form into tiny
bubbles that combine and rise up to be vented.

39.2.1 Series Loop Systems

A series loop hydronic system is designed so that all
of the circulating water passes through each component
in the system before returning to the boiler. Series loop
systems are typically equipped with baseboard terminal
units. As the water passes through each terminal unit in
the system, the water's temperature is reduced. In order
to compensate for the dropping temperature of the water,
each successive terminal unit in the system must be larger Balancing valves
than the previous unit, Figure 39-25A. B
Large systems can be divided into two loops for Goodheart-Willcox Publisher

improved efficiency. Splitting a large, single loop into two Figure 39-25. In a series loop system, all of the circulating
smaller loops reduces the overall distance that the circu- water must pass through each of the terminal units in the loop.
A-Single series loop. B-Split series loop.
lating water must travel and the number of components it
passes through. As a result, the overall temperature drop
in the circulating water is reduced. In a split series loop,
each loop receives some of the hot water from the boiler.
39.2.2 One-Pipe Systems
Balancing valves in the return piping for each loop can be In a one-pipe hydronic system, as in a series loop
adjusted to change the ratio at which water is distributed system, a single pipe supplies hot water from the boiler
between the two loops, Figure 39-25B. and carries the return water back to the boiler. However,

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1049

unlike a series loop system, the terminal units in a one- temperature drop in the water is less than it would be in
pipe system are on branch circuits, called secondary a series loop system.
loops. This means that all of the water flows through
the primary loop, but not all of the water flows through 39.2.3 Two-Pipe Systems
each terminal unit, Figure 39-26.
A low pressure created in each secondary loop Most hydronic systems are two-pipe systems. In a
allows a portion of the circulating water to be diverted
two-pipe hydronic system, one pipe supplies hot water
from the boiler to the terminal units. Another pipe car-
from the primary loop (also called the main loop). This
ries return water from the terminal units back to the
diverted water flows through the secondary loop and
boiler. Since the supply and return pipes are completely
then back to the primary loop. Low pressure is created
separate, the temperature of the water supplied to all
in each secondary loop by connecting the return side
terminal units is essentially the same. This design elim-
of each terminal unit to the primary loop with a tee
inates the progressive temperature drop that occurs in
that has an internal venturi. The venturi restricts flow
series loop and one-pipe systems. A more consistent
through the primary loop at that point, which creates a
heat is available at the terminal units of a two-pipe sys-
low pressure on the return side of the terminal unit. As
tem than the other arrangements available.
a result, some of the water flows straight through the
There are two types of two-pipe systems: direct
primary loop while the remainder is diverted through
return and reverse return. In a direct return hydronic
the secondary loop and terminal unit. The supply side
s_y stem, the water is returned to the boiler along essen-
of each terminal unit is connected to the primary loop
tially the same path it followed when it was supplied
by a standard tee fitting.
to the terminal unit. The terminal unit that is closest to
Since each successive terminal unit is receiving a
portion of the return water from the previous terminal the boiler has the shortest length of supply piping and
unit, the water supplied to each successive terminal unit also the shortest length of return piping. The terminal
is slightly cooler than the water supplied to the previ- unit that is farthest away from the boiler has the lon-
gest length of supply piping and the longest length of
ous one. However, since not all of the circulating water
return piping. See Figure 39-27A.
passes through every terminal unit, the progressive
Due to friction, the pressure drop is greater in the
longer branches. As a result, water flows at a different
rate through each branch. This requires the system to
Secondary be balanced.
loops In a reverse return hydronic system, the terminal
unit that is closest to the boiler has the shortest length
?f supply piping but the longest length of return pip-
mg. The terminal unit that is farthest from the boiler
has the longest length of supply piping, but the shortest

I
length of return piping. As a result, all branches of the
system are approximately the same length. Because all
branches are equal lengths, they have approximately
equal pressure drops, and water flows at the same rate
through each branch. Very little adjustment is needed
to balance such a system, Figure 39-27B.

39.2.4 Zoned Systems

.. In many commercial and industrial buildings, it

is desirable to maintain different temperatures in dif-
ferent rooms or areas. This is also desirable in some
h?mes. For instance, the bedrooms may be kept at a
different temperature than the living room, or the
laundry room may be kept at a different temperature
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
than the kitchen. Individual temperature control in dif-
Figure 39-26. In a one-pipe system, tees equipped with
an internal venturi create a low pressure on the return side
ferent spaces is made possible by splitting a hydronic
of each terminal unit. This causes some of the water to be system into different zones. Each zone has its own pip-
diverted through the terminal unit while the rest flows through ing branch, terminal units, zone valve, and room ther-
the primary loop. mostat, Figure 39-28.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1050 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Terminal units Terminal units

Supply Supply
pipe pipe

Return Return
pipe pipe

Circulating
pump

A
Boiler
..
Boiler

B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 39-27. A two-pipe system has a supply pipe and a return pipe. The water delivered to each terminal unit is approximately
the same temperature. A-Direct return hydronic system. B-Reverse return hydronic system.

Terminal
Room Zone 1 unit
Zone2
thermostat

Thermostat
wired t o ~
zone valve r
I
I
I
Zone valve
I
I
I
r
I
I
--rg
"""'
I I
I I
Air Circulating I I
separator pump

Zone 3

Purge valves
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 39-28. A hydronic system with three zones, each of which has its own zone valve, terminal unit, and room thermostat.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1051

The temperature in each zone can be adjusted

using a room thermostat and a zone valve. A zone
valve, also called a zone control valve, is a thermostati-
cally operated valve that regulates the flow of heated
water through a zone based on the voltage signal
applied to it. A zone valve's actuator has wiring that
connects to a room thermostat, Figure 39-29.
When the thermostat senses that a zone's control
point is below its set point, it sends a signal for heat that
causes the actuator to open a solenoid or plunger inside
the valve body, allowing heated water to flow through
the zone. If a zone has its own circulating pump, the
zone valve may also close a switch that starts the pump
to circulate heated water through the zone. After the
zone's temperature rises above the set point, the ther-
mostat closes the zone valve or slows down the circu-
lating pump to reduce water flow through the zone.
The result is that the appropriate amount of hot water
enters the terminal units to maintain the set point tem-
perature in each zone, Figure 39-30.

39.2.5 Radiant Hydronic Systems

Radiant hydronic systems are similar to standard
hot-water hydronic systems in that hot water is circu-
lated through a network of pipes. However, the piping
Basch Thermatechnalagy Carp.
in a radiant hydronic system is typically enclosed in
walls or floors, completely out of sight. The piping in a Figure 39-30. Modern, smart, programmable room
thermostats can display indoor temperature, outdoor
traditional hydronic system connects to external termi-
temperature, desired set point, system status, and energy
nal units in the conditioned spaces. Radiant hydronic consumption levels.
systems also circulate water at a lower temperature
than traditional hydronic systems.
Whereas traditional hydronic systems use copper
water tubing, radiant hydronic systems often use dif-

I
Wiring connects
ferent types of tubing. This tubing may be made from
actuator to room cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), other plastics, and
thermostat composite material, Figure 39-31.
/ -Actuator
Tubing made from plastic or composite material
must have an oxygen barrier to be used in a radiant
hydronic system. The barrier prevents oxygen from
being absorbed through the tubing, which can rapidly
corrode the boiler. Red PEX tubing is typically used

