Abstract
Optical structures located equatorward of the main auroral oval often exhibit different morphologies and dynamics than structures at higher latitudes. In some cases, questions arise regarding the formation mechanisms of these photon-emitting phenomena. New developments in space and ground-based instruments have enabled us to acquire a clearer view of the processes playing a role in the formation of subauroral structures. In addition, the discovery of new optical structures helps us improve our understanding of the latitudinal and altitudinal coupling that takes place in the subauroral region. However, several questions remain unanswered, requiring the development of new instruments and analysis techniques. We discuss optical phenomena in the subauroral region, summarize observational results, present conclusions about their origin, and pose a number of open questions that warrant further investigation of proton aurora, detached subauroral arcs and spots, stable auroral red (SAR) arcs, and STEVE (Strong Thermal Emission Velocity Enhancement).
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
B.J. Anderson, R.E. Erlandson, L.J. Zanetti, A statistical study of Pc 1-2 magnetic pulsations in the equatorial magnetosphere, 1. Equatorial occurrence distributions. J. Geophys. Res. 97, 3075 (1992)
C.D. Anger, M.C. Moshupi, D.D. Wallis, J.S. Murphree, L.H. Brace, G.G. Shepherd, Detached auroral arcs in the trough region. J. Geophys. Res. 83(A6), 2683–2689 (1978). https://doi.org/10.1029/JA083iA06p02683
W.E. Archer, B. Gallardo-Lacourt, G.W. Perry, J.-P. St.-Maurice, S.C. Buchert, E.F. Donovan, Steve: the optical signature of intense subauroral ion drifts. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46, 6279–6286 (2019a). https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL082687
W.E. Archer, J.-P. St.- Maurice, B. Gallardo-Lacourt, G.W. Perry, C.M. Cully, E. Donovan et al., The vertical distribution of the optical emissions of a Steve and picket fence event. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46, 10719–10725 (2019b). https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL084473
J.L. Burch, W.S. Lewis, T.J. Immel, P.C. Anderson, H.U. Frey, S.A. Fuselier, J.-C. Gerard, S.B. Mende, D.G. Mitchell, M.F. Thomsen, Interplanetary magnetic field control of afternoon-sector detached proton auroral arcs. J. Geophys. Res. 107, SMP 17 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JA007554
J.W. Chamberlain, Physics of the Aurora and Airglow (Academic Press, New York, 1961). https://doi.org/10.1029/SP041
L.B.N. Clausen et al., Large-scale observations of a subauroral polarization stream by midlatitude SuperDARN radars: Instantaneous longitudinal velocity variations. J. Geophys. Res. 117 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JA017232
K.D. Cole, Stable auroral red arc, sinks for energy of Dst main phase. J. Geophys. Res. 70, 1689 (1965)
J.M. Cornwall, F.V. Coroniti, R.M. Thorne, Unified theory of SAR-arc formation at the plasmapause. J. Geophys. Res. 76, 4428 (1971)
J.D. Craven, L.A. Frank, K.L. Ackerson, Global observations of a SAR ARC. Geophys. Res. Lett. 9, 961–964 (1982). https://doi.org/10.1029/GL009i009p00961
M. de Soria-Santacruz, M. Spasojevic, L. Chen, EMIC waves growth and guiding in the presence of cold plasma density irregularities. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40, 1940–1944 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50484
E. Donovan, E. Spanswick, J. Liang, J. Grant, B. Jackel, M. Greffen, Magnetospheric dynamics and the proton aurora, in Auroral Phenomenology and Magnetospheric Processes: Earth and Other Planets. Geophysical Monograph Series, vol. 197 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GM001241
Y. Ebihara, G.V. Khazanov, Ring current, in Space Weather Fundamentals, ed. by G.V. Khazanov (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2016), pp. 149–172. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315368474
A. Egeland, W.J. Burke, Auroral hydrogen emissions: a historical survey. Hist. Geo- Space Sci. 10, 201–213 (2019). https://doi.org/10.5194/hgss-10-201-2019
