UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

MR. PHILIP SJ. SOBERANO

COURSE DESCRIPTION

Understanding the Self aims to develop appreciation among students; knowing the

importance beneath their personalities. The course where it can be a platform for the

students express themselves freely. This course will give an emphasis on student’s self-

identity with based on a scientific explanation. Students are expected to gain certain

realization that can be boost true time in real world business.

TO THE STUDENTS

This course explores every one’s potential to came out to their own shells.

Understanding the Self is a fundamental course offered in the General Education

Curriculum for tertiary education program. It is designed to help the students outgrow

themselves. It focuses in working on oneself, overcoming weaknesses, recognizing

strengths, acquire self-esteem and establish self-identity.

The module offers activity at the end of the discussions titled “Looking Through”; it

is structured for the students to overlook the discussion to themselves. Targeting to have

students reflect on themselves. And the end module, it expected that the student’s gained

more self-appreciation than what they had before. To rise their potential, and for them to

be ready facing real life problems.

TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page

Course description

To the students

UNIT 1: THE SELF FORM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVE

Objectives

The Philosophical view of Self

Concept of Self in the 19th century

Looking through

UNIT 2: SOCIOLOGY

Objectives

The Self as a Product of the Modern Society among Other Constructs

Mead and Social Self

Major Theoretical Perspective in Sociology

UNIT 3: ANTHROPOLOGY

Objectives

The Self and Person in Contemporary

The Self that is Embedded in Culture

Looking Through

UNIT 4: PSYCHOLOGY

Objectives

The Self as Cognitive Construction

Looking through
UNIT 5: THE SELF IN WESTERN/ORIENTAL/ EASTERN THOUGHT

Objectives

The Social Construction of Self in Western Thought

The Self as Embedded Relationships and Through Spiritual Development in Confucian

Thought

Looking Through

UNIT 6: PHYSICAL SELF

Objectives

Body Adornment

Body Modification

Context of Beauty and Self Esteem

Looking through

UNIT 7: SEXUAL SELF

Objectives

Reproductive System

Human Sexual Cycle and Psychosexual Stages

Biology of Love and Chemistry of Love

Diversity of Sexual Behaviors

Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Methods of Contraception

Looking Through

UNIT 8: MATERIAL SELF

Objectives

Material Self
Psychology of Buying

Looking Through

UNIT 9: SPIRITUAL SELF

Objectives

Spirituality

Spiritual Self

Spirituality and Meaning of Life

Looking Through

UNIT 10: POLITICAL SELF

Objectives

Perspectives on Political Self

Looking through

UNIT 11: DIGITAL SELF

Objectives

Self in Digital Perspective

Looking through

UNIT 12: MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF

Objectives

Learning to be a Better Student

Setting goals for Success

Health, Stress, Coping

REFERENCES
UNIT 1: THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVE OF PHILOSOPHERS

Objectives:

1. Explain the importance of understanding the self;

2. Describe and discuss the different explanations of the self from the perspective of

the various philosophers across generations;

3. Compare and contrast how the self has been interpreted and analyzed in different

philosophical schools;

4. Examine one’s self against the different views of self that were discussed in class.

Philosophy

Is a particular set of ideas about knowledge, truth, the nature and meaning of life.

How we choose to spend our lives contribute to the development of identity and self-

understanding

The nature of the self is a topic of interest among philosophers and each have their own

views.

1. Socrates

Know thyself: a moral epistemological and injunction the philosophy of Socrates still

shines today. This assertion, imperative in the form, indicates that man must stand and

live according his nature. Man has to look at himself. To find what? By what means?

These two questions are fundamental.

The what, at first. Indeed, this invitation to introspection must be connected to the Platonic

theory of reminiscence. Everyone, says Socrates, has the knowledge itself, just

remember them. Knowledge is inherent in man, not outside. Wisdom is learning to

recollect.

How, then. This knowledge of oneself can be achieved only through the Socratic method,

that is to say, the dialogue between the soul and itself, or between a student and his

teacher. Socrates is as often in the role of questioner, as an attendant emotional.

Socrates’ questions because he knows nothing, knows he knows nothing, has nothing to

learn, but it can help its followers to discover the truths they have in them.

2. Plato

The self, according to Plato, are the three coexistent aspects of the soul, from which you

can understand your own desires and behaviors. In Plato’s view, that person may have

been acting like themselves, though not working from the logical/reasoning aspect of self,

but out of the appetite, the lust the carnal hunger the passionate part of one’s self. In

Plato’s version of self, the spirit is the part of the self/soul that regulates the appetitive

and is the source of emotions like anger and other moods. In regulating various appetitive

passions, the spirited region is expressed because of either denial or acquiescence to the

carnal/temporal/appetitive.

3. Aurelius Augustine Hipponensis

Augustine's sense of self is his relation to God, both in his recognition of God's love and

his response to it—achieved through self-presentation, then self-realization. Augustine

believed one could not achieve inner peace without finding God's love.
4. Rene Descartes

With his ties to dualism, Descartes believed the mind is the seat of our consciousness.

Because it gives us our identity and our sense of self. He also believed that the idea of a

mind controlling the body is as erroneous as the idea of ghosts controlling machines.

Dualism The mind, according to Descartes, was a "thinking thing" (Latin: res cogitans),

and an immaterial substance.

5. David Hume

For Hume there is no mind or self. The perceptions that one has are only active when

one is conscious. "When my perceptions are removed for any time, as by sound sleep,

so long am I insensible of myself, and may truly be said not to exist." (Flew 1962, p.259).

Hume believed that the entire contents of the mind were drawn from experience alone.

6. John Locke

Is an English philosopher and physician and commonly known as the "Father of

Liberalism".

John Locke considered personal identity (or the self) to be founded on consciousness

(viz. memory), and not on the substance of either the soul or the body. According to

Locke, personal identity (the self) "depends on consciousness, not on substance" nor on

the soul. We are the same person to the extent that we are conscious of the past and

future thoughts and actions in the same way as we are conscious of present thoughts

and actions.
7. Immanuel Kant

“Sensuous intuition,” for Kant, is the ultimate material of all thought, all cognition: there

is nothing you can think, see, hear, experience, understand, or do without some kind of

sensuous intuition.

Empiricism asserts that knowledge is only attained through the senses. In other words,

seeing is believing! If something can't be seen, tasted, touched, heard, or physically

experienced. Rationalism is the theory that reason, rather than experience, is the

foundation of all knowledge.

According to Kant, we humans have both an inner and an outer self which unify to give

us consciousness. The inner self is comprised of our psychological state and our rational

intellect. The outer self includes our sense and the physical world.

8. Paul Churchland

Paul Churchland, a modern-day philosopher who studies the brain. Rather than

dualism, Churchland holds to materialism, the belief that nothing but matter exists. When

discussing the mind, this means that the physical brain, and not the mind, exists.

• Materialism - the belief that nothing but matter exists. In other words, if it can't

somehow be recognized by the senses then it's akin to a fairy tale.

• Eliminative materialism - who believes that the mind is the brain and that over

time a mature neuroscience vocabulary will replace the “folk psychology” that we currently

use to think about ourselves and our minds.

9. Sigmund Freud

In founding psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of

free association and discovered transference, establishing its central role in the analytic

process. On this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to

develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, ego and super-ego. Freud postulated

the existence of libido, a sexualized energy with which mental processes and structures

are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and a death drive, the source of

compulsive repetition, hate, aggression and neurotic guilt.

The famed psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud believed that behavior and personality were

derived from the constant and unique interaction of conflicting psychological forces that

operate at three different levels of awareness: the preconscious, conscious, and

unconscious.

10. Gilbert Ryle

Gilbert Ryle solves the mind-body dichotomy that has been running for a long time in the

history by blatantly denying the concept of an internal, non-physical self. For Ryle, what

truly matters is the behavior that person manifests in his day-to-day life.

For Ryle, looking for and trying to understand a self as it really exists is like visiting your

friend’s university and looking for the “university”. One can roam around the campus, visit

the library and the football field, and meet the administrators and faculty and still end up

finding the “university”. This is because the campus, the people, the systems, and the

territory all form the university. Ryle suggests that “self” is not an entity one can locate
and analyze but simply the convenient name that people use to refer to all behaviors that

people make.

11. Maurice Merleau-Ponty

Maurice Merleau-Ponty believed the physical body to be an important part of what makes

up the subjective self. This concept stands in contradiction to rationalism and empiricism.

Rationalism asserts that reason and mental perception, rather than physical senses and

experience, are the basis of knowledge and self.

The philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty* articulated the phenomenologist position in a

simple declaration: “I live in my body.” By the “lived body,” Merleau-Ponty means an entity

that can never be objectified or known in a completely objective sort of way, as opposed

to the “body as object” of the dualists.

In order to understand why Merleau-Ponty's ideas made such a splash, we need to

understand the two philosophies against which he was arguing.

Rationalism

When speaking of self or being, rationalism asserts that reason and mental perception,

rather than physical senses and experience, are the basis of knowledge and self. In other

words, our rational thinking minds are where it's all at!

According to many who held this belief, the mind is the seat of our consciousness. It is

the subject behind what it means to be human. The body is just a shell. As the famous

Plato once said, and I paraphrase a bit, 'The body is just the prison house of the soul.'

Empiricism
Standing in contrast to rationalism is empiricism. Empiricism is the belief that our physical

senses are the only source of knowledge. If the source of our knowledge can't be seen,

touched, heard, tasted, etc., it really can't be trusted. Or, in other words, if it can't be

empirically studied, it's a no go. Under these parameters, the idea of some mystical mind

independently perceiving and giving us our sense of self comes under some serious

scrutiny. An empiricist may argue that our physical body, and not some mystical mind,

makes up our sense of self. While the rationalist would say, 'I think, therefore I am', an

empiricist would say, 'I sense, therefore I am!

Looking through

To start this lesson, for the first activity, make a simple poster
FOR
REFLECTION containing your mantra. Write them in your version where it truly
SEEKERS
represents you. It can be in English or Filipino language. If the

statement was said by someone, it is advised to put their credentials. It can be computer

illustrated or making your own in a paper (submitted by taking picture of it). Based on the

various philosophers, discussed in this lesson, choose one school of thought the best

describe you as person; you may also correlate the chosen perspective to your mantra

given at the beginning of the discussion. Write at least minimum of 150 and maximum

300 words explaining your correlation. Submit it in a form of power point presentation

containing only two slides; mantra and correlation.