© 2012 Galetti North America, Inc. Composite Tubing Plastic Tubing

Figure 39-29. The actuator on a zone valve opens and Dantoss
closes the valve when it receives a voltage signal from a room Figure 39-31. Radiant heating system tubing can be made
thermostat. from plastic or composite material.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1052 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

for hot water, and blue PEX tubing is typically used for Code Alert
cold water. There are no physical differences between
the different colors. They are only used to indicate the Radiant Hydronic Systems
temperature of the water in the tubing. The installation of radiant hydronic systems is typi-
In radiant hydronic systems, a boiler heats up cally regulated by local building codes. The codes spec-
water, and a pump circulates the hot water through a ify proper installation methods for metal framing, wood
framing, and concrete.
network of plastic tubing. Separate radiant heat zones
are fed by a manifold that distributes the flow of warm
water to the individual loops of tubing that comprise Underfloor Radiant Hydronic Systems
each zone. The loops of tubing warm the surfaces adja- Underfloor radiant hydronic systems can be clas-
cent to them, usually floors or walls, by conduction. sified as wet or dry. Dry underfloor radiant hydronic
The warmed floors or walls then radiate the heat into systems consist of tubing attached to a wood floor or sub-
the conditioned space, Figure 39-32. floor. Wet underfloor radiant hydronic systems consist

Zone 1 Zone 1 Zone2 Zone2

supply return supply return
manifold manifold manifold manifold
\ I \ I

Loops of
tubing
...
Zone2
pump Return
manifold

Mixing
valve

t
Mixing
valve

Air
separator

Pressure-
reducing
valve
Circulating Supply
Makeup water pump manifold
line connection .___...,...--- Expansion tank

A B
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher; Dantoss
Figure 39-32. Radiant hydronic systems have a supply manifold that divides water flow evenly among the loops of tubing. A
return manifold recombines the return flows from the loops into a single return flow. A-A radiant hydronic system with two zones.
The loops in the drawing have been shortened for illustrative effect. B-A supply manifold and return manifold.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1053

of tubing embedded in concrete. Because a wet underfloor

radiant heating system is embedded in a concrete slab, it
must be installed before the slab is poured.
Techniques used to install these two types of under-
floor radiant hydronic systems include the following:
• Tubing is installed over wood subfloor and
covered with floor underlayment and flooring,
which is a dry method of installation known as
the sleeper method, Figure 39-33.
• Tubing is attached or suspended to the underside
of the subfloor and, in some cases, placed in heat
transfer plates, which is another dry method of
installation, Figure 39-34. Figure 39-34. Radiant tubing is snapped into heat transfer
• Special grooved panels are installed on top of the plates attached to the underside of the subfloor, between the
subfloor, and the tubing is fitted into the grooves floor joists. The heat transfer plates hold the tubing in place
in the panels. The flooring can be installed directly and diffuse the heat over a greater surface area.
over the top of the panels. See Figure 39-35.
• Tubing is tied to a reinforcing wire mesh before a
concrete slab is poured, which is a method of wet
installation, Figure 39-36.
• Tubing is attached to a guide panel on top of the
subfloor or slab and then covered with a relatively
thin layer of concrete, which is another method of
wet installation, Figure 39-37.

Thinking Green
Heating Large Spaces Grooved
If heating must be provided outdoors or in a large,
open space, radiant heat is the most efficient and effective
panels t
Floor
heating method. Since radiant heating warms occupants joist
Uponor, Inc.
and objects directly, less energy is required than would be
Figure 39-35. Special grooved panels are affixed to the
required to heat a similar space with convection heating.
subfloor. The radiant tubing is fitted into the grooved panels,
and the flooring is installed on top of the panels.

Flooring Underlayment
Carpet Wood Tile
flooring flooring flooring

Concrete slab

Figure 39-33. Sleepers are installed on a wood subfloor, and

then radiant tubing is run between the sleepers and covered Uponor, Inc.
with underlayment. The flooring is installed over the sleepers Figure 39-36. Radiant tubing is tied to reinforcing wire mesh
and underlayment. before a concrete slab is poured, encasing the tubing.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1054 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Underlayment Flooring

convector
units

Slab or
subfloor
Heating Operation

alphaspirit/Shutterstack.cam
Figure 39-37. A guide panel is placed on top of a concrete
slab or subfloor. The radiant tubing is fitted between knobs on
a guide panel and then covered with a thin layer of concrete.

Boiler ~
Shutoff
39.2.6 Combined Heating and Cooling
Systems
Many hydronic systems in commercial build-
ings have both boilers and chillers. Depending on the
system design and the heating and cooling demands,
these systems can provide either hot water or cool Circulating
water to the terminal units. The heating and cooling pump
systems may be integrated, or they may be essentially Cooling Operation
separate systems. Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
A two-pipe system uses the same supply pipe to Figure 39-38. A two-pipe heating and cooling system must
provide hot water from the boiler and cool water from be changed over between heating and cooling operations.
the chiller to the terminal units. Because of the shared Isolating either the boiler or chiller may be done manually or
piping, the heating and cooling systems cannot func- automatically.
tion simultaneously. Shutoff valves are used to isolate
the chiller before the boiler is put into operation or to
isolate the boiler before the chiller is put into operation. In some four-pipe systems, a single terminal
See Figure 39-38. unit is used rather than two separate units. The ter-
Terminal units used in a two-pipe system with a minal units in these systems contain both heating
boiler and a chiller must be designed for both heating and cooling coils. In other four-pipe systems, separate
and cooling applications. These units are typically fan terminal units are used for heating and cooling. See
convectors with provisions for trapping and draining Figure 39-40.
condensate.
A three-pipe system has separate supply pipes
for carrying hot and cold water to the terminal units.
39.2.7 Steam Heating Systems
The third pipe is a return pipe for either. Three-pipe A steam heating system is a type of hydronic
hydronic systems are no longer widely used. system in which water is heated into steam and piped
A four-pipe system has separate supply pipes for to radiators in conditioned spaces. The steam releases
hot and cold water and also separate return pipes for heat as it condenses back into a liquid inside the radia-
hot and cold water. This arrangement allows the heat- tor and returns to the boiler for reheating.
ing and cooling systems to operate simultaneously, A boiler heats the steam to 212°F (100°C) or higher,
which is useful in fall and spring when certain spaces except in vacuum systems, which are rare. As steam
may need to be warmed and others may need to be releases its heat to the conditioned space, the steam con-
cooled, Figure 39-39. denses. The condensed water, being heavier, returns

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1055

m~ Fan
m~ Fan
convector
units units

/ m
.. ..
Chiller
' Chiller

.. ..Boiler
l.!::::::======l D
~s~
l=====.J
-Boiler
Heating Operation Cooling Operation
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 39-39. In a four-pipe heating and cooling system, no changeover is needed because the hot water and cold water are
supplied and returned in separate pipes. This design allows the heating and cooling portions of the system to run simultaneously.

Balancing
valves

I
Dantoss
Figure 39-40. A four-pipe system with chilled ceiling panels that provide cooling and wall panel radiators that provide heat.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1056 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

to the boiler. The steam releases around 1000 Btu for Radiator
each pound that condenses. Two basic steam heating t
systems in use are the one-pipe system and the two-
pipe system.
The one-pipe steam system uses a single pipe to
Thermostatic
carry steam to the radiators and return the condensed radiator valve
water to the boiler. In a one-pipe steam system, air
vents are placed at the high points in the system and
other places where air pockets are likely to form. The
air vents allow air to escape the system so steam can
travel to the upper parts of the piping. When steam
reaches the vents, they heat up and close, preventing
the steam from escaping. As the steam in the radiator
gives off its heat, it condenses back to liquid water. The
water flows back through the piping to the boiler due
to gravity. See Figure 39-41.
A two-pipe steam system uses one pipe to carry
steam to the radiator and another pipe to return the D Steam
trap
condensed water to the boiler. A two-pipe steam sys-
tem has steam traps in the return pipe that block the
flow of steam but allow condensed water to pass. See
s ss ..
Figure 39-42. For some systems in which the boiler
Boiler
is located above some of the piping, a pump must be
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
used to return the water to the boiler.
Figure 39-42. In a two-pipe steam heating system, steam is
supplied in one pipe, and the condensed water returns to the
boiler through a different pipe. The steam supply pipe slopes
toward the return pipe, and steam traps prevent steam from
Radiator Air vent
passing, but allow water to drain back.