X. Fang, M.W. Liemohn, J.U. Kozyra, S.C. Solomon, Quantification of the spreading effect of auroral proton precipitation. J. Geophys. Res. 109, A04309 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JA010119
M.-C. Fok, J.U. Kozyra, L.H. Brace, Solar cycle variation in the subauroral electron temperature enhancement: comparison of AE-C and DE 2 satellite observations. J. Geophys. Res. 96(A2), 1861–1866 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1029/90JA02377
M.C. Fok, J.U. Kozyra, A.F. Nagy, C.E. Rasmussen, G.V. Khazanov, Decay of equatorial ring current ions and associated aeronomical consequences. J. Geophys. Res. 98(A11), 19381–19393 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1029/93JA01848
J.C. Foster, W.J. Burke, SAPS: a new categorization for sub-auroral electric fields. Eos Trans. AGU 83(36), 393 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1029/2002EO000289
J.C. Foster, H.B. Vo, Average characteristics and activity dependence of the subauroral polarization stream. J. Geophys. Res. 107(A12), 1475 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JA009409
J.C. Foster, M.J. Buonsanto, M. Mendillo, D. Nottingham, F. Rich, W. Denig, Coordinated stable auroral red arc observations: relationship to plasma convection. J. Geophys. Res. 99(A6), 11429–11439 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1029/93JA03140
B.J. Fraser, T.M. Loto’aniu, H.J. Singer, K. Takahashi, P.J. Chi, R.E. Denton, R.L. Lysak, Electromagnetic ion cyclotron waves in the magnetosphere, in Magnetospheric ULF Waves: Synthesis and New Directions, Chapman Conference on Magnetospheric ULF Waves. Geophysical Monograph Book Series, vol. 169 (2006), pp. 195–212. https://doi.org/10.1029/169GM13
H.U. Frey, Localized aurora beyond the auroral oval. Rev. Geophys. 45, RG1003 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1029/2005RG000174
H.U. Frey, S.B. Mende, T.J. Immel, J.-C. Gerard, B. Hubert, S. Habraken, J. Spann, G.R. Gladstone, D.V. Bisikalo, V.I. Shematovich, Summary of quantitative interpretation of IMAGE far ultraviolet auroral data. Space Sci. Rev. 109, 255–283 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SPAC.0000007521.39348.a5
H.U. Frey, G. Haerendel, S.B. Mende, W.T. Forrester, T.J. Immel, N. Ostgaard, Sub-Auroral Morning Proton Spots (SAMPS) as a result of plasmapause-ring-current interaction. J. Geophys. Res. 109(A10), A10304 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JA010516
M. Galand, S. Chakrabarti, Proton aurora observed from the ground. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 68, 1488–1501 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2005.04.013
M. Galand, D. Lummerzheim, Contribution of proton precipitation to space-based auroral FUV observations. J. Geophys. Res. 109, A03307 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JA010321
B. Gallardo-Lacourt, J. Liang, Y. Nishimura, E. Donovan, On the origin of STEVE: particle precipitation or ionospheric skyglow? Geophys. Res. Lett. 45, 7968–7973 (2018a). https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL078509
B. Gallardo-Lacourt, Y. Nishimura, E. Donovan, D.M. Gillies, G.W. Perry, W.E. Archer et al., A statistical analysis of STEVE. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 123, 9893–9905 (2018b). https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA025368
B. Gallardo-Lacourt, G.W. Perry, W.E. Archer, E. Donovan, How did we miss this? An upper atmospheric discovery named STEVE. Eos 100 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1029/2019EO117351
Y.I. Galperin, Polarization jet: characteristics and a model. Ann. Geophys. 20(3), 391–404 (2002)
G.A. Germany, M.R. Torr, D.G. Torr, P.G. Richards, Use of FUV auroral emissions as diagnostic indicators. J. Geophys. Res. 99, 383–388 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1029/93JA02357
D.M. Gillies, E. Donovan, D. Hampton, J. Liang, M. Connors, Y. Nishimura et al., First observations from the TREx spectrograph: the optical spectrum of STEVE and the picket fence phenomena. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46, 7207–7213 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL083272