UNIT 2: SOCIOLOGY

Objectives:

1. Explain the importance of understanding society and culture;

2. Discuss how the community revolve over time, the essential of what makes a

society;

3. Discuss the different conception of various social philosophers on their perspective

about society and how they presented it;

SOCIOLOGY

I.DEFINITION OF SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Society and culture are two central concepts in sociology.

 Society- group of people that live in a geographic area, who interact with one another

and

share common culture or way of life

Culture- group’s shared practices, values, and beliefs

II.DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY

Etymology:

“Socius” -Latin word whichmeans society, association, togetherness or companionship

“logos”- Greek word which means study or science

Sociology is the scientific study of society which is interested in the study of social

relationship between people in group context. It is interested in how we as human beings

interact with each other (the pattern of social interaction); the laws and principles that

govern social relationship and interactions; the /influence of the social world on the

individuals, and vice versa.

III.FOUNDERS OR THE PIONEERING SOCIOLOGISTS

1. Auguste Comte, French social philosopher (1798- 1857). He was the first social

philosopher who coin and use the term sociology. He argued that sociology can and

should study society and social phenomena following the pattern and procedures of the

natural science. He defined sociology as the study of social dynamic and social static.

• Social dynamic- refers to changing, progressing and developmental dimensions

of society
 • Social static-refers to the social order and those elements of society and social

phenomena which tend to persist and relatively permanent, defying change.

2. Karl Marx (German, 1818-1883)

He is social philosopher, sociologist, and economic historian. He introduced key concept

in sociology like social class, social class conflict, social oppression, alienation, etc.

• Conflict theory-Conflictexist between powerful minority class (the bourgeoisie)

and an oppressed majority class (the proletariat), created class conflict because

the interests of the two were at odds, and resources were unjustly distributed

among them.

3. Harriet Martineau, British Sociologist (18021876) first woman sociologist. Harriet

was interested in social issues and studied both in the United States and England. She

helped popularize the ideas and writings of Comte by translating them into English. She

was an early observer of social practices, including economics, social class, religion,

suicide, government, and women’s rights

4. Herbert Spencer, British Social Philosopher, (1820-1903)

• Social Darwinism- evolution of human society from the lowest ("barbarism") to

highest form ("civilized") according to fixed laws, which is analogous to the

biological evolutionary model.

He rejected much of Comte’s philosophy as well as Marx's theory of class struggle and

his support of communism. Instead, he favored a form of government that allowed market

forces to control capitalism

5. Emile Durkheim, French Sociologist, (1858- 1917)

He defined sociology as the study of social facts.

 • Social Facts-are the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions,

rituals, and all the cultural rules that govern social life. Some regard Durkheim as

the first sociologist to apply statistical methods to the study of social phenomena.

6. Max Weber, German Sociologist (1864-1920)

Sociology is the scientific study of human social action.

• Social action refers to any “action oriented to influence or influenced by another

person or persons. It is not necessary for more than one person to be physically

present for action to be regarded as social action.

7. George Herber Mead

An American sociologist, he believed that the individual’s reaction and behavior are based

on the social perspective and interactions which become self.

• Proponent of “I and Me theory”

I and ME THEORY-I is the un- socialized self. It is the individual’s identity from

which the self is egocentric, and the response is based on “me”. And “ME” is the

socialized self from whom we are aware of others expectation from our behavior

and it develops through socialization as we consciously or unconsciously learn from

others.

IV.AREAS OF SOCIOLOGY

1. Social organization – it refers to the pattern of relationship between and among

different groups and individual people. It includes the study of social groups, social

institutions, social stratification, mobility, ethnic relations and bureaucracy:

Social institutions such as family or school.

• Social groups such as professional associations, or voluntary organizations like the

Kiwanis Club or neighborhood associations.

• Social inequality-which groups people according to class, such as the middle-class,

working class, underclass, upper class, etc.

• Religious groups such as churches and affiliated charities.

• Bureaucracies- including government agencies administrative units.

2. Social Psychology- tackles human behavior or nature because of group life,

personality formation, social attitude and collective behavior.

Major areas of study include:

a. Deviance

b. Socialization

c. group dynamics

d. health

e. race and ethnicity

f. gender

3. Social change- deals with the study of causes and effect of changes in the society

and culture, and the factors resulting from change

Sociologists typically identify a few key factors that influence social change:

• The physical environment- Changes in the environment, such as climate change,

may require different forms of social organization in order for humans to survive. Very

rapid changes in the physical environment can cause severe disruptions to social and

cultural life.
• Population changes- Migrations and conquest bring new people into new places,

which in turn can lead to forms of social change.

• Isolation and contact- Societies that are cut off from the larger world may change

very quickly once they meet outside cultures and peoples.

• Technology- Advances in technology, such as the car or airplane, can dramatically

change social organization as these new technologies offer new ways for people to

interact.

Major topics of study for this field include:

a. ecological changes

b. population

c. migration

d. technological

e. Impact of natural disaster

4. Social organization and disorganization- study the emergence of societies, their

structural formation and the ways they are strengthened. They also study crimes,

delinquency, family conflict, poverty, subversion, unemployment, and a wide range of

current social issues and problems.

5. Human ecology- studies the behavior of a given population and its relationship to

present social institutions or with the surrounding environment.

Studies of this kind have shown the prevalence of

a. mental illness

b. criminality

c. delinquency
d. prostitution

e. Drug addiction in urban centers and other modern, developed locales.

6. Population- is concerned with population size, composition, change and quality and

on how they influence the economic, political and social systems.

Major topics of study for this field include:

a. Trends in population growth

b. How those trends are affected by fertility, mortality, and migration

rates

c. How population is distributed over a particular area (for example,

segregation), poverty and inequality.

7. Sociological Theory and Method- is concerned with the application of the results of

sociological studies to solve various human problems.

This field is concerned with using sociological problems to solve social problems like

a. squatters,

b. prostitution,

c. too-large families,

d. nurse shortages

e. poor nutrition

LEVELS OF SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATION IN

SOCIOLOGY

1. Macro Sociology
Macro-sociology focuses on the broad features of society. The goal of macro-sociology

is to examine the large-scale social phenomena that determine how social groups are

organized and positioned within the social structure.

2. Micro Sociology

Micro-sociological level of analysis focuses on social interaction. It analyzes interpersonal

relationships, and on what people do and how they behave when they interact. This level

of analysis is usually employed by symbolic interactionist perspective.

MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIOLOGY

The Structural-Functionalist Theory (macro level approach)

It explains how the relationships among the parts of society are created and how these

parts are functional and dysfunctional

It was like human body where various organ works together to keep the body functioning

it means that various parts of society work together to keep society functioning

For example, one function of a society’s laws may be to protect society from violence,

while another is to punish criminal behavior, while another is to preserve public health.

Two Types of Function

1. Manifest function- is the consequences of a social process that are sought or

anticipated

Example: In College education- includes gaining knowledge, preparing for a career, and

finding a good job that utilizes that education

2. Latent functional-are the unsought consequences of a social process

Example: College years include meeting new people, participating in extracurricular

activities, or even finding a spouse or partner and creating a hierarchy of employment

based on the level of education attained

The Social Conflict Theory (macro level approach)

This theory is also called Marxism. Marxism means society as being made up of

individuals in different social classes who must compete for social, material, and political

resources such as food and housing, employment, education, and leisure time.

The theory holds that the most important aspect of social order is the domination of some

group by others, that actual or potential conflicts are always present in society. It explains

how the dominant groups use their power to exploit the less powerful groups in society.

Symbolic Interactionism(micro level approach)

Herbert Blumer, coined the term “symbolic interactionism” and outlined these basic

premises: humans interact with things based on meanings ascribed to those things; the

ascribed meaning of things comes from our interactions with others and society; the

meanings of things are interpreted by a person when dealing with things in specific

circumstances.

Constructivism is an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality

is what humans cognitively construct it to be. We develop social constructs based on

interactions with others, and those constructs that last over time are those that have

meanings which are widely agreed-upon or generally accepted by most within the society.

This approach is often used to understand what’s defined as deviant within a society.
UNIT 3: ANTHROPOLOGY

Objectives:

1. Explain the essence of understanding the history of humanity;

2. Discuss the approach on how society has been overviewed in the field of

anthropology;

3. Discuss the methods of various anthropologist in order to understand the history

of humanity.

4. Impart the importance of culture in the development of oneself.

DEFINITION OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropology is the systematic study of humanity a study of people past, present, and

future, with a focus on understanding human condition both culturally and biologically.

Specifically, anthropology is concerned with determining human, how they evolved, and

how they differ from one another. The term anthropology is a produced compound word

of Greek Anthropos and Logia. Anthropos means “man” as in humankind or human being

and Logia means “study”.

ANTHROPOLOGIST

An anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropology's

goal is to describe and explain human variation or the observed similarities and

differences in people through time and across space. Anthropology draws and builds

upon knowledge from the social and biological sciences as well as the humanities and

physical sciences to understand the full sweep and complexity of cultures across all

human history.
One of the most famous anthropologists was Franz Boas he is known as "the father of

modern cultural anthropology" his primary contribution to anthropology was his theory of

cultural relativism (the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be

understood based on that person's own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria

of another).

SOME OF THE FAMOUS ANTHROPOLOGIST:

1. Margaret Mead

She proposed that gender roles are influenced by the culture rather than inborn; the

behavior of masculine of one culture could be the feminine culture of the other.

2. Emile Durkheim

Utilized the scientific method to approach the study of society and social groups. His

works influenced the school of anthropology known as functionalism. He believed that

individuals should be considered within the context of the society in which they live.

3. Marcel Mauss

Was the nephew of Emile Durkheim who was the founder of “modern sociology”. He got

inspired by analyzing religion in social perspectives which made him the author of social

ethnology which deals with the study of cultures and their social structures.

Regarding the concept of personhood, Mauss believed that the self (moi) is slowly

evolving, not its sense but the notion how it was formed in different era.

4. Edward Sapir

Was one of the prominent linguists and anthropologist of his time which made him known

as the founder of ethnolinguistics (relationship of culture to language). He believes that

man’s linguistic knowledge gives insight to his cognitive component which makes him

understand the cultural diversity,

5. Clifford Geertz

An American Anthropologist was known for his symbolic or interpretative anthropology.

His focus was about the cultural objects surrounding the individual, and he believed that

these “things” have symbolic meanings for some people in the development of culture

which helps them to understand the perspective of their environment.