For domestic applications, steam heating systems

operate at low pressures or at a partial vacuum. The
units are tested at 50 psig (345 kPa) for safety pur-
poses. Commercial and industrial systems operate at
progressively higher pressures that approach 1000 psig
(7000 kPa). Steam boilers are typically equipped with
pressure-relief valves, a water level sight glass, a pres-
sure gauge, and a temperature gauge, Figure 39-43.

39.2.8 Oil-Fired Boilers

An oil-fired boiler has a combustion chamber that
D is lined with material that is unaffected by high tem-
peratures, called refractory material. Fuel oil is stored

s ss ....
in a tank, which may be located outdoors, under-
ground, or in the basement of a building. Fuel oil is
burned in a gun-type burner, Figure 39-44.
Boiler When the boiler receives the signal to fire, fuel oil
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
is pumped into the burner nozzle under a pressure of
about 100 psig (700 kPa). This atomizes the fuel and
Figure 39-41. In a one-pipe steam heating system, the
condensed water drains back to the boiler through the same causes it to spray out of the nozzle. At the same time,
pipe that supplies the steam. Note that the piping slopes power is supplied to a high-voltage transformer con-
toward the boiler. nected to two electrodes in the burner nozzle. Sparks

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 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1057

Pressure control jump across the spark gap just at the edge of the burner
nozzle outlet. The sparks ignite the atomized fuel
spray, creating a flame in the combustion chamber,
Figure 39-45.
Heat from the combustion chamber is conducted
through the boiler wall into the water. The combustion
Water level
sight glass
gases from the burning fuel flow through the stack into
the flue. A stack thermostat senses the temperature of
the gases leaving the furnace. If the atomized fuel is
not ignited after a few seconds of fuel pump operation,
the pump will stop, and a manual reset will have to be
operated before it will cycle again. An automatic draft
regulator helps maintain a constant pressure in the
combustion chamber.
A room thermostat controls the circulating pump.
The pump circulates the warm water through the ter-
minal units and returns it to the boiler. The boiler's
water temperature is controlled by a device on top of
the boiler called a tridicator, which can sense both tem-
PB Heat, LLC perature and pressure. A tridicator indicates both pres-
Figure 39-43. A typical steam boiler is equipped with a sure and temperature of the water or steam in a boiler.
variety of safety, limit, and operational controls. When the water temperature in a boiler drops below

Igniter

Primary
control
I
Motor
Oil pump
Air band
PB Heat, LLC
Figure 39-44. This oil-fired boiler has a gun-type oil burner. Visible parts are identified.

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1058 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

To terminal
Room Expansion
thermostat Flue tank Thermometer

Pressure-
relief valve

...
Water-
-+- pressure
valve

Water
overflow

Circulating
pump

From oil - - - - - •
tank
Burner Refractory
nozzle lining
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 39-45. Diagram of an oil-fired boiler in operation.

the required level, the tridicator signals the burner to 39.2.9 Gas-Fired Boilers
turn on. It also shuts the burner off when the water
temperature reaches the desired level. A gas-fired boiler burns fuel gas as a means of
All boilers have a high-limit control. This control producing heat for boiling water. Older models used a
is often attached to the boiler's combustion chamber. low, constant pressure gas and an atmospheric burner.
However, it may also be installed in the boiler's warm- Newer, high-efficiency models are condensing boilers
water outlet. The high-limit control automatically shuts that extract as much heat out of combustion gas as pos-
off the fuel if the water temperature or pressure gets sible. Gas-fired boilers can be identified by their con-
too high. A pressure-relief valve is also mounted on nection to a gas line and the presence of gas burning
the boiler, which opens automatically if the pressure components. A gas valve and manifold are good indi-
inside the boiler exceeds the safe limit. An expansion cators of a gas-fired boiler, Figure 39-46.
tank is used to hold expanding (warm) and contracting A pressure regulator ensures that the gas supplied
(cool) water. to the burner flows at a constant, preset pressure. When

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 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1059

gas is supplied to the burner, a pilot light or electronic 39.3 Hydronic System Controls
ignition system ignites the burner. The heat generated
in the combustion chamber is conducted through the Water level, temperature, and flow are three variables
boiler wall and into the water, and the combustion that are regulated by a hydronic system's controls. Floats
gases flow through the stack into the flue. An air break or sensors monitor the volume of water in a hydronic sys-
or draft diverter installed in the stack helps main- tem and feed more water to the system when the water
tain a constant pressure in the combustion chamber, level is too low. Thermostatic controls are used to main-
Figure 39-47. tain the proper water temperature in the system and to
Water temperature in the boiler is controlled by a adjust water temperature or flow to keep the conditioned
tridicator located at the top of the boiler. The tridicator space at the desired temperature. Flow switches monitor
turns the burner on when the water temperature drops flow through the system. Control valves shut down or
below the required level and also turns the burner off bypass parts of the system to stop water flow.
when the temperature rises to the proper level. A high-
limit control is attached to the warm-water outlet of 39.3.1 Low-Water Cutoff
the boiler. The high-limit control automatically shuts
off the gas if the water temperature or pressure gets A low-water cutoff (LWCO) is a control that
too high. The system also has a pressure-relief valve. ensures that a hydronic system operates only when
This valve prevents the buildup of dangerously high it contains the proper amount of water. A low-water
pressure in the boiler. An expansion tank is used to cutoff may operate a makeup water valve to add more
hold expanding (warm) and contracting (cool) water. water to the system if the water level gets low. Low-
water cutoffs also shut down the system if the water
level drops too low.
A low-water cutoff is generally a switch that is
Water return Exhaust flue turned on and off by a float device or is triggered by
(inlet) (vent) sensor probes. A float-type LWCO operates in two
stages. As the water level drops, the float also drops.
When the water level drops below a specific level,
Circulating the float switch turns on the makeup water pump or
pump opens the makeup water valve to add more water to
the system. When the float rises back up to the correct
level, the switch turns off, and no more water is added.
However, if the float drops to an even lower point, the
float switch cuts off the fuel supply to the boiler and
deactivates the pumps, Figure 39-48.

I
Some low-water cutoffs use probes instead of a
float. This type of LWCO has two electrodes that are
immersed in the water. A small current flowing in the
water between the two electrodes energizes a holding
relay, allowing the boiler to run. If the water level falls
below the upper electrode, the current flow between
the electrodes stops, which causes the relay to open
and the system to shut down. Some probe-type LWCOs
have a third electrode so that the control can be used to
add makeup water to the system or to shut down the
Makeup water Gas valve Thermostatic system, depending on the water level.
line connection control
Raypak, Inc. Caution
Figure 39-46. Two conventional gas-fired boilers that can
operate with return water temperatures as low as 105°F before
Low-Water Cutoffs
combustion gases start condensing. Excessive air or contaminants in boiler water can
result in foaming, which can cause a low-water cutoff to
malfunction. For this reason, a technician should ensure
that a hydronic system is cleaned properly before put-
ting it into service and that as much air is removed from
the water as possible.

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1060 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

To terminal
Expansion
tank
Thermometer

High-limit
control

Power in

Air break

t
Water
overflow

Gas
supply
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 39-47. A gas-fired boiler uses an atmospheric gas burner as the source of heat.

39.3.2 Flow Switch on and off as needed to maintain the preset tempera-
ture. Many aquastats have a built-in safety function
In order for a hydronic system to function effi- that shuts off the burner or heating element if the water
ciently, proper water flow must be maintained. Flow temperature in the boiler exceeds the safe operating
switches are used to shut down a hydronic system or limit. The aquastat may need to be reset manually
bypass parts of it when there is inadequate flow. A hot- before the boiler can be operated again.
water system equipped with a flow switch is shown in An aquastat also sets a boiler's low operating tem-
Figure 39-49. If the water flow ceases, the flow switch perature and differential. These settings determine
opens the electrical circuit and shuts off the burner. a boiler's operating temperature range. The aquastat
Some boilers have a recirculation circuit that helps to turns on the burner or heating element if the boiler's
maintain a more constant water temperature in the water temperature drops below the operating tempera-
boiler. If water flow stops in this circuit, the flow switch ture range and turns it off again when the temperature
will also shut down the system. exceeds the operating temperature range, Figure 39-50.