A. Hasegawa, K. Mima, Anomalous transport produced by kinetic Alfven wave turbulence. J. Geophys. Res. 83, 1117 (1978)
J. Hong, J.-H. Kim, J.-K. Chung, Y.H. Kim, H. Kam, J. Park, M. Mendillo, Simultaneous observations of SAR arc and its ionospheric response at subauroral conjugate points (L ≃ 2.5) during the St. Patrick’s Day Storm in 2015. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 125 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JA027321
B. Hultqvist, H. Borg, P. Christophersen, W. Riedler, Observations of magnetic field-aligned anisotropy for 1 and 6 keV positive ions in the upper atmosphere. Planet. Space Sci. 19, 279 (1971)
T.J. Immel, S.B. Mende, H.U. Frey, L.M. Peticolas, C.W. Carlson, J.-C. Gerard, B. Hubert, S.A. Fuselier, J.L. Burch, Precipitation of auroral protons in detached arcs. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL013847
T. Iyemori et al., Localized injection of large-amplitude Pc 1 waves and electron temperature enhancement near the plasmapause observed in DE 2 in the upper atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 99, 6187 (1994)
V.K. Jordanova, Ring current decay in the Quest for Space Weather Prediction (2020), pp. 181–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815571-4.00006-8
V.K. Jordanova, R.B. Torbert, R.M. Thorne, H.L. Collin, J.L. Roeder, J.C. Foster, Ring current activity during the early Bz < 0 phase of the January 1997 magnetic cloud. J. Geophys. Res. 104(A11), 24895–24914 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JA900339
V.K. Jordanova, M. Spasojevic, M.F. Thomsen, Modeling the electromagnetic ion cyclotron wave-induced formation of detached subauroral proton arcs. J. Geophys. Res. 112, A08209 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JA012215
Y. Kamide, S.-I. Akasofu, The location of the field-aligned currents with respect to discrete auroral arcs. J. Geophys. Res. 81(22), 3999–4003 (1976). https://doi.org/10.1029/JA081i022p03999
J.U. Kozyra, E.G. Shelly, R.H. Comfort, L.H. Brace, T.E. Cravens, A.F. Nagy, The role of ring current O+ in the formation of stable red arcs. J. Geophys. Res. 92, 7487 (1987)
J.U. Kozyra, M.O. Chandler, D.C. Hamilton, W.K. Peterson, D.M. Klumpar, D.W. Slater, M.J. Buonsanto, H.C. Carlson, The role of ring current nose events in producing stable auroral red arc intensifications during the main phase: observations during the September 19-24, 1984 equinox transition study. J. Geophys. Res. 98, 9267 (1993)
J.U. Kozyra, A.F. Nagy, D.W. Slater, High-altitude energy source(s) for stable auroral red arcs. Rev. Geophys. 35, 155–190 (1997)
J. Krall, J.D. Huba, Plasmasphere, in Space weather fundamentals, ed. by G.V. Khazanov (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2016), pp. 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315368474
M. Kubota, T. Nagatsuma, Y. Murayama, Evening co-rotating patches: a new type of aurora observed by high sensitivity all-sky cameras in Alaska. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL016652
L.J. Lanzerotti, A. Hasegawa, C.G. Maclennan, Hydromagnetic waves as a cause of a SAR arc event. Planet. Space Sci. 26, 777 (1978)
S.R. LaValle, D.D. Elliott, Observations of SAR arcs from OV1-10. J. Geophys. Res. 77(10) (1972)
J. Liang, E. Donovan, D. Gillies, E. Spanswick, M. Connors, Proton auroras during the transitional stage of substorm onset. Earth Planets Space 70, 126 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40623-018-0899-0
V. Lobzin, A. Pavlov, Correlations between SAR arc intensity and solar and geomagnetic activity. Ann. Geophys. 17, 770–781 (1999)
L. Lyons, Generation of large-scale regions of auroral currents, electric potentials, and precipitation by the divergence of the convection electric field. J. Geophys. Res. 85(A1), 17–24 (1980). https://doi.org/10.1029/JA085iA01p00017
L.R. Lyons, Discrete aurora as the direct result of an inferred high-altitude generating potential distribution. J. Geophys. Res. 86(A1), 1–8 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1029/JA086iA01p00001
MacDonald et al., New science in plain sight: Citizen scientists lead to the discovery of optical structure in the upper atmosphere. Sci. Adv. 4(3) (2018). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaq0030