6. Claude Levi Strauss

Became one of the most important anthropologists of all times. In the interview of the New

York Times with Philippine Escola, he mentioned that people realized that he is one of

the great intellectual heroes of the 20th century for he was an influential educator that

inspired many people and agencies when he worked as university professor.

Claude was one of the founders of structuralism which suggested that there are universal

structures of laws that exist in a person’s behavior and culture; there are universal

patterns of structures in everything that we do which made us compare and

analyze our cultures from other cultures like celebration of festive, rituals, marriage, etc.

THE MAJOR BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Socio-cultural Anthropology

Socio-cultural anthropology is a portmanteau word (is formed by combining two or more

existing words that all relate to a singular concept) used to refer to social anthropology

and cultural anthropology together.

Social Anthropology studies how social structures affect culture. How the systems that

rule a society will influence its cultural methods and ideologies. For example, how a

government structure might affect farming practices.

Cultural anthropology is the study of individual cultures. It usually involves more

ethnology than social anthropology and is usually more focused on using artifacts or living

people to understand how a societies cultural perception, (ideas about family, marriage,

clothing styles, religious preferences).

Culture and Society are intricately related. A culture consists of the “object” of a society,

whereas a society is consisting of the people who share the common culture.

• Edward Burnett Tylor - The founder of cultural anthropology. Tylor is

representative of cultural evolutionism. In his works Primitive Culture and

Anthropology, he defined the context of the scientific study of anthropology, based

on the evolutionary theories of Charles Lyell. He believed that there was a

functional basis for the development of society and religion, which he determined

was universal.

• SOCIO-CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY SUB-BRANCHES

a. Economic Anthropology

b. Political Anthropology

c. Psychological Anthropology

d. Ecological Anthropology

e. Anthropology of the Religion

Biological Anthropology (Previously known as Physical Anthropology)

It is a branch of Anthropology which attempts to explore human mystery related to their

origin, differentiation, diversities, and distributions. It deals with the biological and

behavioral aspects of human beings. It focuses on their relationships to non-human

primates and their extinct hominid ancestors.

• Johann Friedrich Blumenbach was born on May 11, 1775. He was one of the

first to explore the study of mankind as an aspect of natural history. Frequently

called the father of physical anthropology, Blumenbach proposed one of the

earliest classifications of the races of mankind. He divided humanity into five races:

Caucasian, Ethiopian, American, Mongolian, and Malay.

Archaeological Anthropology

This branch of anthropology studies both the ancient and recent past of humans through

the material remains such as artifacts, fossils, and bone fragments. They seek not only

to reconstruct the daily life and customs of peoples who lived in the past but also to trace

cultural changes and to offer possible explanations of these changes. Most archeologist

deal with prehistory, the time before written records. But there is specially within

archeology, called historical archeology, that studies the remains of recent peoples who

left written records.

Linguistic Anthropology

Linguistic Anthropology is the branch of anthropology which deals with language. It is

concerned with the languages of all people, past and present as it is the chief vehicle

through which man preserves and transmits his culture from generation to generation. It
also interested in the relationship between language and cultural cognition as well as

cultural behavior.

A. Historical linguistic- the study of how languages change over time and how they

may be related.

B. Structural or descriptive linguistics- is interested in how contemporary languages

differ, especially in their construction

C. Socio-linguistic- is the study of how language is used in social context.

Applied Anthropology

The aim of the study of man is not only merely acquiring knowledge regarding man,

society, and culture, but in applying the knowledge gained in solving the practical

problems faced by mankind all over the world. Specifically, it deals with the application of

anthropological facts, perspective, theories, and procedures in identifying, assessing, and

solving social problems. For example, linguistics may be applied to restore language

competence.

Looking through

There are three boxes below named: Past, Present, Future. Fill in
FOR
REFLECTION all the boxes with your best description of society in the past,
SEEKERS
present and future.
 PAST PRESENT FUTURE

UNIT 4: PSYCHOLOGY

Objectives:

1. Explain the importance of understanding psychology;

2. Discuss how self and society has been described in the field of psychology;

3. Describe the different approaches how psychology deals with situations of society.

4. Explain the cognitive construction of self.

DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY

The word "psychology" comes from the Greek word psyche, meaning "breath, spirit,

soul", and the Greek word logia meaning, the study of something.According to

American Psychological Association, Psychology is the study of the mind and

behavior.

1. William James

American philosopher and psychologist. First educator to offer psychology course in the

united states. Also known as “Father of American Psychology”.

2. Carl Rogers

An American Psychologist, considered to be one of the Founding Fathers of

Psychotherapy Research.

3. Albert Bandura (Born December 4, 1925)

A Canadian American psychologist. Bandura has been responsible for contributions to

the field of education and to several fields of psychology, including social cognitive theory,

therapy, and personality psychology

SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Basic Psychology

it is aimed at contributing to knowledge of behavior. College, Universities, Laboratories,

and Departments are the main employment settings of the basic Psychology.

Basic Psychology has the following subfields:

• Developmental Psychology - is a scientific approach which aims to explain

growth, change and consistency though the lifespan. Developmental psychology

looks at how thinking, feeling, and behavior change throughout a person’s life.

• Social Psychology - is about understanding individual behavior in a social

context. It therefore looks at human behavior as influenced by other people and

the social context in which this occurs.

• Physiological Psychology –deals with how the human mind affects our behavior.

Studies in physiological psychology explore topics involving the development of

 the brain, visual perception, disorders of movement, the nervous system, stages

of sleep and escape behaviors.

• Abnormal Psychology – It studies the models, causes, classification, diagnosis,

and the treatment of individuals with psychological disorders.

• Experimental Psychology –Experimental psychology utilizes scientific methods

to answer these questions by researching the mind and behavior.

• Psychometrics Psychology –concerned with the quantification and

measurement of mental attributes, behavior, performance, and the like, as well as

with the design, analysis, and improvement of the tests, questionnaires, and other

instruments used in such measurement. Also called psychometric psychology;

psychometry.

• Cognitive Psychology – focuses on the way people process information. It looks

at how we process information we receive and how the treatment of this

information leads to our responses.

• Personality Psychology - An individual’s personality is the combination of traits

and patterns that influence their behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion. It

drives individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways; in

essence, it is what makes each individual unique. Over time, these patterns

strongly influence personal expectations, perceptions, values, and attitudes.

Applied Psychology

uses the various fields of basic psychology to improve the quality of life of the human

being in various field like school, industry, hospital, consultancy, and community.

Applied Psychology has the following subfields:

• Clinical Psychology - Clinical psychology is a broad branch of psychology that

focuses on diagnosing and treating mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.

Some of the more common disorders that might be treated include learning

disabilities, substance abuse, depression, anxiety, and eating disorders.

• Counselling Psychology–usually works with a somewhat different clients, aiding

people struggling with everyday problem of moderate severity. Thus, they often

engage in family, marital, and career counseling.

• Organizational Psychology - Industrial organizational psychologists use

psychological principles and research methods to solve problems in the workplace

and improve the quality of life. They study workplace productivity and management

and employee working styles.

• Educational Psychology– study of how humans learn and retain knowledge,

primarily in educational settings like classrooms. This includes emotional, social,

and cognitive learning processes. Areas of focus in this branch of psychology

might include teaching and testing methods, classroom environment, and learning,

social, and behavioral problems that may impede learning

• Health Psychology–Health psychology is a specialty area that focuses on how

biology, psychology, behavior, and social factors influence health and illness.

Other terms including medical psychology and behavioral medicine are sometimes

used interchangeably with the term health psychology.

• Environmental Psychology–The personality make-up of people of a country is

shaped by the nature and type of environment in which they live.

 • Forensic Psychology– Forensic psychology is often described as the merger of

law and psychology. Professionals in this field are often given the responsibilities

of trying to figure out why certain types of people commit crimes; what type of

person committed a crime; and how to prevent people from committing crimes.

• Sports and Exercise Psychology–Exercise psychology and sport psychology

involve the scientific study of the psychological factors that are associated with

participation and performance in sport, exercise and other types of physical

activity.

• Psychology of Woman - The idea of learning about female psychology secrets

may seem appealing whether you're trying to date the woman of your dreams or

be the woman of your dreams. No matter what your perspective or position in life,

understanding what women all are about is an important part of being human.

Looking through

You’ll be making this activity with a partner. Ensure the everyone

FOR
REFLECTION has their partner to make this a success. In an 8 x 11 inch of paper,
SEEKERS
make a creative way to describe your partner. You may include

everything you know about the person. Your partner must nothing to say about how you

describe him/her. After submitting to your professor, you may give your work to your

partner.
UNIT 5: THE SELF IN WESTERN/ ORIENTAL AND EASTERN THOUGHT

Objectives:

1. Explain the different presentation of self in various regions of the world;

2. Compare and contrast the different concepts of self analyzed by philosophers across

regions;

INDIVIDUALISTIC versus COLLECTIVE SELF

Individualistic Self

Individualistic self basically refers to the self. It is the person's projection of his uniqueness

such as the habits, traits, behavior, emotion, dream, skills, intelligence, and other traits

made him distinct from others. It is characterized by being self-reliant, independent, and

self- sufficient in order to look after himself.

Individualistic believes in the uniqueness of each person with respect to other individuals

in the group. They are viewed as autonomous and independent. The emotions as well as

behaviors become self-centered, thus the motivation in reaching his goal rely on his

personal feelings of pursuing it.

The individualistic cultures suggested that their view of independent self-concept sustains

their good feeling about themselves because they believe in the uniqueness of each

individual in the group. Thus, they feel responsible for their own well-being and behaviors;

thus, it becomes self-focused.

Collective Self

The collective self projects the identity with the group e.g. family. The role is

defined within the group. The well-being of the individual is protected, thus, one protects

the other for group's survival and success. That's why the group members are

psychologically and emotionally attached with the in-group members but seemed to be

indifferent with the out-group. The collective self is characterized with interdependence

and harmony with the group members, and each one in the group is important.

Collectivist believed in the interconnectedness with respect to others, and views

them as vital part of the situation. The person's emotions and behaviors are relative on

the others, which make them conscious on what people will perceive about them.

The collectivist self-concept thinks that they need to perform their roles in the group

due to interdependent self-concept. Their well being, which is relative to one's culture, is

dependent and sustained through satisfying the extrinsic expectations set; thus it

becomes selfless.