39.3.3 Aquastat 39.3.4 Zone Controls

An aquastat measures the temperature of the While an aquastat maintains the proper water tem-
boiler water and turns the burner or heating element perature in a boiler, a variety of thermostatic controls

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 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1061

Flow
Mixing
sw"tch From terminal
valve
units +-

To terminal

Low-water
cutoff

t
Circulating
pump

Float

,.__ _ +- Makeup water

t ITT McDonnell & Miller

Solenoid
Figure 39-49. A flow switch located in the return line is wired
to the mixing valve and the burner to shut down the system
if flow stops. The dashed lines indicate where a flow switch
120 V would be located in a boiler with a recirculation circuit.
Float Type

Electrodes

Heat-sensing
element -----.._

Relay

I
coil

Relay
contacts
Electrical wires-----+-,
Xylem Inc
120 V
Figure 39-50. An aquastat's heat sensing element opens
and closes an electrical contact used to control boiler system
operation.
Transformer
Probe Type can be used to maintain the desired temperature in a
Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher certain area of a conditioned space. One type of ther-
Figure 39-48. Two types of low-water cutoffs. A float-type mostatic control, called a room thermostat, adjusts room
LWCO operates a solenoid that opens the makeup water valve temperature by regulating the flow of heated water
when the water level drops. With a probe-type LWCO, the
through a single zone of a system's tubing. In a series
solenoid opens the makeup water valve when current stops
traveling across the electrode probes.
loop system, the room thermostat turns the circulating
pump on and off as needed to maintain the desired tem-
perature in a single-zone conditioned space.

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1062 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

In one-pipe and two-pipe systems, reduced flow controls the operation of the circulating pumps and
through one terminal unit does not result in reduced zone valves to regulate water flow through the indi-
flow through the other terminal units, as would be vidual zones. The system can also be set up so that the
the case in a series loop. This means that while a main circulating pump operates continuously and the zone
room thermostat can be used to set an overall heat valves open and close as needed.
level for the building, individual thermostatic radia-
tor valves should be installed to control flow through
39.3.5 Outdoor Reset Control
each individual terminal unit for zone control.
This allows greater control of heat in specific areas, The temperature of the boiler water is normally
Figure 39-51. set by an aquastat and remains constant unless the
For zoned systems, separate room thermostats can boiler temperature set point is changed. The tem-
be installed in each zone. Each thermostat provides perature of the water in the boiler is typically set to
an input to a temperature controller, which in turn provide efficient heating on the coldest days of the
season. However, on relatively warm days, far less
heat is lost from the conditioned spaces. As a result,
the system cycles on and off relatively quickly. Fuel is
wasted maintaining a higher boiler temperature than
Valve body
is needed for efficient heating, and wear and tear on
the system increases because of short cycling.
An outdoor reset control is an auxiliary con-
trol that modifies the operating temperature range of
a hydronic system based on the difference between
outdoor and indoor temperatures. As the difference
between indoor and outdoor temperatures decreases,
Control head the outdoor reset control lowers the operating temper-
with dial ature of the system. This provides more gradual heat-
ing on relatively warm days and prevents short cycling
of the system.
A
Pro Tip
Outdoor Reset Controls
Control head
The maximum temperature setting on an outdoor
! reset control must be set lower than the temperature
setting on the boiler's high-limit control. This prevents
the high-limit control from interfering with the normal

(( operation of the outdoor reset control.

39.3.6 Indoor Reset Control

Remote sensor An indoor reset control adjusts boiler tempera-
ture to match the heating load. It does this by moni-
i toring the cycle time required to satisfy a call for heat.
If the system runs an excessively long time to sat-
isfy a call for heat, the indoor reset control increases
the boiler water temperature. If the system is short
cycling, the indoor reset control lowers the boiler
water temperature.

B Caution
Christina Henningstad/Shutterstack.cam; © 2012 Galetti North
America, Inc.
Indoor and Outdoor Reset Controls
Figure 39-51. Thermostatic radiator valves. A-Thermostatic Never wire an indoor or outdoor reset control
radiator valve installed on a radiator. B-Thermostatic radiator in such a way that it bypasses the boiler's high-limit
valve with a remote sensor for wall mounting. control.

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 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1063

39.3.7 Hydronic System Operating

Sequences
Hydronic system operation can be controlled in The acceptable materials, joining methods, and
four basic ways: designs for hydronic tubing and piping are specified
by local building codes. Codes address such topics as
• Burner and circulating pump turn on at the same
the types of tubing and pipe that can be installed, valve
time. requirements, drainage, pipe support, and installation of
• Burner remains on continuously, and the pump embedded piping.
cycles on to move the water when heat is called
for. In closed-loop hydronic systems, the hot water
• Circulating pump operates continuously, and the coming from the boiler is above atmospheric pres-
zone valves open and close to allow water access sure, which means smaller pipes can be used. The
to zones based on calls for heat. heat load can be based on a 20°F (11 °C) temperature
• Zone valves and circulating pump are cycled on at differential between the supply water and return
the same time. water. Typically, water returning to a boiler should be
20°F (11 °C) lower in temperature than water leaving
the boiler. After installation, hydronic systems must
39.4 Hydronic System Installation be flushed to remove all dirt. The system must also
be tested for leaks as specified by code before it may
All local code requirements must be checked and be operated.
followed when installing a hydronic system. The boiler
for a hydronic system must be mounted level. The top Code Alert
of all sections of tubing must be aligned to prevent
air from being trapped at the junctions between tub- Hydronic System Testing
ing of different sizes. Eccentric reducer fittings should The International Mechanical Code (IMC) speci-
be used to join tubing of different sizes. In hot-water fies that hydronic piping (excluding that which is used
hydronic systems, eccentric reducer fittings reduce by ground-source heat pumps) must be tested hydro-
statically at one-and-one-half times the maximum sys-
the danger of air pockets forming where differently
tem design pressure. This test pressure must not be
sized tubes are joined. An eccentric reducer fitting is a
less than 100 psi (689 kPa). This test pressure must be
reducer fitting in which the centerlines of the tubes are maintained for at least 15 minutes.
offset, Figure 39-52.
When installing hydronic systems, be sure to
allow for tubing or pipe expansion. A 100' length of

I
steel pipe lengthens by 3/4" with every 100°F increase Safety Note
in temperature. A 100' length of copper tubing length- Pressure-Relief Valve
ens by 11/16" with every 100°F increase in temperature. A boiler's pressure-relief valve should have a drain-
Where riser (vertical) pipes connect to a horizontal run, pipe attached to it to prevent the boiler from releasing
install a flexible joint. Also, install an expansion joint at an uncontrolled spray of hot water in the event that the
the boiler. valve opens. Cut the outlet end of the drainpipe at an
angle to prevent someone from plugging it or capping it.