C. Martinis, J. Baumgardner, J. Wroten, M. Mendillo, All-sky-imaging capabilities for ionospheric space weather research using geomagnetic conjugate point observing sites. Adv. Space Res. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2017.07.021
C. Martinis, J. Baumgardner, M. Mendillo, M.J. Taylor, T. Moffat-Griffin, J. Wroten, C. Sullivan, R. Macinnis, B. Alford, Y. Nishimura, First ground-based conjugate observations of Stable Auroral Red (SAR) Arcs, submitted. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 124(6), 4658–4671 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA026017
S.B. Mende, H. Heetderks, H.U. Frey, J.M. Stock, M. Lampton, S.P. Geller, R. Abiad, O.H.W. Siegmund, S. Habraken, E. Renotte, C. Jamar, P. Rochus, J.-C. Gerard, R. Sigler, H. Lauche, Far ultraviolet imaging from the IMAGE spacecraft: 3. Spectral imaging of Lyman alpha and OI 135.6 nm. Space Sci. Rev. 91, 287–318 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005292301251
M. Mendillo, J. Baumgardner, J. Wroten, C. Martinis, S. Smith, K.-D. Merenda, T. Fritz, M. Hairston, R. Heelis, C. Barbieri, Imaging magnetospheric boundaries at ionospheric heights. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 118, 7294–7305 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JA019267
M. Mendillo, R. Finan, J. Baumgardner, J. Wroten, C. Martinis, M. Casillas, A stable auroral red (SAR) arc with multiple emission features. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 121, 10,564–10,577 (2016a). https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JA023258
M. Mendillo, J. Baumgardner, J. Wroten, SAR arcs we have seen: evidence for variability in stable auroral red arcs. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 121, 245–262 (2016b). https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JA021722
E.V. Mishin, Interaction of substorm injections with the subauroral geospace: 1. Multispacecraft observations of SAID. J. Geophys. Res. 118(9), 5782–5796 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/jgra.50548
M.C. Moshupi, L.L. Cogger, D.D. Wallis, J.S. Murphree, C.D. Anger, Auroral patches in the vicinity of the plasmapause. Geophys. Res. Lett. 4, 37–40 (1977)
M.C. Moshupi, C.D. Anger, J.S. Murphree, D.D. Wallis, J.H. Whitteker, L.H. Brace, Characteristics of trough region auroral patches and detached arcs observed by ISIS 2. J. Geophys. Res. 84, 1333–1346 (1979)
P.T. Newell, A.R. Lee, K. Liou, S.-I. Ohtani, T. Sotirelis, S. Wing, Substorm cycle dependence of various types of aurora. J. Geophys. Res. 115, A09226 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JA015331
Y. Nishimura, B. Gallardo-Lacourt, Y. Zou, E. Mishin, D.J. Knudsen, E.F. Donovan et al., Magnetospheric signatures of STEVE: implications for the magnetospheric energy source and interhemispheric conjugacy. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46, 5637–5644 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL082460
T.P. O’Brien, M.B. Moldwin, Empirical plasmapause models from magnetic indices. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30, 1152 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL016007
M. Ozaki, K. Shiokawa, Y. Miyoshi, R. Kataoka, M. Connors, T. Inoue, S. Yagitani, Y. Ebihara, C.-W. Jun, R. Nomura, K. Sakaguchi, Y. Otsuka, H.A. Uchida, I. Schofield, D.W. Danskin, Discovery of 1 Hz range modulation of isolated proton aurora at subauroral latitudes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45, 1209–1217 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL076486
V. Pierrard, J. Goldstein, N. Andre, V.K. Jordanova, Recent progress in physics-based models of the plasmasphere. Space Sci. Rev. 145, 193–229 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-008-9480-7
E.I. Reed, J.E. Blamont, Observations of the conjugate SAR arcs of September 28-30, 1967. J. Geophys. Res. 79(16), 2524–2525 (1974)
M.H. Rees, D. Luckey, Auroral electron energy derived from ratio of spectroscopic emissions 1. Model computations. J. Geophys. Res. 79(34), 5181–5186 (1974). https://doi.org/10.1029/JA079i034p05181