Individualistic versus Collectivist Self- Expressions

In the article of Bernardo Carducci in Psychology Today, he gathered information

about the expressions of the self in individualistic vs collective cultures: a cross-cultural-

perspective teaching module, below are the findings:

Emotions
 People are likely to experience emotions related directly to a personal sense of

self like pride (“I did a great job”) or frustration (“I was cheated out of raise”) in western

cultures rather than eastern cultures (Eid and Diener, 2001). Compared to individualistic

cultures, people from collective cultures are more likely to base their emotional

expressions on assessments of social worth and shifts in relative social worth, which

emphasizes the relatedness of the person to others (Mesquita, 2001). For instance, the

person in collectivistic culture will experience pride in helping others (e.g. I extended my

group mates until we finished the task that’s why we got good grades), and become sad

if his effort has negative impact to others (e.g. I was not able to perform well in the

volleyball game which that’s why we lost it.)

Personal Success and Failures

People in western cultures assume success through self enhancement (“I worked

really hard for my raise”) (Carducci, 2009). While in eastern cultures, people tend to

perceive their success in modest manner and attribute it to situations (“I got the increment

because my immediate superior is kind in giving the evaluation”).

While in facing failure, the western people are likely to downplay the personal

responsibility to protect their self-image (“I didn’t get the raise because the boss dislikes

me”). On the other hand, people in eastern cultures are likely to explain their failures by

raising others’ personal attributes (“I did not get the raise because I did not work as hard

as my co-workers”) (Heine, Kitayam, et.al 199)

Shame and Guilt

 Collectivist cultures promote greater feelings of shame and guilt compared to

individualistic cultures due to their emphasis on self-public aspects. (Buss, 2001;

Carducci, 2009). For instance, a battered wife would think many times if she would like to

divorce her husband because of the guilt about the shame she would bring to the family

in their community.

How to determine if the culture is individualistic or collectivistic?

Harry Triandis (1994) suggested that there are key factors in determining if the

culture is individualistic or collectivist and these are:

1. Complexity of society: People who are living in more complex industrialized

countries are less likely to have loyalty; thus, they tend to become more self-focused than

achieve the collective goals.

2. Affluence of society: When each person in the society tend to become stable,

they greater financial freedom they would feel; therefore, it leads to social independence

and focuses more on individual rather than collective goals.

3. Heterogeneity: People who belong in a culturally diverse society tend to become

more permissive of dissent which makes them express more of what’s on their mind.

While those who are in homogenous society (share the same language, customs, norms,

religion) are more rigid and intolerant

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF SELF

As we interact, we tend to gain experiences, learn from people or situations around

us, assimilate, from the people we are interacting with or from the society’s culture we
belong, and tend to develop perception form our environment. Thus, one’s learning may

differ from other person’s realities, and these differences are results of social

construction.

Social Constructionism

is a theory that examines the development of combined understandings of people,

which means that person’s understanding shapes another person’s perception.

each person constructs reality and justifies reasons based on their personal experiences

with others.

CHARLES HORTON COOLEY (1864- 1929): Looking Glass Self

American sociologist and the son of Michigan Supreme Court Judge Thomas M.

Cooley. He studied and went on to teach economics and sociology at the University of

Michigan, was a founding member of the American Sociological Association in 1905 and

became its eighth president in 1918.

According to Cooley, Socialization develops our social self through our observation

with the people around us-- their attitudes and behaviors in the society.

Cooley believed that we are not influenced by others opinion but by our imagination

how people will see us.

Looking Glass Self

States that a person’s self grows out of a person’s social interaction with others.

People in our environment serve as the mirrors which reflect our self image.
 Our self image is not only created by our self-perception but also our

understanding of how other people perceive us.

It is not only through our thoughts about personal qualities but how we interpret

and believe how others see us. It is accomplished by these steps:

1. How do I appear to others?

2. What others think of me?

3. How do we revise ourselves?

ERVING GOFFMAN (1922-1982): The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life

Canadian-American sociologist, social psychologist, and writer, considered by

some "the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century.

He believed that “we are all actors on stage”

each person creates the social scripts in life which made him the scriptwriter; the actor

which he plays the act; the audience which his performance, and critique which he judges

his own behavior.

According to Goffman, Impression Management is the projection of our “idealized

image”.

Goffman believed that roles are important because people can’t just act the way

they want because there’s a society that dictates the norm and what act is appropriate

towards self and others. Thus, people must be aware how to present their social self and

different personas by wearing different masks appropriate for the different roles and
situations. Thus, the attainment of self is based on the social process, and one must

perform based on the expectations of others and social norms.

William Isaac Thomas (1863- 1947): Thomas Theorem

William Isaac Thomas was an American educator and sociologist. Married to

Dorothy Thomas, both of them formulated the sociological theory called the Thomas

Theorem which states that “if men define situations as real, they are real in their

consequences.” This theorem believes that the outcome of the situation does not depend

on the situation but by individual’s perception about it.

This theorem is significant in providing explanation about society’s values,

superstition, and baseless rumors.

Thus, Thomas Theorem helps us understand further that there are some aspects

of our lives that are products of social constructs like bias, prejudice, and discrimination,

for that reason, we should not easily believe or react to avoid hurting others.

Robert K. Merton (1910- 2003): Self- fulfilling Prophecy

Robert King Merton was an American sociologist and educator who was also

considered as the founding father of modern sociology because of his famous conceited

such as the “reference group”, “unintended consequences “, “role model”, and “self-

fulfilling prophecy” which rooted from the Thomas theorem. Merton believed that self-

fulfilling prophecy begins as a false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior

which makes the originally false conception come true. Self-fulfilling prophecy suggests

that it is just a prediction wether good or bad that comes true due to intense belief followed

by certain behaviour based on the prophecy which makes the prediction come true.
 Self-fulfilling prophecy involves at least two people, and one of them has set

expected behaviours to the other one that would eventually become his behaviour to

confirm the expectation.

Charles Taylor: Modern Self

Charles Magrave Taylor is a Canadian philosopher and educator. He wrote and

published a boom in 1989 entitled “Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity”,

which explores the multiplicity of the self in the modern Western world. Through historical

perspective, Taylor showed the development of modern identity. A modern conception of

selfhood is someone who, promotes independence, values authenticity, sees nature as

a source of goodness, possess inner depths, affirms ordinary life, and the one feels

compassion in the suffering of others.

Moreover, he believed that giving meanings are important because it creates

powerful awareness but it changes over time and it is relative to the culture where one

belongs.

Thus, Taylor believes that individual’s sense of self cannot be achieved alone but

through recognition from others. On the other hand, the failure to acknowledge properly

one’s identity could also damage the person’s sense of self. An individual may rank some

of their need or evaluated their value, worth or importance from others which means that

the self does not only quantify but also qualify the distinction he earned.

THE SELF AS EMBEDDED IN RELATIONSHIPS AND THROUGH SPIRITUAL

DEVELOPMENT AND THROUGH SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT IN CONFUCIAN

THOUGHT
 Confucius (K’ung Futzu) is the founder of Confucianism who was born in the

province of Lu state in 551 BCE, during the Chou dynasty. He is the one most influential

philosophers in history. He was not only a notable political philosopher but he was also

an educator, moralist, and statesman. He spent his years roaming in China giving advice

to prominent leaders and politicians. For him, if the ruler is benevolent, the government’s

goal will definitely for the good welfare of its people. Individual’s morality and ethics as

well as proper practice of political power by the rulers are the focus of his writings.

CONFUCIANISM and SELF

Confucianism believed that there is “no self” when he stated “If one had no self

motives, but only the supreme virtues, there would be no self..If he serves selflessly, he

does not know what service is (does not recognize it as service). If he knows what service

is, he has a self… (to think) only of parent but not of yourself…is what I call no self” (Zoky

Kyuo dowa [Kyuo’s Moral discourse continued], 1835).

Hiroshi Minami noted that the concept of no-self is identical with the spirit of service

above self, where every spontaneous is rejected with selfishness. The quest for human

self, the search for what is to be human in terms of substance or no substance in terms

of spirit or body does not exist in Confucian thought.

Confucianism’s philosophy about self is seen in “The Great Learning” which

revealed how development of self is attained and how it flows over into serving and

blessing humankind, and these are through investigation of phenomena, learning,

sincerity, rectitude of purpose, self-development, family discipline, local self-government,

and universal self-government. This means that before a person could project virtue to

states, they must refine their own affective and cognitive conditions first.

Confucianism is not a religion like Christianity for many scholars because it does

not teach about God or Deity but focuses on behavior, ethical and moral standards of

human being. It suggested that personality is formed through nurture which refers to the

upbringing and environment: so, the self is a social human being to be developed and not

inherent. It is believed that personality is an achieved moral excellence than a set of

human condition.

Confucianism believed that everyone has beginnings which seemed like the pre-

concept of self in western thoughts, and these are the virtues:

• Jen – heart of compassion

• Yi – heart of righteousness

• Li – heart of propriety

• Chih – heart of wisdom

• Hsin – heart of integrity

Jen (Ren) is translated as goodness of humaneness which desires only “good” for others.

It is the supreme virtue and represents goodness or benevolence which includes the idea

of Shu that is similar to Golden rule’s “Don’t do unto others what you do not what others

do unto you,” except you must respond to bad virtues with good ones. Jen is the personal

attributes that is described as the best human qualities like goodness, benevolence,

diligence, peace, charity, sincerity, respectful, social harmony and loving kindness. It is

the most important virtue because other virtues came from Jen.
Yi is the righteousness which is the principle of morality. It includes duty to feel shame for

wrongs.

Li is behaving properly toward other individuals which means showing good manners,

and towards self which is the self-respect. It also refers to sacred ritual. With these

combined definitions, it means to behave properly at all times or ritually.

Chih (or Zih) refers to the general knowledge or wisdom in morality which includes the

right or wrong or every situation.

Hsin (or Xin) is the integrity which refers to the amount of loyalty to others, and good

faith.

Confucianism believed that spiritual development comes after physical, mental, and

emotional development. The individual must learn to have self-awareness, self-respect,

and self-regard as he socializes with others because for Confucius of the person doesn’t

know how to live as a person, how can he serve the spirit. Confucianism is putting

emphasis in being spiritual but not religious.

“The Great Learning” is a Confucianism book where it revealed how self-development

and overflowing blessings could be attained. This was attributed to Confucius because of

his views and rationalization but it is said to be written by Master Zeng Shen (Zeng Can),

and was translated and published by a priest in the 19th century named James Legge in

The Chinese Classics (1893-1895).