39.4.1 Preparing a System for Initial

Start-Up
After a hydronic system is installed, it should be
checked before it is put into service. The procedure
used to check a new boiler is commonly referred to as
boiling out. The water to be used in the system should
Side View Front View
be analyzed for hardness, contaminants, and proper
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher pH level. If the water is excessively hard, contains
Figure 39-52. By keeping the top of two differently sized contaminants, or has an improper pH level, it must be
tubes aligned, an eccentric reducer fitting eliminates any properly conditioned for use. Filtering and condition-
pockets where air might get trapped. ing the water can reduce particulates and minerals,

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1064 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

and solutions can be added to the water to adjust the

pH level and reduce corrosion.
Fluxes, pipe joint compounds, and cutting oils left
over from the installation process can sometimes form
gases in a system. Dirt, sand, steel thread chips, solder
bits, or sawing and filing chips can erode the system.
These contaminants can also clog screens and ruin
valves and pump seals.
To prepare a system for its initial start-up, begin
by filling the system with water. Add about one pound
of trisodium phosphate for every 50 gallons of water.
Circulate the solution for about four hours and then
drain it out. Clean the screens and refill the system
with water. It is then ready to operate. A card should
be attached to the boiler so a history of all mainte-
nance and service performed on the system can be
© 2012 Galetti North America, Inc.
recorded. A list of future treatment procedures should
Figure 39-53. Balancing valves with built-in flowmeters.
be included on the card.
Unless the pump seals leak, avoid treating the
water with chemicals. The chemicals may damage for controlling the humidity and filtering air must be
seals and valves. Do not use over 300 ppm of chro- used.
mates or over 500 ppm of nitrites. Organic growth All steam heating systems must be installed
can be controlled using sodium pentachlorophenate; according to applicable codes. As with hot-water boil-
however, it is best to consult a water treatment expert ers, a steam boiler must be mounted level. Radiators
before attempting boiler water treatment. must be pitched to ensure that the condensed water
drains from the radiator, and the return piping must
39.4.2 Balancing a Hydronic System slope down to the boiler. The piping must be designed
to provide for expansion, and air vents must be located
During the initial start-up of a system, pressure at the high points of the system. Each radiator should
gauges or flow meters are used to determine the rate have an air vent and a steam trap.
of water flow, in gallons per minute (gpm), through Steam traps operate thermostatically based on
each balancing valve. Some balancing valves have the temperature difference of fluids passing through
access ports on either side that allow a technician to them. They open for cool fluid (condensed water) and
check the valve's pressure drop with a pressure gauge. close for hot fluid (steam). Thus, a steam trap keeps the
Other balancing valves might have a built-in flowme- steam in the radiator but allows condensed water to
ter, Figure 39-53. return to the boiler. There are three types of thermo-
A manufacturer of a balancing valve typically static steam traps:
provides a chart that equates the valve's pressure
• Expansion steam traps have an internal material
drop to water flow in gallons per minute. A techni-
that expands and contracts with temperature
cian should then compare the valve's measured rate
change, triggering the steam trap's valve.
of water flow to system specifications and adjust the
balancing valve as needed to achieve the correct flow • Balanced pressure steam traps are filled with
rate. Balancing valves with a memory stop feature a mixture of water and mineral spirits. This
make it easy to reestablish the system balance after a mixture vaporizes and condenses just below the
seasonal shutdown. temperature of steam to trigger the valve.
• Bimetal steam traps contain two dissimilar metal
strips that are bonded together. Temperature
39.4.3 Steam Heating System changes cause movement in one direction or the
Installation other to trigger the valve.
Steam heating systems vary with each installation. To help maintain a constant temperature within
When radiators are used as the terminal units, the sys- a room and increase the comfort and efficiency of
tem does not add humidity to the air in the room or fil- the system, a thermostatic radiator valve should be
ter air in any way. Air circulation results entirely from installed at each radiator. In a two-pipe system, a ther-
natural convection, which means separate systems mostatic radiator valve should be installed on the supply

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 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1065

side of the radiator, allowing the valve to regulate the is unobstructed and in good condition, check the limit
amount of steam that enters the radiator. Refer back to and operating controls.
Figure 39-42. Observe the boiler's start-up sequence. How far
For a one-pipe system, the air vent should be into the sequence the boiler gets will be a guide in
installed on the thermostatic radiator valve. By regu- isolating the source of the problem. Use a multimeter
lating the amount of air leaving the radiator, the valve to determine if the rollout and blocked-vent switches
allows only a certain amount of steam to enter, provid- are operational. A rollout switch is a safety control
ing the appropriate amount of heat to the room. Refer that shuts down the boiler if the burner flames "roll
back to Figure 39-41. out" or travel beyond the combustion chamber. This
can happen if the exhaust passages are blocked with
soot or if the burner is receiving its combustion air
39.5 Troubleshooting and Servicing from a source other than the combustion blower.
Hydronic Systems A blocked-vent switch is a safety control that shuts
down the boiler if a backdraft condition is detected.
When properly designed and maintained, hydronic If these switches are tripped, look for flue block-
systems can provide many years of reliable heat. ages and sources of combustion air. Thermostats
However, hydronic systems are more maintenance are another common source of heating problems.
intensive and more sensitive to neglect than forced-air Thermostats may malfunction due to vibration, oxi-
heating systems. Over time, contaminants and air can dized contacts, broken wires, or improper tempera-
get into the system and cause corrosion and problems ture settings.
with valves and other components. Hydronic systems
also have many electrical and electronic components, Safety Note
such as circulating pumps and zone valves, that can
fail and cause the system to malfunction. Rollout and Blocked-Vent Switches
The first step in troubleshooting a hydronic sys- If a rollout or blocked-vent switch interrupts boiler
tem is to get the facts. Ascertain the history of a sys- operation, it is extremely important that the cause of the
tem by asking the owner if this is a new problem, a interruption be found and corrected before the boiler is
put back into operation. The conditions that trip a roll-
recurring problem, or an old problem and by asking if
out or blocked-vent switch can result in fatal levels of
the system has been serviced recently. Most hydronic carbon monoxide entering the building. Never bypass
system problems fall into one of three areas: electrical, a rollout or blocked-vent switch to put a boiler back into
venting, or water circulation. The following sections service.
describe some of the maintenance, troubleshooting,
and repair procedures needed to keep a hydronic sys-
tem operating properly.
39.5.2 Water Circulation Problems
39.5.1 Boiler Problems
Electrical problems in a boiler may be the most
troublesome because the boiler is part of a larger sys-
tem and is wired in the field by a technician during
installation. Begin by checking for power at the boiler.
Water circulation problems affect the transfer of
heat. To check the circulation of water through a sys-
tem, supply power to one of the circulating pumps
to establish flow through the boiler. Use a contact
thermometer to compare supply and return water
temperatures. With the boiler firing and at operat-
I
A multimeter can be used to determine if the service ing temperature, there should be at least a 20°F (11°C)
switch has power and if the wiring is correct. The black temperature difference between the supply and return
lead should be the ungrounded (hot) wire, and the water temperatures at the boiler.
white lead should be the grounded (neutral) wire. Most water circulation problems result from air
If the boiler will not fire, check the vent pipes and trapped in the system. Air in a hydronic system can
dampers. In order to function properly, a gas-fired or compress and expand, causing problems with pres-
oil-fired boiler must also be able to take in fresh com- sure controls and pumps. Excessive air or pressure
bustion air and vent exhaust gases. Any blockage in problems can form bubbles that disrupt water flow
the intake and exhaust passages can cause incomplete through the pump. The implosion of bubbles causes
combustion or boiler failure. Venting problems are damage to circulator pumps and is referred to as
often caused by vent restriction or deteriorating vent cavitation. If enough air gathers at one location in a
piping. Visually check the rotation of the damper shaft. hydronic system, it can completely block the flow of
If the damper appears operational and the vent piping water. A section or component with this condition is