M.H. Rees, R.G. Roble, Observations and theory of the formation of stable auroral red arcs. Rev. Geophys. 13, 201 (1975)
F. Roach, J. Roach, Stable 6300 Å auroral arcs in mid-latitudes. Planet. Space Sci. 11, 523–545 (1963)
K. Sakaguchi, K. Shiokawa, Y. Miyoshi, Y. Otsuka, T. Ogawa, K. Asamura, M. Connors, Simultaneous appearance of isolated auroral arcs and Pc 1 geomagnetic pulsations at subauroral latitudes. J. Geophys. Res. 113, A05201 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JA012888
K. Sakaguchi, Y. Miyoshi, E. Spanswick, E. Donovan, I.R. Mann, V. Jordanova, K. Shiokawa, M. Connors, J.C. Green, Visualization of ion cyclotron wave and particle interactions in the inner magnetosphere via THEMIS-ASI observations. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A10204 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1029/2012JA018180
K. Sakaguchi, K. Shiokawa, Y. Miyoshi, M. Connors, Isolated proton auroras and Pc1/EMIC waves at subauroral latitudes, in Auroral Dynamics and Space Weather, ed. by Y. Zhang, L.J. Paxton. Geophysical Monograph, vol. 215 (Wiley, New York, 2016)
S. Sazykin, B.G. Fejer, Y.I. Galperin, L.V. Zinin, S.A. Grigoriev, M. Mendillo, Polarization jet events and excitation of weak SAR arcs. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29(12), 1586 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL014388
F. Søraas, K.M. Laundal, M. Usanova, Coincident particle and optical observations of nightside subauroral proton precipitation. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 118, 1112–1122 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/jgra.50172
E. Spanswick, E. Donovan, L. Kepko, V. Angelopoulos, The magnetospheric source region of the bright proton aurora. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44, 10,094–10,099 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL074956
M. Spasojevic, S.A. Fuselier, Temporal evolution of proton precipitation associated with the plasmaspheric plume. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 114 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JA014530
M. Spasojevic, H.U. Frey, M.F. Thomsen, S.A. Fuselier, S.P. Gary, B.R. Sandel, U.S. Inan, The link between a detached subauroral proton arc and a plasmaspheric plume. Geophys. Res. Lett. 31 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GL018389
M. Spasojevic, M.F. Thomsen, P.J. Chi, B.R. Sandel, Afternoon subauroral proton precipitation resulting from ring current-plasmasphere interaction, in Inner Magnetosphere Interactions: New Perspectives from Imaging. Geophysical Monograph Series, vol. 159 (AGU, Washington, 2005)
R.W. Spiro, R.A. Heelis, W.B. Hanson, Rapid sub-auroral ion drifts observed by Atmospheric Explorer C. Geophys. Res. Lett. 6, 657 (1979)
Y. Takagi, K. Shiokawa, Y. Otsuka, M. Connors, I. Schofield, Statistical analysis of SAR arc detachment from the main oval based on 11-year, all-sky imaging observation at Athabasca, Canada. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45, 11,539–11,546 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL079615
S.A. Thaller, J.R. Wygant, L. Dai, A.W. Breneman, K. Kersten, C.A. Cattell, S.R. Bounds, Van Allen probes investigation of the large-scale duskward electric field and its role in ring current formation and plasmasphere erosion in the 1 June 2013 storm. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 120(6), 4531–4543 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JA020875
N.A. Tsyganenko, Modeling the Earth’s magnetospheric magnetic field confined within a realistic magnetopause. J. Geophys. Res. 100(A4), 5599–5612 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1029/94JA03193
N.A. Tsyganenko, A model of the magnetosphere with a dawn-dusk asymmetry. 1. Mathematical structure. J. Geophys. Res. 107(A8), SMP 12 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JA000219
L. Vegard, Results of the investigations of the auroral spectrum during the years 1921–1926. Geofys. Publik. 9, 1–71 (1932)
V.G. Vorobjev, O.I. Yagodkina, Comparative characteristics of ion and electron precipitation in the dawn and dusk sectors. Geomagn. Aeron. 54, 50–58 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016793214010162