UNIT 6: PHYSICAL SELF

Objectives:

1. Define physical self;

2. Explain the importance of understanding physical self.

I. DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL SELF

Physical self is the concrete dimension, the tangible aspect of the person that can be

directly observed and examined.

II. DEFINITION OF SELF-IDENTITY

Refers to a person's self-conception, self-referent cognitions, or self-definition that

people apply to themselves as a consequence of the structural role positions he or she

occupies or a particular behavior he or she engages in regularly.

III. BODY ADORNMENT

Refers to the practice of physically enhancing the body by styling and decorating the hair

painting and embellishing the fingernails, wearing make-up or jewelry and use of clothing.

IV. BODY MODIFICATION

Refers to the permanent physical alteration of the body through the use of surgery,

tattooing, piercing, scarification, branding, genital mutilation, and other practices.

CONTEXT OF BEAUTY
Is the quality by which something gives pleasure to someone directly through the intellect

and independent of any ulterior considerations.

ILLUSION OF TRANSPARENCY

Is a tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which their personal mental state

is known by others

SELF ESTEEM

Is used to describe a person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value.

Looking through

Interview 1 person, who had tattoo, body piercing and painting.

FOR
REFLECTION Explore their reason, perception of beauty and how it affects their
SEEKERS
self-esteem. Summarize the responses using table format. You may

include the name and pictures for validity of the content.

TYPES OF BODY REASONS BEAUTY AS SELF-ESTEEM

ADORNMENT DEFINED RATING

UNIT 7: SEXUAL SELF

1. Elaborate the Theory of Love, Biology of Love and Chemistry of Love.

2. Discuss the different types of Sexually Transmitted Diseases.

3. Explain the Methods of Contraception.

Sexual self-concept refers to the totality of oneself as a sexual being, including positive

and negative concepts and feelings. According to theorists, sexual self-concept is

described well along three dimensions, Snell & Papini, 1989: sexual self-esteem,

sexual depression, and sexual preoccupation.

Reproductive system

the system of organs and parts which function in reproduction consisting in the male

especially of the testes, penis, seminal vesicles, prostate, and urethra and in the female

especially of the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and vulva.

Reproductive Organs

Both male and female reproductive organs have internal and external structures.

Reproductive organs are considered to be either primary or secondary organs. The

primary reproductive organs are the gonads ( ovaries and testes ), which are responsible

for gamete ( sperm and egg cell ) and hormone production. The other reproductive

structures and organs are considered secondary reproductive structure. Secondary

organs aid in the growth and maturation of gametes and developing offspring.

Biological Changes in Men and Women

Fertility is one of the major differences between men and women. On one hand, men are

continuously fertile from puberty to almost up to 100 years of age even though by that

time they are physically unable to engage in sexual activities. Their sperms are still viable

but poor in quality. Men are fertile this long because there is a continuous production of

sperms through the process called spermatogenesis.

Women on the other hand, are fertile for roughly 12 hours each month from menarche up

until they are in their fifties when menopause begins for most women. Fertility for them

are limited because they have a set number of eggs. During fetal development there are

initially 3 million to 4 million follicles or eggs present but through the process of apoptosis

(cell death) that number drops to about 1 million eggs by the time of birth. This cell

depletion will continue throughout the female's life.

Even though the fertility process for men and women are basically hormone driven with

both beginning with the release of a hormone from the hypothalamus. The fertility process

is a little more complicated for women and involves several critical steps with other

hormones to progress from beginning to end of the menstrual cycle.

Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is a treatment to relieve symptoms

of the menopause. It replaces hormones that are at a lower level as you approach
the menopause.

HUMAN SEXUAL CYCLE AND PSCHOSEXUAL STAGES

Human Sexual Response Cycle

The human response cycle refers to the sequence of physical and emotonal changes that

occurs as a person becomes sexually aroused and participates in sexually stimulating

activities.

This is first formulated by William H. Master and Virginia E. Johnson in their book back in

1996 the Human Sexual Response, where they proposed the phases of sexual response

cycle in human sexual interaction.

Phases of the Sexual Response Cycle

The model is also known as EPOR Model. The sexual response cycle has four phase:

excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Phase 1: Excitement

This is also known as arousal phase or initial excitement phase is the first stage of human

sexual respinse cycle. This phase occurs as a result of physical or mental erotic

stimulation in a form of kissing, petting, and caressing.

Phase 2: Plateau
Once you reach the excitement, come the next phase which is Plateau stage. The plateau

phase is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm. The phase is characterized as

the peak level of excitement.

Phase 3: Orgasm

The orgasm is the climax of the sexual response cycle. It is the shortest of the phases

and generally lasts only a few seconds.

Phase 4: Resolution

During resolution, the body slowly returns to its normal level o functioning. This phase is

marked by a general sense of well-being, enhanced intimacy, and ofen fatigue.

Psychosexual Stages and Erogenous Zone

Libido is considered a psychic force or energy that motivates individual into action. As a

child begins to develop, the libido manifest in the different part of the body which he called,

erogenous zone.

Fixation are conflicts or concern that persist beyond the developmental period. The

conflict may be due to the needs being ignored or being over indulged during the earlier

period.

1. Oral Stage (first 12 to 18 months of life)

The baby's mouth is the focal point of pleasure. At these stage children activities is

centered on the mouth, such as sucking, eating, and biting.

2. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years old)

Stage when the child learns to toilet training is the anal stage. The major source of

pleasuŕe is through retention and expulsion of feces.

3. Phallic Stage (3 to 5 years of age)

This focus of the erogenous zone is the genitals and te pleasures derived from fondling

them. This is the stage where stage where children begin to see the differences between

male and female anatomical parts.

4. Latency Stage (5 to 6 years old)

This last until puberty. During this perod, sexual interest are repressed. Children prefer to

play with their own age and similar gender. This is a period where they build friendship

and camaraderie with friends and classmates.

5. Genital Stage (puberty stage onwards)

The sexual feelings begin to re-emerge in the final stage of psychosexual. This stage is

called genital stage. It starts from adolescence until death. The focus during the genital

stage is on mature, adult sexuality, which Freud defi

BIOLOGY OF LOVE AND ATTRACTION

Attraction

• is more physical and external.

• it varies depending on the person's preferences

• Attraction can be an initial phase that leads to liking and loving.

Love

• Refers to a vast and complex territory of human behavior.

• a feeling of strong or constant affection for a person

• Attraction that includes sexual desire.

• a person you like/love in a romantic way

THEORY OF LOVE

Robert J. Sternberg (1988) describe the triarchic theory of love. This is a paradigm of love

as illustrated: passion, intimacy, and commitment.

Passion

• Is a physical or sexual attraction to another.

• a strong sexual or romantic feeling for someone

• Is an intense emotion, a compelling enthusiasm or desire for someone/something.

Intimacy

• Is emotional feelings of warmth, closeness and sharing in a relationship.

• The state of having a close, personal relationship or romantic relationship with

someone
Commitment

• is our cognitive appraisal of the relationship and our intent to maintain the

relationship even in face of problems (Rubult & others, 2001)

• According to the theory, it is the feeling of attachment closeness and

connectedness

• sometimes these feeling develop and lead to passion the fiery depth and intense

feeling you get when you like someone.

• it encompasses the drive connected to both combine (romantic attraction) and

sexual attraction

• it involved commitment, it comes into the two lovers together

• it is a decision to remain with one another (short term) and plans made in the future

(long term)

TRIANGULAR THEORY OF LOVE - ROBERT J. STERNBERG

According to this Sternberg Trangular Love theory, there are six combinations of

love that are describe as follows:

• non-love

• friendship

• Infatuated Love

• Empty Love

• Romantic Love

• Companionate Love

• Fatuous Love
Three Categories of Love according to Dr. Helen Fisher:

LUST

(the craving for sexual gratification), driven by androgens (testosterone) and estrogen

ATTRACTION

(Romantic or Passionate Love), driven by high dopamine and norepinephrine levels

and low serotonin.

ATTACHMENT

(the sense of calm, peace, stability one feels with long- term partner), driven by

hormones oxytocin and vasopressin.

DIVERSITY OF SEXUAL BEHAVIORS

Sexual Orientation

It refers to an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic and/or sexual attractions to men,

women or both sexes. Sexual Orientation refers also to a person’s sense of identity based

on those attractions, related behaviors and members in a community of others who share

those attractions.

Sexual orientation usually discussed in terms of three categories:

• Heterosexual

• Homosexual
• Bisexual

Biological Sex

is the label that you’re given at birth based on medical factors, including your hormones,

chromosomes, and genitals. Most people are assigned male or female, and this is what’s

put on their birth certificates.

Gender identity

is how you feel inside and how you express your gender through clothing, behavior, and

personal appearance. It’s a feeling that begins very early in life.

Social gender-role ideology

refers to an individual's attitudes and beliefs about the proper roles of men and women.

In other words, how a person judges the appropriateness of behaviors and characteristics

of men and women in our society.

Attitude and behavior of lesbian and gay male

Until the end of the nineteenth century. It was generally believed that people were either

heterosexual or homosexual. Today, it is more accepted to view sexual orientation along

a continuum from exclusive male-female relations to exclusive same-sex relations rather

than an either/or proposition (King,2005).

Sexual Discrimination takes many forms. Severe antigay prejudice is reflected in the

high rate of harassment and violence directed toward lesbian, gay and bisexual
individuals in American society. Numerous surveys indicate that verbal harassment and

abuse are nearly universal experiences among lesbian, gay and bisexual people. Also,

discrimination against lesbian, gay and bisexual in employment and housing appears

to remain widespread. The HIV/AIDS pandemic is another area in which prejudice and

discrimination against lesbian, gay and bisexual people have had negative effects. Early

in the pandemic, the assumption that HIV/AIDS was a “gay diseases” contributed to the

delay in addressing the massive social upheaval that AIDS would generate.

SEXUALITY TRANSMITTED DISEASES AND METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION

Sexual Transmitted Diseases (STDs), also called sexually transmitted infections (STIs),

are infections that are passed from person to person through sexual contact. HIV is an

STD. There are more than 25 other sexually transmitted infections that are mainly spread

by sexual contact such as vagina, anal, and oral sex.