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1066 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

said to be air-bound. Air in a hydronic system will emerges from the valve. If possible, connect a hose to
also cause noise. the valve outlet and place the other end in a bucket
Hydronic systems are equipped with a variety filled with several inches of water before opening the
of air-removal components, such as air scoops, air valve. This not only prevents water spillage from the
separators, and air vents. When these components are valve, but also provides a good way of visually deter-
operating properly, they automatically vent air from mining when all the air has been removed. Once the
the system. Manual bleed valves may be installed on valve is opened, any air that escapes from the system
some systems. These valves trap air like an air separa- will form bubbles as it leaves the end of the hose. When
tor or air scoop, but they must be manually opened to no more bubbles emerge from the hose, all of the air
allow the air to vent out. has been removed, and the manual bleed valve can be
Drain hoses are sometimes attached to the out- closed. The process is then repeated at each manual
lets of air vents to drain away any water that leaks bleed valve in the system.
from the vent. If the air vents or drainage hoses
become clogged, the vents can malfunction. In addi-
tion, many air vents are equipped with valve caps
39.5.4 Purging a Hydronic System
that keep dust and debris from entering the valve. If a hydronic system has been recently installed,
These caps should be loose enough for air to escape has been drained for service, or contains a large
through the cap. If the cap is tightened completely, amount of trapped air, it should be purged. Purging
it will block the escape of air, causing the air vent is similar to bleeding, except that it removes air
to fail. from the entire system rather than a localized area
served by a manual bleed valve or air vent. During
Pro Tip purging, water from the makeup water line gradu-
Air Vent Failure ally fills the system and, because the water enters
the system at a relatively high pressure, pushes
Air vents in living spaces frequently get painted
during remodeling projects. The paint can clog the air
any trapped air out through a drain valve or purge
vents and cause them to malfunction. valve, Figure 39-54.

Common symptoms of excessive air in a hydronic

system include the following: 3/4" hose connection
• Pump motor failure and water leaks around the
pump packing.
• Noise in wet-rotor centrifugal pumps resulting
from a lack of lubrication.
• Cavitation causing noise in pipes.
• Turbulence causing noise in pipes.
• Poor heat transfer at the terminal units.
• Accelerated corrosion.

39.5.3 Bleeding a Hydronic System

If a hydronic system shows signs of having exces-
sive trapped air, purge the system or bleed off the air
and look for the source of the air buildup. In a system
equipped with air vents, a buildup of air indicates that
one or more of the air vents is malfunctioning or that
the system is improperly designed. The faulty vents Valve handle
must be located and cleaned or replaced. If all the air
vents are working properly but there is still excessive © 2012 Galetti North America, Inc.
air, additional air vents may need to be added where Figure 39-54. A drain valve designed to be connected to a
the air is collecting. balancing valve to drain a hydronic system.
Systems equipped with manual bleed valves can
be bled by opening each bleed valve until only water

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 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1067

Safety Note Circulating

Air separator pump
Purging a Hydronic System
Use caution when bleeding or purging a hydronic
system since the water may be hot. When purging a
system, take precautions to prevent an electrocution
hazard by making sure the boiler's electrical compo-
nents do not come into contact with water.

Pro Tip
Purge Valves
Purge valves combine the function of a shutoff
Boiler Shutoff valve
valve and drain valve in a single valve body. Rather than (closed)
using a single purge valve, some systems have sepa-
hose
rate shutoff valves and drain valves. The shutoff valve
downstream from the drain valve must be closed while Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
these systems are being purged.
Figure 39-55. Setup for purging a series loop system.

Systems that use only water can be purged using

the makeup water supply and purge valves. For series the hose. As air is forced out of the system,
loop systems, this is a simple, single-stage operation. For the discharge from the hose will hiss and
systems with a primary loop and secondary loops, the spit.
individual loops should be purged separately. If the sys- 5. When a solid stream of water free of bubbles
tem uses a glycol solution, an auxiliary pump is used to comes out of the hose, shut off the bypass at
purge the system and recycle the glycol solution. the pressure-reducing valve and disable the
valve's fast-fill handle.
Purging a Series Loop System
6. Close the boiler drain valve and open the
If a series loop system uses only water (not shutoff valve.
glycol or other substances), it can be purged using
the following procedure. Refer to Figure 39-55 as 7. Check the cold boiler pressure. If the pressure
you follow this procedure. is incorrect, check the setting on the pressure-
reducing valve and adjust it as necessary. If
1. Turn off the boiler and allow it to cool down. the pressure is still high, open the drain

I
If the system is purged while it is still hot, the valve after adjusting the pressure-reducing
sudden rush of cold makeup water can cause valve setting. When the pressure drops to the
the boiler to crack. proper level, the makeup water line should
2. Attach a hose to the drain valve. Run the maintain the proper pressure.
other end of the hose to a drain. Rather than 8. Turn on the boiler. As the boiler heats up,
purging directly to a drain, you can also put check the drain valve and piping around the
the end of the hose in a bucket. The advantage boiler for leaks.
of this method is that bubbles can be clearly
9. When the system has warmed up to operat-
seen coming out of the end of the hose.
ing temperature, check the boiler pressure.
3. Open the bypass at the pressure-reducing Also, make sure the terminal units are heat-
valve in the makeup water line. Also, engage ing up properly.
the fast-fill handle on the pressure-reducing
valve. This allows makeup water to enter the
system at full pressure. Purging a One-Pipe System with
4. Make sure the drain hose is securely posi- Primary and Secondary Loops
tioned at the drain so water will not spill. A one-pipe system with primary and
Then, close the shutoff valve downstream secondary loops is purged in a manner similar
from the drain valve and open the drain to a series loop system. However, extra steps are
valve so all of the water is diverted through required to ensure that all the loops are properly

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1068 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

purged. Refer to Figure 39-56 as you follow this 4. When the primary loop has been properly
procedure. purged, close the drain valve on the primary
1. Turn off the boiler and allow it to cool down.
loop and move the hose to the drain valve on the
first secondary loop. Open the drain valve on the
2. Isolate the secondary loops so that only the secondary loop and allow water to run through
primary loop will be purged. the loop until the water is free of bubbles.
3. Purge the primary loop as described in the 5. When no more bubbles appear, close the drain
previous procedure. valve and move the hose to the drain valve

Secondary loops

Circulating
Air separator pump

i i

Drain
Boiler
valve valve Drain
(closed) (open) hose

Purging Primary Loop

Secondary loop

- - Makeup water
line connection

Pressure-
reducing valve

Primary loop
Boiler

Purging Secondary Loop

Gaadheart-Willcax Publisher
Figure 39-56. Setup for purging a one-pipe system with primary and secondary loops.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1069

on the next secondary loop. Purge the second check the boiler pressure and make sure the
secondary loop as described in the previous terminal units are heating up properly.
step. Repeat this step for each secondary loop
in the system.
6. When the primary loop and all secondary
loops have been purged, shut off the bypass at Purging a Two-Pipe Zoned System with
the pressure-reducing valve and disable the Zone Circulating Pumps
valve's fast-fill handle. Remove the hose and Two-pipe zoned systems typically control
open all shutoff valves. flow through the zones using zone valves or
7. Double check the system to ensure that all separate circulating pumps for each zone. The
shutoff valves have been reopened. Check the following procedure describes how to purge a
cold boiler pressure and adjust the pressure- zoned system equipped with zone circulating
reducing valve as needed. pumps. Refer to Figure 39-57 as you follow this
8. Start the boiler and check for leaks. When the procedure.
boiler reaches proper operating temperature, 1. Turn off the boiler and allow it to cool down.