B. Wang, P. Li, J. Huang, B. Zhang, Nonlinear Landau resonance between EMIC waves and cold electrons in the inner magnetosphere. Phys. Plasmas 26(4), 042903 (2019)
A.G. Yahnin, T.A. Yahnina, Energetic proton precipitation related to ion-cyclotron waves. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 69, 1690–1706 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2007.02.010
A.G. Yahnin, T.A. Yahnina, H.U. Frey, Subauroral proton spots visualize the Pc1 source. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 112, A10223 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JA012501
A.G. Yahnin, T.A. Yahnina, H.U. Frey, T. Bosinger, J. Manninen, Proton aurora related to intervals of pulsations of diminishing periods. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 114, A12215 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JA014670
A.G. Yahnin, T.A. Yahnina, H. Frey, V. Pierrard, Sub-oval proton aurora spots: mapping relatively to the plasmapause. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 99, 61–66 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2012.09.018
T.A. Yahnina, A.G. Yahnin, Comparing the latitudinal distribution of the Pc1 intensity and the position of subauroral proton spots. Geomagn. Aeron. 52, 624–628 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016793212040159
J. Yao, Y. Cai, Y. Ma, S. Zhou, Evening corotating patches (ECP) observed by DMSP/SSUSI. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 186, 82–87 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2019.02.008
Z.G. Yuan, X.H. Deng, X. Lin, Y. Pang, M. Zhou, P.M.E. Décréau, J.G. Trotignon, E. Lucek, H.U. Frey, J.F. Wang, Link between EMIC waves in a plasmaspheric plume and a detached sub-auroral proton arc with observations of Cluster and IMAGE satellites. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL042711
Z. Yuan, M. Li, Y. Xiong, H. Li, M. Zhou, D. Wang, S. Huang, X. Deng, J. Wang, Simultaneous observations of precipitating radiation belt electrons and ring current ions associated with the plasmaspheric plume. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 118, 4391–4399 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/jgra.50432
Y. Zhang, L.J. Paxton, An empirical Kp-dependent global auroral model based on TIMED/GUVI data. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 70, 1231–1242 (2008)
Y. Zhang, L.J. Paxton, D. Morrison, B. Wolven, H. Kil, S. Wing, Nightside detached auroras due to precipitating protons/ions during intense magnetic storms. J. Geophys. Res. 110 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JA010498
Y. Zou, Y. Nishimura, L.R. Lyons, E.F. Donovan, A statistical study of the relative locations of electron and proton auroral boundaries inferred from meridian scanning photometer observations. J. Geophys. Res. 117, A06206 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JA017357
Acknowledgements
B. Gallardo-Lacourt wants to thank Mei-Ching Fok for her invaluable thoughts and discussions related to this topic. C. Martinis thanks Wen Li and Qianli Ma for valuable inputs when discussing VAP data. H.U. Frey was supported by the NSF award AGS-1004736 and NASA’s Explorers Program through contracts NNG12FA45C and NNG12FA42I. B. Gallardo-Lacourt was supported by a NASA postdoctoral program fellowship. C. Martinis was supported by NASA grant 80NSSC19K0546 issued through the Heliophysics Guest Investigator Program and by NSF Aeronomy and Office of Polar Program award #1246423’. We acknowledge the Van Allen probes data from the EMFISIS instrument obtained from http://emfisis.physics.uiowa.edu/Flight/, and data from the HOPE instrument obtained from http://www.rbsp-ect.lanl.gov/data_pub/.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Auroral Physics
Edited by David Knudsen, Joe Borovsky, Tomas Karlsson, Ryuho Kataoka and Noora Partmies
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gallardo-Lacourt, B., Frey, H.U. & Martinis, C. Proton Aurora and Optical Emissions in the Subauroral Region. Space Sci Rev 217, 10 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00776-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00776-6