TYPES OF SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

1. Chlamydia

Chlamydia is an STD caused by Chlamydia trachomatis (C. trachomatis). This bacterium

only infects humans. Chlamydia is the most common infectious cause of genital and eye

diseases globally. It is also the most common bacterial STD.

2. Chancroid

Chancroid is also known as soft chancre and ulcus molle. It is a bacterial infection caused

by called streptobacillus Haemophilus ducreyi. The infection causes painful sores on the

genitals and is only spread through sexual contact.

3. Crabs, or pubic lice

Pubic lice manifestations are primarily spread through sexual contact. Pets do not play

any part in the transmission of human lice.

The lice attach to the pubic hair, and may also be sometimes found in the armpits,

mustache, beard, eyelashes, and eyebrows. They feed on human blood.

The common term "crabs" comes from the crab-like appearance of the lice.

4. Genital herpes

This STD is caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). The virus affects the skin, cervix,

genitals, and some other parts of the body. There are two types:

HSV-1, also known as herpes type 1

HSV-2, also known as herpes type 2

Herpes is a chronic condition. A significant number of individuals with herpes never show

symptoms and do not know about their herpes status.

HSV is easily transmissible from human to human through direct contact. Most commonly,

transmission of type 2 HSV occurs through vaginal, oral, or anal sex. Type 1 is more

commonly transmitted from shared straws, utensils, and surfaces.

In most cases, the virus remains dormant after entering the human body and shows no

symptoms.

The symptoms associated with genital herpes, if they do occur, may include:
• blisters and ulceration on the cervix

• vaginal discharge

• pain on urinating

• fever

• generally feeling unwell

• cold sores around the mouth in type 1 HSV

Also, red blisters may occur on the external genital area, rectum, thighs, and buttocks.

These can be painful, especially if they burst and leave ulcers.

5. Trichomoniasis

Trichomoniasis is a common STD that can affect both sexes. However, women are more

likely to experience symptoms. The infection is caused by a single-celled protozoan

parasite, Trichomonas vaginalis.

For women, the vagina is the most common site of infection, while for men it is the urethra.

Transmission may occur either by sexual intercourse or vulva-to-vulva contact.

While women may acquire the infection from either male or female sexual partners, men

nearly always become infected from having sex with women.

6. HIV and AIDS

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) attacks the immune system, leaving its host much

more vulnerable to infections and diseases. If the virus is left untreated, the susceptibility

to infection worsens.
HIV can be found in semen, blood, breast milk, and vaginal and rectal fluids. HIV can be

transmitted through blood-to-blood contact, sexual contact, breast-feeding, childbirth, the

sharing of equipment to inject drugs, such as needles and syringes, and, in rare instances,

blood transfusions.

7. Syphilis

Syphilis is the result of Treponema pallidum, a bacterium. It is transmitted by sexual

contact, and the person passing on the infection will have a syphilitic lesion. A woman

who is pregnant and also has syphilis can pass on this STD to her baby, which can result

in stillbirth or serious congenital deformities.

8. Gonorrhea

This sexually transmitted bacterial infection usually attacks the mucous membranes. It is

also known as the clap or the drip.

The bacterium, which is highly contagious, stays in the warmer and moister cavities of

the body.

Prevention

Sex using a condom is the safest way to prevent the spread of STDs. Condoms are known

as barrier contraceptives, due to their presentation of a physical barrier to microbes.

For each oral, vaginal, or anal sex act, use a new latex condom. Condoms are available

to purchase online.
Avoid using an oil-based lubricant, such as petroleum jelly, when using a latex condom.

Non-barrier forms of contraception, such as oral contraceptives or intrauterine devices,

do nothing to protect people from sexually transmitted infections.

Here are other steps you can take to reduce the risk of an STD:

Abstinence: Abstaining from any sexual act is the most effective way to avoid an STD.

Monogamy to one uninfected partner: A long-term, monogamous relationship with one

person who is not infected can reduce the risk of contracting an STD.

Vaccinations: There are vaccinations that can protect an individual from eventually

developing some types of cancer that are caused by HPV and hepatitis B.

Check for infections: Before sexual intercourse with a new partner, check that the

partner and yourself have no STDs.

Drink alcohol in moderation: People who have consumed too much alcohol are more

likely to engage in risky behavior. Avoid using recreational drugs, which may also affect

judgment.

Explain you want safe sex: Before engaging in any sexual act with a new partner,

communicate that you would only consider safe sex.

Education: Parents, schools, and society need to teach children about the importance of

safe sex, and explain how to prevent becoming infected with an STD, including

information relevant to the LGBTQ community.

UNIT 8: MATERIAL SELF

Objectives:

1. Manifest the material self or a person;

2. Discuss the Psychology of buying.

UNFOLDING OF MATERIAL SELF

In the theory of William James, the self can be viewed as the subject of thought or as an

object of thought. As an object of thought, the self is further decomposed to the “material

self, “the social self” and “spiritual self”. Material self-revolved on the acquisition of the

physical object in a form of possessions that shaped their well-being.

SOLID CONSUMPTION

As ephemeral, access based and dematerialized, and solid consumption as that which is

enduring, ownership based and tangible.

DEMATERIALIZATION

Refers to the act of transforming physical shares to an equivalent number of shares in

electronic form, into the investor's account.

PSYCHOLOGY OF BUYING

THE CONSUMER PERSONALITY

To understand a buyer needs and convert them into customers is the main purpose of

the consumer behavior study.

 Looking through

Watch the Movie “Confessions of a shopaholic”. See the movie

FOR
REFLECTION before going to the discussion of this chapter. After watching the
SEEKERS
movie, make a 300-word essay whether you foreseen yourself to the

main character.

UNIT 9: SPIRITUAL SELF

1. To differentiate spirituality and religion;

2. To discuss the meaning of spirituality and meaning of life.

Defining Spirituality

Spirituality is often defined as a connection or relationship with and faith in a Higher

Power, and an integration of values and beliefs with behavior in everyday life; the

emphasis is on the personal qualities of relationship with a Higher Power, and less on

organizational or institutional beliefs and practices associated with religiousness

(Zinnbauer, et al., 1997).

Filipino Culture and Religion

Indigenous and pre-colonial spiritual belief in spirits is pervasive in the Filipino notions

about the spiritual world. In rural communities the use of healers is to cure illnesses.

Healers are considered Shaman, or ordained person with spiritual sensitivity. The healers
work to cure illnesses that are caused by invisible small spirit beings called tawo. These

beings are the cause of a wide range of ailments and must be dealt with by a trained

healer who is able to talk with the tawo to meditate and work on behalf of the sick to

induce the being take pity on the sick and end its infliction upon the individual (Cannell,

1999). Other faith healers are called albularyo, babaylan, and the manghihilot. As a result

of four centuries of Spanish Colonial, the Catholic faith rule became part of Filipino culture.

There is a diversity of religions in the Philippines, Roman Catholicism is still the dominant

religion practiced by 85% of the population.

Spiritual Beings

Filipino beliefs in spirits are anchored in the cultures and practices as well. The belief that

the world is inhabited by spirits and supernatural entities, both good and bad, and that

respect be accorded to them through nature worship. These spirits all around the nature

are known as “diwatas”, showing cultural relationship with Hinduism (Devatas). Others

practice Ancestor worship (Anitos) . Vations of animistic practices occur in different ethnic

groups. Magic, chants and prayers are often key features,. In the Visayan regions,

shamanistic and animistic beliefs in witchcraft (barang) and mythical creatures like

aswang (vampires), duwende (dwarves), and bakonawa (a gigantic sea serpent), may

exist in some indigenous peoples alongside more mainstream Christian and Islamic

faiths.

Spirituality and Meaning of Life

Victor Frankl was born and educated in Vienna, Austria. He was influence by the

philosophers in the writing existentialism. He constructed one of the most prominent

therapy that help people find meaning in life. In his book man’s search for meaning he

describes how to live and find one’s meaning.

Logo therapy is an existential approach to aiding the individual with problems of

philosophical or spiritual nature. These problems of the meaning of life, the meaning of

death, of suffering, of work and of love. The problems in these are results in existential

frustration or a sense of meaninglessness in life. Logo therapy is directed towards such

problems. Logos has two folds meaning of “the meaning” and “the spiritual”. It is designed

to help the individual comprehend his responsibility to accomplished which of his tasks

and the fulfillment of these assignments gives meaning to life.

Frankl also identify the three philosophical concept of logo therapy.

• FREEDOM OF WILL

The space of shaping one’s own life within the limits of the given possibilities. Humans

are not fully subject to conditions but are basically free to decide and capable of taking

their stance towards internal and external conditions.

• WILL TO MEANING

The search of meaning is seen as the primary motivation of humans. Human beings are

not only free, but most importantly they are free to achieve goals and purposes.

• MEANING IN LIFE

Meaning is an objective reality, as opposed to a mere illusion arising within the

perceptional apparatus of the observer. These meaning can be found in work or doing a

deed one can find his existence. Without work, people easily fall into an aimless
existence. Second is finding meaning through. Many of the great works of are were

inspired by love including more general love such as love of nature or God. Love is the

strongest bond between people and will lead to wonderful inspiration and great sacrifice.

• SUFFERING.

By the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering embracing It and find its meaning

we can find meaningful life. When we are no longer able to change a situation we are

challenged to change our self. The meaning in life as on fins it is determined by the

choices of, he lived in.

Looking through

Make your own philosophy in life by first describe a moment in your

FOR
REFLECTION life that you encounter challenges. Write down the insight or
SEEKERS
learnings you gained for facing those challenges

Format: Font size 12, Font style Arial, Margin Normal, 8 x 11. Minimum of 150 words.

UNIT 10: POLITICAL SELF

Objectives:

1. Define political self;

2. Compare and contrast political ideologies;

3. Explain the difference of the ideology of various philosophers;

The Three Major Types of Government

1. AUTOCRACY

The state is ruled by one person. This is evident in theocracy where there is only one

leader for political and religious affair.

Monarchy is another autocratic leadership where the idea to groom an indigenous leader

will represent the state’s historical goals and advance its interest.

2. ARISTROCACY

A rule that only few states had. The idea of this government which literally means “rule of

the best” for only those who are morally and intellectually superior have the right to rule.

3. DEMOCRACY

Democracy has two kinds these are: Direct and Representative or Republican. In Direct

Democracy, the legislation is made by the people, whereas Representative Democracy

the administration of the state is on the hands of persons chose by people for a limited

period.