Zone circulating
pumps

Air separator
t

____ Makeup water

line connection

I
Expansion Pressure-
tank reducing
valve

t
Boiler Shutoff valve
(closed)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 39-57. Setup for purging a two-pipe zoned system with zone circulating pumps.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1070 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

2. Close the shutoff valves in the return lines of 3. Close the differential pressure bypass valve
every zone. in between the main water supply and water
3. Close the shutoff valve in the boiler return return lines.
line. 4. Close the shutoff valve in the boiler return
4. Attach a hose to the drain valve in the return line.
line of the first zone. Run the other end of the 5. Open the bypass at the pressure-reducing
hose to a drain or bucket. valve in the makeup water line. Also, engage
5. Open the bypass at the pressure-reducing the fast-fill handle on the pressure-reducing
valve in the makeup water line. Also, engage valve.
the fast-fill handle on the pressure-reducing 6. Manually open the zone valve for the first
valve. zone.
6. Open the drain valve in the return line of the 7. Connect a hose to the drain valve in the first
first zone until no bubbles are visible in the zone. Open the drain valve and keep it open
water. Then, close the drain valve and move until there are no more bubbles in the stream
the hose and bucket to the next zone. of water coming from the hose directed into
7. Repeat the previous step for every zone in the the bucket. Then, close the drain valve.
system. 8. Manually close the zone valve for the first
8. When the last zone has been purged, open all zone.
of the shutoff valves for the zones. 9. Repeat Steps 6 through 8 for each zone in the
9. Move the hose to the drain valve in the boiler system.
return line. 10. When every zone has been purged, move the
10. Open the drain valve in the boiler return line hose to the drain valve in the boiler return
and keep it open until there are no bubbles in line.
the water. 11. Open the shutoff valves and zone valves for
11. After closing the drain valve, remove the hose each of the zones. Also, open the differential
and open the shutoff valve in the boiler return pressure bypass valve.
line. 12. Open the drain valve in the boiler return line
12. Shut off the bypass at the pressure-reducing and keep it open until there are no more bub-
valve and disable the valve's fast-fill handle. bles in the water coming from the hose. Then,
close the drain valve.
13. Double check the system to ensure that all
shutoff valves have been reopened. Check the 13. Remove the drain hose and open the shutoff
cold boiler pressure and adjust the pressure- valve in the boiler return line.
reducing valve as needed. 14. Shut off the bypass at the pressure-reducing
14. Start the boiler and check for leaks. When the valve and disable the valve's fast-fill handle.
boiler reaches proper operating temperature, 15. Double check the system to ensure that all
check the boiler pressure and make sure the shutoff valves have been reopened. Check the
terminal units are heating up properly. cold boiler pressure and adjust the pressure-
reducing valve as needed.
16. Start the boiler and check for leaks. When the
Purging a Two-Pipe Zoned System with boiler reaches proper operating temperature,
check the boiler pressure and make sure the
Zone Valves
terminal units are heating up properly.
The following procedure describes the steps
used to purge a two-pipe zoned system equipped
with zone valves rather than zone circulating
pumps. Refer to Figure 39-58 as you follow this Purging a Hydronic System Filled with
procedure. Glycol Solution
1. Turn off the boiler and allow it to cool down. If a hydronic system is filled with a glycol
2. Close the shutoff valves in the return lines of solution, the system should be purged using
every zone. a technique that reclaims the solution. This

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 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1071

is accomplished by using a transfer pump to 4. Attach a hose to the outlet of the transfer
recirculate the solution that is drained from the pump and attach the other end to the drain
system. A variation of this technique can be valve in the water supply line.
used to add glycol solution to a system. Refer to 5. Open the drain valve in the boiler return line.
Figure 39-59 as you follow this procedure.
6. When water has covered the ends of both
1. Turn the boiler off and let it cool down. hoses in the bucket, open the drain valve in
2. Attach a hose to the drain valve in the boiler the water supply line and turn on the transfer
return line and place the other end of the hose pump.
in a bucket. Close the shutoff valve in the 7. Allow the water to circulate and the pump to
boiler return line. run until there are no more bubbles appear-
3. Attach a hose to the inlet of a transfer pump ing in the bucket. Be sure to keep the ends
and place the other end of the hose in the of both hoses at the bottom of the bucket and
bucket. completely submerged during this process.

Zone
Zone valve valves
(open) (closed)

Pressure-
reducing valve

t
Expansion
tank
I
drain Drain
t valve hose
Boiler Shutoff valve
(open)
(closed)
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 39-58. Setup for purging a two-pipe zoned system with zone valves.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1072 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Air separator Circulating pump

Drain valve Pressure-

(open) reducing
valve

Expansion
tank

Boiler
Drain valve
(open)

Drain hose

Transfer pump

Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 39-59. If a hydronic system is filled with a glycol solution, the fluid drained from the system is captured in a bucket during
the purging process. A transfer pump then circulates the drained fluid back into the system.

8. When no more bubbles appear in the bucket, consistent pressure in the system. If the tank becomes
turn off the transfer pump and close both waterlogged, it fails to function properly. This can lead
drain valves. to a variety of symptoms, including increased system
pressure and the potential release of water through the
9. Disconnect the hoses and the transfer pump. pressure-relief valve.
10. Double check the system to ensure that all If the expansion tank is waterlogged, the water
shutoff valves have been reopened. Check the in the system has nowhere to go as it heats up and
cold boiler pressure and adjust the pressure- expands. As a result, system pressure builds up until it
reducing valve as needed. exceeds the pressure limit of the pressure-relief valve.
11. Start the boiler and check for leaks. When the The valve opens and releases water to lower the system
boiler reaches proper operating temperature, pressure. When the boiler cycles off, the water in the
check the boiler pressure and make sure the system cools and contracts, lowering the system pres-
terminal units are heating up properly. sure further. The pressure-reducing valve then allows
more fresh water (containing more air) into the system.
If this continues, the inside of the system will become
39.5.5 Expansion Tank Problems corroded from the minerals and chemicals that are
commonly found in untreated tap water.
The expansion tank in a hydronic system provides One method of checking for a waterlogged expan-
space for water expansion and helps to maintain a sion tank is to compare the temperature at the bottom

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 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1073

of the tank with the temperature at the top of the tank. two or three strokes of the pump to avoid
If the tank is hot from top to bottom, it is waterlogged. overcharging the tank.
The portion of the tank containing air should remain
relatively cool, even if warm water enters the other 5. Replace the cap on the expansion tank air
half of the tank. Water leaking from the pressure-relief valve and reopen the makeup water line.
valve every time the boiler cycles on is another indi- 6. Turn on the boiler and allow it to run for one
cation that the expansion tank may be waterlogged or to two hours to check for proper operation of
undersized and should be recharged or replaced. the expansion tank.

Recharging a Horizontal Expansion

Tank 39.5.6 Other Hydronic System Problems
If an older-style, horizontal expansion tank If a hydronic system is providing uneven heating,
becomes waterlogged, the excess water can be begin by making sure there are no air blockages. Check
drained from the tank to restore proper function. for the proper operation of circulating pumps, zone
1. Turn off the boiler and allow the system to valves, and thermostatic controls. If the system compo-
cool down. nents are functioning properly, but the system is still
2. Close the shutoff valve to isolate the expan- providing uneven heating, it may be necessary to per-
sion tank or shut off the makeup water line. form a room-by-room heat loss calculation and adjust
3. Connect a hose to the combination valve at the balancing valves to bring the system into balance.
the bottom of the tank. Unusual noises in the system can be caused by a
number of things. Air in the system can cause noises
4. Open the combination valve and allow sev- in the piping. Broken or poorly lubricated pumps can
eral gallons of water to drain from the tank. also be the source of unusual noises in the system.
As the water drains, air is drawn in through The pipes themselves can cause noise as they expand
the combination valve to replace it. and contract, especially if they are tightly clamped to
5. Close the combination valve and remove the their hangers or are in contact with the edges of the
hose. openings they pass through. Expansion joints help
6. Open the shutoff valve to the expansion tank eliminate this problem. When looking for the source
or reopen the makeup water line. of unusual noises, work systematically to eliminate
7. Turn on the boiler and let it run for one to two potential causes until the source of the noise is found.
hours to check for proper operation of the
expansion tank. 39.5.7 Servicing a Steam Heating
System
A steam heating system should be checked once
Recharging a Diaphragm Expansion each month during the heating season. Start by check-
Tank ing the water level sight glass and the pressure gauge . •
Some diaphragm expansion tanks can be The water level sight glass must show the boiler water
recharged if they become waterlogged. The level at one-third to one-half full.
following procedure explains how to add an air If the water level is high, drain the system to the
charge to these tanks. If the tank will not hold an correct lower level. If the water level is low but still
air charge, the diaphragm is likely ruptured and shows in the sight glass, add water. Water should be
the tank needs to be replaced. added until the level is correct. After filling the boiler
1. Turn off the boiler and allow the system to to the correct level, close the fill valve completely. If
cool down. no water shows in the water level sight glass or if the
pressure gauge is above normal, shut the system off at
2. Shut off the makeup water line.
once. Allow the boiler to completely cool before add-
3. Remove the cap from the air valve on the ing water.
expansion tank and use a pressure gauge to Operating the system with a low water level can
measure the air pressure in the tank. result in short cycling. Brief cycling periods cause
4. Use a bicycle pump to increase air pressure rapid temperature changes in the boiler. After several
if necessary. Recheck the pressure after every thousand cycles, the boiler walls or tubes may crack.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

1074 Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

For this reason, it is important to ensure that the proper is identified, shut down the system and allow it to cool
level is maintained during operation. down. Reduce the system pressure to atmospheric pres-
When checking water level, note that the water sure through purging and replace the faulty component.
level sight glass may trap water if its openings are Restart the system and keep a close eye on the system
clogged. This could make it appear that the water pressure while the system heats up. Check the system for
level is higher than it really is. Trust the reading proper operation.
only if the system is clean and the sight glass and
its connections have been cleaned recently. Some
systems are equipped with petcocks (small drain 39.6 Preparing a Boiler for the
valves) that can be used to verify the boiler water Heating Season
level.
After checking the water level in the boiler, Before a boiler is put into service for the heat-
check the boiler's safety and control components. ing season, it requires preventive maintenance and
When checking the pressure-relief valve, make sure a thorough inspection. The annual inspection can
it is equipped with a discharge tube to safely divert reveal developing problems, such as leaks and cor-
the discharge away from people and equipment. rosion, that could cause the system to perform unre-
Pull the lever open briefly to verify that it is not liably if left unattended. Proper maintenance and
stuck closed. Water or steam should immediately operational practices can help to ensure optimal
flow from the valve. If no steam or water comes performance, reducing operating costs and increas-
out, shut off the system at once. Allow the system ing equipment life.
to cool down and then replace the pressure-relief
valve. Also, check the low-water cutoff by opening
the boiler drain valve. The low-water cutoff should
m
II
Boiler Inspection and Maintenance
Use the following steps to prepare a boiler
operate right away by cutting off all fuel and electri- for operation before the heating season begins.
cal power. If it does not operate, shut down the unit 1. Clean the burner (gas or oil).
and service the low-water cutoff.
2. If the boiler is an oil-fired unit, clean the noz-
zle. Use a cloth and solvent. Do not use a wire
Safety Note
brush, as the bristles may scratch the orifice.
Steam Heating System Safety 3. Clean and adjust the ignition electrodes.
A steam heating system should be serviced with
4. Inspect the insulation and replace it if it is
great care. Escaping steam or hot water can cause
severe burns. A boiler can explode if the steam pres- cracked or damaged.
sure is permitted to exceed the boiler safe pressure 5. Clean the flame detector lens. Operate the
limit. Wear goggles when opening petcocks and valves. detector controls by closing the fuel valve.
Stand to one side to prevent burns from steam or hot The detector controls should lock out (lock in
water, and do not allow the escaping steam or hot water the off position).
to spill on anyone.
6. If the unit is gas-fired, clean the pilot light if
the boiler has one.
Continue steam heating system service by inspect-
7. Check and tighten all electrical and fuel
ing the terminal units. If one radiator is cool while the
connections.
others are hot, it is not receiving steam. This problem
may be caused by one of the following component 8. Oil the blower motors.
malfunctions: 9. Check motor temperatures. If warmer than
• The radiator valve is closed. Either the thermostat normal, cleaning or new bearings may be
for the valve or the valve itself is not working. necessary.
• The radiator is air-bound. This indicates the air 10. Inspect heat exchanger tubes for soot or fly
vent is not working. ash and clean as needed.
• The radiator is filled with condensed water. This 11. Inspect and clean the breeching (top of the
indicates the steam trap is not working. boiler flue).
Lightly tapping the suspected component with a rub- 12. Cycle the controls. Shut off the makeup water
ber mallet may jar the component so that it begins func- line and open the boiler drain valve to check
tioning again momentarily. Once the faulty component for proper operation of the low-water cutoff.
------
Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017
 Chapter 39 Hydronic Heating Fundamentals 1075

13. Operate all safety and pressure-relief valves Code Alert

and petcocks to check for proper operating Boiler Test
condition.
Local building codes typically require boiler sys-
tems to pass a post-installation pressure test before
Boiler operation is compromised if there are they can be put into service. Refer to your local building
signs of overheating, excessive scale, excessive corro- codes for specific requirements.
sion, or damaged pressure vessel components, such
as the boiler's heat exchanger. A boiler must also pass Before putting a boiler back in service, crack the
a pressure test. Prior to draining the boiler for clean- valves and check for unusual noises or vibrations prior
ing, fill it with water. With the boiler at operating to fully opening them. If a boiler is operated in con-
pressure, close the water supply and return valves to junction with other boilers, make sure its operating
isolate the boiler from the system. If the boiler pres- temperature and pressure are the same as the other
sure drops, the boiler has leaks and will fail inspec- boilers before opening the water supply and return
tion. The leaks need to be identified and repaired if valves. For steam boilers, be sure to drain condensed
possible. Start by checking the valves because they water from the steam supply line prior to opening the
are most susceptible to small leaks that can cause the steam supply valve to avoid slugging condensate into
boiler to fail the pressure test. the steam main.

Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. 2017

 Chapter Review
Summary • A steam heating system supplies steam to
radiators in conditioned spaces. Air vents and
• Hydronic systems use conditioned water or steam traps allow air and condensed water to
steam to distribute heat. Compared to forced- leave the radiators, but not steam. As the steam
air heating systems, hydronic heating systems heats the room, it cools down and condenses
are more efficient at heat transfer, require less and the condensed water returns to the boil:r
room for fluid piping than air ducts require, to be reheated.
provide more consistent heating, and do not • A low-water cutoff automatically shuts down
introduce dust or allergens into the conditioned a boiler if the water level gets too low. A flow
spaces. switch shuts down the system or bypasses
• The basic components of a hydronic system part of it when there is inadequate water
include a boiler, circulating pump, expansion circulation. An aquastat maintains proper
tank, terminal units, and air-removal water temperature in the boiler, while a room
components. Various valves, such as mixing thermostat controls the temperature in the
valves and balancing valves, are used to control conditioned space.
the flow of water through the system. • To prepare a hydronic system for initial start-
• Impurities in boiler water can cause corrosion up, circulate a solution of water and the proper
and embrittlement in a hydronic system. chemical treatment through the system, drain it
Chemical scavengers, corrosion inhibiters, and out, and then refill the system with conditioned
air-removal components can be used to help water. Once the system is operating, balance
prevent corrosion caused by contaminants and the system by using a pressure gauge to
dissolved gases. measure the rate of water flow through each
balancing valve.
• Series loop and one-pipe hydronic systems
supply water to the terminal units and return • Most hydronic system problems fall into one
water to the boiler through a single pipe. Two- of three categories: electrical, venting, or water
pipe hydronic systems supply water to the circulation. Electrical problems commonly
terminal units through one pipe and return affect system controls. Venting problems
the water to the boiler through a separate pipe. affect boiler combustion and may cause the
Zoned hydronic systems are split into different system's rollout switch or blocked-vent switch
zones, each with its own piping, terminals to shut down the boiler. Most water circulation
units, zone valve, and room thermostat. A room problems are caused by trapped air. If a system
thermostat maintains each zone's set point has a significant amount of trapped air in it, it
temperature by controlling a zone v