Individuals and the State

Individuals have natural inclinations to form associations and concerns on leadership,

politics, and power are inevitable. Leadership affects the citizens by means of authority

which is the relation between the government and the people.

Thomas Hobbes
Being an egoist, Thomas Hobbes proposed that in the natural state, human beings act

based on the advancement of one’s welfare hence, conflict is always expected. Human

existence in the state “Homo homini lupus” or “man is a wolf to his fellowman” was

described as solitary, poor, brutish and short.

In the state of nature according to Hobbes, “No one in the State of Nature could hope by

his own strength or wit, to defend himself from destruction” (Citation) Tue Sovereign

therefore, is the product of the citizens’ rationality which makes it mandatory for every

person to obey simply because the existence of a sovereign is in any person’s best

interest.

John Locke (“Father of Liberalism”).

Contrary to Hobbes, individuals under Locke’s natural state have perfect freedom and

equality. Reason is the law which teaches that all individuals are equal and independent

and have natural rights to life , Health, Liberty, and Possession and it is reason which

dictates respect for these natural rights.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacque Rousseau rejects the theoretical notion of state of nature. In his philosophy,

individuals are historical and are accidental results of conditions such as population,

growth, and proximity, technological developments and family organizations. In this

historical state, individuals are free and obeys no one but oneself. However, self-

governance will inevitable lead to conflicting wills. In order to protect the individuals’

natural freedom, individuals must have direct participation in the development of

legislation.
Immanuel Kant – (1724-1804)

The individual according to Immanuel Kant is autonomous and will only follow his will. His

ethical theory, the Categorical Imperative which is never using another person as means

to an end and acting only at the maxim that one’s action were to become universal law of

nature expressed the rationality of the individual’s will. Since every individual has a self-

governing will, a just and civil society therefore must ensure that all have equal freedom

with rights.

John Rowls (1921-2002)

A just society for John Rawls was started by individuals who were not swayed by biases.

For Rawls, the principles of a well-ordered society were chosen by individuals who were

not swayed by factors related to narrow self-interest such as gender, race, class, place in

society, natural talents, own perception of good life, etc. These founders were covered by

a “veil of ignorance”. Being ignorant of what they themselves know as good and bad, the

can create an authentic generalized indicators of a good life. The basic principles of this

kind of state are first, each person has an equal right to basic liberties. These basic

liberties are:

1. Freedom of thought

2. Liberty of conscience

3. Political liberties which includes representative democratic institutions, freedom of

speech and the press, and freedom of assembly.

4. Freedom of association.

5. Freedoms specified by the liberty and integrity of the person which include freedom

from slavery and serfdom and freedom of movement and choice regarding occupation.
6. Rights and liberties covered by the rule of law

Second, Social and Economic inequalities are allowed as long as these are under

conditions of fair equality of opportunity and these work to the benefit of the least

advantaged members of the society. For Rawls, the basic duties of an institution are:

1. Protect basic liberties.

2. Guarantee equality of Opportunity.

3. Only inequalities of income and wealth that benefit the least fortunate are allowed.

For social contract theorists, every individual has inherent freedom of will and aspires to

protect oneself. In order for a government to have authority, consent is a necessary

condition. In the Philippines, one of the expressions of consent of citizens is by means of

an election. The voter’s Registration Act of 1996 define the “voter”.

Section 9. Who may Register. All citizens of the Philippines not otherwise disqualified by

law who are at least eighteen (18) years of age, and who shall have resided in the

Philippines at least one (1) year and in the place wherein they propose vote, for at least

six (6) months immediately preceding the election, may register as a voter. Any person

who temporarily resides in another city, municipality or country solely by reason of his

occupation, profession, employment in private or public service, educational activities,

work in the military or naval reservations within the Philippines, service in the Armed

Forces of the Philippines, the National Police Forces, or confinement or detention in

government institutions in accordance with law, shall not be deemed to have lost his

original residence. Any person, who, on the day of registration may not have reached the
required age or period of residence but, who, on the day of the election shall possess

such qualifications, may register as a voter.

Looking through

Imagine yourself being a political candidate. Make your own

FOR
REFLECTION advertisement showing your propaganda and credentials.
SEEKERS

Format: Be Creative!

UNIT 11: DIGITAL SELF

Objectives:

1. Define online identity;

2. Compare real identity versus online identity;

3. Describe the influence of internet on sexuality and gender; and

4. Discuss the proper way of demonstrating values and attitudes online.

SELF IN A DIGITAL PERSPECTIVE

Self in the 21st century is projected into interactive digital media experiences where it

unfolds every facet using a social media or social site flat form.
In the online world, the disembodied and anonymous others teenagers interact with

constitute what Altheide in his research (2002;42) calls the “E Audience,” which ,like those

in the offline world, “invites meaningful participation and displays of self.”

Digital Self

Is constructed solely through online interaction without the intervention of nonverbal

feedback and the influence of traditional environmental factors.(Zhao,2005)

• People are more engaged in their gadget like tablets, smart phones and computer

desktop more or less 150 times per day.

• With the advent of new technology, computer-mediated environments (CMEs)

have emerged, allowing virtual worlds in which consumers can present themselves using

digital rather than physical referents.

• CMEs are virtual digital places that occupy neither space nor time. They are

inherently discursive spaces where people actively convene to commune with others.

Self presentation

Refers to our wanting to present a desired image both to an external audience (other

people) and to an internal audience (ourselves).

Social interaction

is a careful balance of looking good while not looking too good.

The article by Shau and Gilly (2003) We Are What We Post ? Self Presentation in

Personal Web Space, cited some strategies of self presentation. This is often revolves

around repressing personal information or supplanting it with modified or fabricated

details more congruent with a desired self (Berg and Derlega 1987; Kelly and McKillop

1996).

Self Disclosure vs. Public Self

Self Disclosure

Is defined as propensity an individual has for revealing personal information to others (

Collins and Miller 1994; Derlega 1979), relates to the content of self presentation.

Researchers like Moon (1998,2000) suggest that self disclosure in computer mediated

environment (CMEs) is easier for some people than self disclosure to a physically nearby

person due to the pressure of social desirability.

Digital identity Construction (Nguyen and Alexander 1996) makes it possible to express

latent and nested identities (Herb and Kaplan 1999) or to more fully disclose aspects of

the self that are difficult to represent physically.

Immerging Self Identity in Digital World

The formation of self identity is now constructed in the digital world. Identity is

characterized by the tension between how a person defines herself as an individual and

how she connects to others and social groups in affiliative relationships (Kleine, Kleine,

and Allen 1995).

Affiliative identity is important for situating the self within the world and for communicating

identity to the intended audience (peer group, government, descendants, etc.) Where

individual identity may be said to demonstrate “me,” affiliative identity establishes “we.”

Impression Management

Online Identity
Is actually the sum of all our characteristics and our interactions while partial identity is a

subset of characteristics that make up our identity. Mean while, persona is the partial

identity we create that represents ourselves in a specific situation.

Self-presentation as revealed in social are subject to variability of the motives on how

person present themselves pleasingly to social media platform.

Four stages involved in digital self presentation using personal website:

1. Constructing a digital self,

2. Projecting a digital likeness,

3. Digitally associating as a new form of possession, and

4. Reorganizing linear narrative structures.

The amount of the impact of self to be accepted or rejected in the platform is linked with

what we call impression management.

Impression management is a conscious or subconscious process in which people

attempt to influence the perception of the other people about a person, object or event.

It was first conceptualized Erving Goffman in 1969, and then was expanded upon in

1967. The foundation and the defining principles of impression management were created

by Erving Goffman in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Impression management

theory states that one tries to alter one’s perception according to one’s goals.

• According to Goffman (1959) and Leary (1995), self-presentation is the “process

of controlling how one is perceived by other people” and is the key to relationship
inception and development. To construct positive images, individuals selectively provide

information about them and carefully cater this information in response to other’s

feedback.

• Anything posted online should be considered “public” no matter what our “privacy”

settings are.

• Personal Identity is the interpersonal level of self which differentiates the individual

as unique from others, while social identity is the level of self whereby the individual is

identified by his or her group memberships.

Gender and Sexuality Online

Sex is the biological state that corresponds to what we might call a “man” or a “woman”.

Gender is historical . It is the social understanding of how sex should be experienced and

how sex manifest in behavior, personality, preferences, capabilities, and so forth.

Sexuality is an individual expression and understanding of desire.

Managing Digital Self

Setting Boundaries to Your Online Self: Smart Sharing

The following are the guidelines that you need to consider before posting or sharing

anything online:

• Is this necessary?

• Is there a real benefit to this post? Is it funny, warm-hearted, teachable- or am I

just making noise online without purpose?

• Have we (as a family or parent/child) resolved this issue? An issue that is still being

worked out at home, or one that is either vulnerable or highly emotional, should not be

made public.

• Is it appropriate? Does it stay within the boundaries f our family values?

• Will this seem as funny in 5, 10, or 15 years/ Or is this post better suited for sharing

with a small group of family members? Or maybe not at all?

Rules to Follow

• Stick to safer sites.

• Guard your passwords.

• Limit what you share.

• Remember that anything you put online or post on a site is there forever, even if

you try to delete it.

• Do not be mean or embarrass other people online.

• Always tell if you see strange or bad behavior online.

• Be choosy about your online friends.

• Be patient.

Looking through

Free yourself for at least 2 hours off the internet. Meditate and think,
FOR
REFLECTION what thought to your mind, write it down your thoughts.
SEEKERS

Format: Keep your thought in yourself.

UNIT 12: MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF

Objectives:

1. To design a better framework of a better student and on how to make a setting

goals for success;

2. To collaborate setting goals for success, health, stress and coping.

LEARNING TO BE A BETTER STUDENT

Brain and behavior changes during learning

People are curious how the brain works during learning from infants to adults, and

the question “Does learning really takes place at a very young age?” has been one of the

most interesting topics among researchers. All the concepts and assumptions on how

the brain works were thoroughly studied by the neuroscientists, cognitive psychologist,

developmental psychologist, and other specialists to find out the veracity of these ideas

and investigate details the process of intellectual development.

LEARNING STRATEGIES and METACOGNITION

Memory has three distinct types:

a. Sensory Information System (SIS) or the Iconic memory which could last up to few

seconds. Like seeing lightning which is irrelevant and can eventually forgotten.

b. Short-term memory which could last up for few minutes and has limited capacity

of information to store.

c. Long-term memory which could store unlimited data but could be a little bit harder

to retrieve compared to short-term memory.

 These memory types are relevant to different views of child’s learning, these are:

1. Children have less memory capacity than adults and their learning as well as

memory abilities increases with age.

2. Children and adult have the same mental capacity however developing children

could acquire more knowledge if they use effective strategies in learning.

LEARNING STRATEGIES

The ability of an individual to conceptualize, memorize, rationalize, and accomplish

problem solving task could be attributed to the age, maturation, and experience. It

depends on the individual’s learning strategies how to accomplish the tasks given to

him/her. Learning strategies refer to the individual’s styles and techniques to target the

learning goal. It includes planning, thinking, and action in achieving the aims in learning.

TEN LEARNING TECHNIQUES

Technique Description

Elaborative Generating an explanation for why an explicitly stated fact or

Interrogation concept is true

Self-explanation Explaining how new information is related to known

information, or explaining steps taken during problem solving

Summarization Writing summaries of to-be-learned texts.

Highlighting/underlining Making potentially important portion of to-be-learned

materials while reading

 Keyword mnemonic Using keywords and mental imagery to associative verbal

materials

Imagery for text Attempting to form mental images of text materials while

reading or listening

Rereading Restudying text material again after initial reading

Practice testing Self-testing or taking practice tests over to-be-learned

material

Distributed practice Implementing a schedule of practice that spreads out study

activities over time

Interleaved practice Implementing a schedule of practice that mixes different

kinds of problems, or a schedule of study that mixes different

kinds of material, within a single study session.

METACOGNITION

Metacognition is a vital aspect in learning which is crucial to children and adults. It

refers not only to the knowledge of learning but also to the know-how of one's learning by

determining one's strengths and weaknesses. This is the ability of an individual to do self-

reflection of his or her performance; one needs to have a clear insight of his or her

learning, so s/he could improve the planning on what to do more and perform even better

also refers to self-regulation and it is a gradual process, it develops as one get older and

mature.

SELF REGULATED LEARNING

One of the domains of self-regulation and is aligned most closely with educational aims.

It emphasizes autonomy and control by the individual who monitors, directs, and

regulates actions toward goals of information acquisition, expanding expertise, and self-

improvement.

SELF REGULATED LEARNING PROCESS

a cycle in which the students set for the goals, plans for the task, set for the strategies,

monitors the performance and reflects for the outcome. Involves steps to follow but it

should be properly guided by the teachers or parents at home

1. Plan set goals, and lay out strategies- as a student, you should have set what to

achieve before heading to the process to save time, energy and effort.

• Analyze the learning task

• Set goals

• Plan strategies

• Set expectations for the outcomes

2. Use strategies and monitor performance- In this stage, the student will execute the

outlined plan.

• Use self-observation to reflect on the actions taken by student and the

effectiveness of the results

• If things don’t go smoothly, you should have plan B, C, D, E, etc. Until such

time that you reach your target goal

• Let the student monitor their progress on the intermediate goals, and the

strategies you are using

3. Reflect on performance- In reality, students are more focused on the extrinsic

outcome of their grade. While grades are important, you should also reflect how well did

you do on a task and why.

• Evaluate your own performance and results

• Reflect on the effectiveness of the strategies used

• You should use the results of this reflection on your next performance

• The teachers or parents should help the child in managing the emotions

and direct them eventually to improve the performance

SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS

Albert Bandura’s Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy also known as confidence plays a vital in determining your success. It

should be congruent with one's goals, so it wouldn't lead the results astray and will also

improve one's confidence. Albert Bandura, the author of Self-efficacy professes that, for

him, self-efficacy is the personal judgement of one's own execution of an action. The

theory has been added to positive psychology, which is the study of how to make life

worth living. It involves four sources of efficacy beliefs:

1. Mastery Experience- to have a resilient self-efficacy requires experience in

overcoming obstacles through effort and experience.

2. Vicarious Experience -through observation of seeing others like us succeed, we

also believe that we also can succeed in doing it also.

 3. Verbal Persuasion-being persuaded that we have the capability to do an action,

makes us more likely to put more effort and sustain when problems arise.

4. Emotional & Physiological State-the state you are in influences your judgement of

efficacy.

Edwin Locke's Setting Goals in Life Theory

Edwin Locke is an American Psychologist and the author of the Goal Setting

Theory. The theory's purpose was to find out the relationship between how difficult and

specific goal setting was and people's task performance. It stipulates that, specific and

difficult goals led to better task performance. Apparently, the relationship between goals

and performance are due to:

• Higher goals led to better effort

• Goals direct more attention and effort towards relevant actions, at the cost of irrelevant

actions

It suggests that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. Moreover, it was

said that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to

higher and better task performance. For example, instead of saying "Do your best next

time", say "accomplish 80% of your task", so that the expected outcome is measurable.

Here are some important factors to consider in goal completion:

1. Commitment to the goal, self -efficacy, and perceiving the goal is important.

2. Task complexity in which knowledge is important

3. Situation constraints: the means necessary to accomplish the task can't be too much

more than is required to compete it.

In a book "A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance" written by Edwin Locke and

Dr. Gary Latham in 1990, they provided some principles of successful goal setting -

clarity, challenge, commitment, feedback, and task complexity. For one to be motivated

the set goal must have these characteristics.

1. Clarity - Setting clear and precise goals

2. Challenge - raise the stakes

3. Commitment - rational as well as emotional

4. Feedback - determine your progress

5. Task Complexity - Don't exceed beyond a limit.

MINDSET: GROWTH VS FIXED

Definition of Mindset

Mindset is our outlook in life; it is the individual's way of thinking. Mindset refers to

implicit theories that individuals hold regarding the nature of intelligent behavior.

Individuals that attribute intelligence to fixed traits, they hold a "fixed" theory of

intelligence (that is a fixed mindset)" and when they attribute intelligence to learning,

effort, training, and practice, it is a called a "growth" theory of intelligence.

Fixed Mindset

individual believes that their qualities like physical, intelligence, personality traits are

"engraved in stone".

Growth mindset

individual associates success to learning. Thus, the individual is not afraid to fail

because it will be taken as a challenge that requires more attention, effort, time,

practice, and mastery

HEALTH, STRESS AND COPING

Health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being in which disease and infirmity

are absent.

Stress is a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or very

demanding circumstances
 There are two Categories of Stress:

• Eustress- is a positive stress for it is helpful; it motivates the individual to keep on

working and reach for the goal.

• Distress-is a negative stress because it could give harmful implications to the individual

such as anxiety and depression; it discourages the individual to become productive and

can cause emotional, physical and psychological problems.

Stressors refer to any circumstances, persons or anything that puts physical or

psychological tension to the person to adjust.

There are two kinds of stressors:

1. Cataclysmic Events - are strong stressors that suddenly occur and may affect in many

people simultaneously. (Feldman 2010)

2. Personal Stressors- refer to conditions, events, situations or anything that causes

stress to an individual. Stress may occur when the individual experiencing:

a. Frustration occurs when the personal goal is blocked or thwarted

b. Pressure occurs when the individual is forced to perform, behave or do

accordingly because of the expectations set by others or by themselves

c. Conflict happens when individual is faced with two or more options.

There are 3 forms of conflict:

• Approach-Approach or Positive-Positive Conflict- arises when the two choices are

both desirable, but you only need to choose one.

• Approach-Avoidance or Positive-Negative Conflict- happens when choices have

both the desirable and undesirable trait.

• Avoidance-Avoidance or Negative-Negative Conflict- transpires when there are two

choices that are both undesirable, just choose the lesser evil.

3. Background Stressors or Daily Hassles - also referred are displeasures that

could be encountered every day; is a long-term chronic problem.

Responses to Stressors

The most hazardous about stress is when its attacking you unconsciously as if it

becomes a normal thing that you don’t know its badly affecting you. It is essential to

learn when the stress level is out of control because it influences your mind, body,

emotions along with the behavior that could lead to serious physical and psychological

problems.

Physiological Responses

Hans Selye created the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model which suggests

that in a Physiological response to stress an individual encountering three stage:

1. Alarm Stage- occurs when an individual recognizes the stressor. The sympathetic

nervous system is activated and releases stress hormones that alert the body to move-

senses are sharpened, heartbeats faster, shoot up of blood pressures. The

physiological changes boost strength, reaction time, and preparing the individual for a

fight or fight response.

2. Resistance Stage- when an individual is physically or mentally combating the stressors

in various ways, usually more than the effort in the alarm stage. If the effort in the

resistance stage is inadequate and stress is prolonged, the individual may face

exhaustion stage.
3. Exhaustion Stage- occurs when the body’s resources to fight the stressor beg off that

could lead to physical and mental illness such as aggression, short-tempered,

disoriented, or worst consequence could be irrationality or loss of contact with reality.

Psychological Response

If the individual is exposed for a longer time with stressors, the individual could

become vulnerable to psychiatric disorders including mood disorders as well as anxiety

disturbance. Psychological responses to stressors include:

1. Acute Stress Reaction- short-lived with severe symptoms of shock, agitation, and

panic attacks. Often evident to an individual with physical and psychological experience

like physical, sexual, and emotional abuse or attack, accident of death experience.

2. Post-traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD)- occurs if an individual is experiencing

exceptionally stressful event that is beyond expected that would cause extreme distress

to most people like war, super typhoon Yolanda along with the storm surge that hit the

Philippines, or any situation that could be life threatening to the individual or the people

important in their lives.

3. Adjustment Disorder- is odd reactions to important life events that such as death,

relationship separation, or career shift. This is characterized by emotional disturbance,

anxiety, depression, and feeling of inability to cope.

Emotional Response and Behavioral Responses

When your goals are blocked or thwarted, it is annoying that you want to shout or

attack the source of frustration. Stressful events produce emotional as well as

behavioral responses such as:

1. Anxiety – is the initial and prominent response that could produce harmful effects when

the individual is faced with stressful situation.

2. Anger and Aggression- is the “fight” response occurs when there’s obstruction on

individual’s aim or objective. Anger is one of the most common responses when we

can’t get what we want which could sometimes lead to aggression if the stressor is

intense and persistent. Frustration-aggression hypothesis assume that whenever a

person’s efforts to reach a goal are block, an aggressive drive is inducing that motivates

behavior decide to injure the object – or person – causing the frustration.

3. Apathy and depression- the counter of anger and depression, is the “flight” response.

If the individual continues to experience stress and cannot survive, there’s a tendency to

withdraw which lead to apathy, and depression if the stressor is aggravate.

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